Download Spring Semester Biology Review

Spring Semester Biology Review
Cell Cycle – Consists of three phases. Interphase (think DNA replication), Mitosis (division of the nucleus), and Cytokinesis
(division of cytoplasm). Functions in Growth and Repair. Uncontrollable growth of cells  Cancer  occurs in somatic cells
(body cells).
Mitosis – A phase in the cell cycle  has four stages: Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, and Telophase. Number of
chromsomes remains constant  Humans have 46 chromosomes each daughter cell has 46 chromosomesthe way that
diploid cells produce more diploid cells.
Binary Fission is asexual reproduction in bacteria and other unicellular organisms which results in two cells that are
genetically identical to the parent cell  cloning.
Meiosis  how gametes (sperm and ova [eggs]) are made; chromosoel number is one half of somatic cell– human diploid
(2N) number is 46, haploid (n) number is 2  the way that diploid cells produce haploid cells.
Karyotype – used to detect abnormalities in chromosome number – trisomy 21  Down
Syndrome
Two types of chromsomes – Sex (1pair) XX or XY and Autosomes (22 pairs)
T
G
A C Sugar Phosphate
Nucleotide: Sugar, Phosphate
and Nitrogen base
DNA – Double Helix – Nitrogen Bases
Guanine (G), Cytosine (C), Thymine (T),
Adenine (A). Hydrogen Bonds are located
between the nitrogen bases (A=T) & (G = C).
The sequence of bases determines specific the traits.
Replication – results in two identical DNA
strands. Three steps: 1. The two original DNA
strands separate using DNA helicase.
2. DNA polymerase adds complementary
nucleotides to each strand. 3. Two DNA DNA polymerase
molecules form that are identical to the
opens the DNA
original DNA molecule.
Transcription – takes the information found in a gene in
the DNA and transfers it to a molecule of mRNA in the nucleus.
(DNA makes RNA)
Translation – mRNA molecule binds to a ribosome, and
tRNAs carry amino acids to the ribosome to make a
protein.
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Mutation – change in DNA. Mutations can involve a change in a single
nucleotide or an entire gene.
Genetic Variation – Meiosis and the combination of genes from two
organisms in sexual reproduction increase the level of variation.
Pedigree – demonstrates how a trait is inherited over several generations.
Male
Carrier
Female - noncarrier
Offspring
Generations
Mating
Evolution – change in a population over time – individuals do not undergo
evolution. Charles Darwin’s theory of natural selection. Four major points:
1. Varaition exists within the genes of every population.
2. Some individuals in a population are better suited to survive.
3. More offspring are produced than the environment can support.
4. Limited resources are available in the environment.
Homozygous Dominant (TT)
Homozygous Recessive (tt)
Heterozygous (Tt)
Phenotype – Physical Characteristics
Genotype – Genetic Make up
Gregor Mendel – Father of Genetics
Punnet Square – shows proabability of
offspring
Phenotype:
3 Dominant :
1 Recessive
Genotype:
1 Homo. Dom:
2 Hetero Dom:
1 Recessive
Evidence of change in species:
1. Fossils; 2. DNA sequence; 3. Anatomical structure; 4. Physiological similarities; 5. Embryology.
B is extinct
Speciation - formation of a new species due to Divergence. Phylogenetic Trees demonstrate relationships including
common ancestors and close relationships based on criteria. Looking at the phylogentic tree
E and F are closely related
the following information can be understood
Adaptations aid in the survival of organisms. Adaptations are due to variations in
the population of all organisms. Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria are bacteria that
survive repeated usage of antibiotics due to mutation in their DNA. Other types of
adaptations include catcus with spines for protection and the closing of the stomata for
prevention of water loss. Animals that are camouflaged or mimic other animals are also
examples of adaptations.
Dichotomous Keys can be used for identification of organisms using opposing statements. In
each pair of statements only one will be correct and will direct you to
the next Statement until you reach the statement that identifies the organism.
Taxonomic levels or categories become more specific as you move down the categories.
A is the common ancestor
PHYLOGENETIC TREE
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Scientific Name for an organism includes the genus and species. The scientific name
for humans is Homo sapiens. The more categories organisms share in common, the
more closely related they are. Linnaeus used structural similarities in developing the
first system of Taxonomy. Currently we use biochemical similarities (think DNA
and amino acid sequence). Translated this means that the more amino acid sequences
we share the closer we are related and will be placed in similar taxonomic categories.
Nutriti
on
Tissue Type
Examples
Archebacte
ria
Proka
ryotic
Both
Single
celled/live in
colonies
Bacteria that live in
extremely salty or
hot conditions
Eubacteria
Proka
ryotic
Both
General bacteria,
E.coli, Rhizobium
Protista
Eukar
yotic
Both
Single
celled/live in
colonies
Some single
celled, some
multicellular
Fungus
Eukar
yotic
Hetero
trophic
Multicellular,
nonmotile
Yeast, mushrooms,
molds
Plantae
(Plants)
Eukar
yotic
Autotr
ophic
Multicellular,
nonmotile
Moss, ferns, pine
trees, flowers
Animalia
(animals)
Eukar
yotic
Hetero
trophic
Multicellular,
mostly motile
Jellyfish, worms,
insects, lizards,
sheep
Levels of Organization
Cell
type

TISSUES


SYSTEMS
Phylum
Class
Family
Amoebas,
Paramecium, algae
ORGANS
Kingdom
Order
Kingdom
CELLS
Domain
Characterisitcs of the 6Kingdom system. Be sure to
know the terms: heterotrophic,
autotrophic, prokaryotic,
eukaryotic, unicellular,
multicellular, flagella, and cilia.

ORGANISM
SYSTEMS: A group of organs working together to perform a particular function. There are eleven systems in the
human body. The interrelationship of the systems working together maintains homeostasis.
Skeletal system: Bones are for:
– Support & structure
– Production of blood cells 
Red and White Blood Cells
– Allowing movement
– Muscle attachments
– Holding joints together (ligaments)
Earthworms: Hydroskeleton
Grasshopper: Exoskeleton
Frogs and Humans: Endoskeleton
Nervous System: Informs organism about environment

Consists of brain and spinal cord

Voluntary—you choose and control

Involuntary— heart and lungs

Nerve cells send and receive information using
neutrotransmitters

Nervous system receives stimuli from the
environment, intergration occurs in the brain,
and the response is sent to target areas.
Earthworms: Dorsal and Ventral Nerve Cords
Frogs, Humans: Dorsal Nervous System
Muscular system: Muscles
•
Allow for movement
•
Are attached to bones by tendons above and
below joints
Endocrine System: Produces hormones that
circulate in the blood stream and tell other systems
what to do.
Humans: Adrenal, Thyroid, Pancreas (insulin).
Circulatory System: Transports materials throughout body

Every cell must touch a blood vessel to take in what it needs and get
rid of wastes.

Arteries carry blood away from the heart

Veins carry blood back to the heart.

The heart pumps the blood

Closed system: blood stays within vessels – Earthworm,
Frog, Humans

Open system: blood is in direct contact with structures
- Grasshopper
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Immune System: Protects body from pathogens (bacteria,
protozoan, and viruses).
Skin and tears are non-specific or passive structures of the
system.
Vaccination artificially forces the body to produce antibodies
against specific pathogens (viruses).
HIV infects T-cells which weakens the immune system.
Digestive: Mouth, esophagus, stomach, SI, LI, liver, pancreas: Uses
enzymes to break down food into its building blocks and transport it to
the blood stream, then removes the wastes.
Earthworm: Mouth, pharynx, esophagus, crop, stomach, intestines,
anus.
Grasshopper: Mouth, esophagus, crop, stomach, intestines, rectum,
anus
Frog: Mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestines, large intestine,
cloaca.
Humans: Mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestines, large intestines,
anus. Mouth, stomach, and small intestine  chemical digestion
Absoption: small intestines (nutrients) and large intestines (water).
Respiratory System: Brings O2 to circulatory system and
Excretory: Takes nitrogenous waste from the blood stream for removal
from the body. Earthworm: Nephria(two per segment)
removes CO2. Eartworm: Skin diffusion
Grasshopper: Malpighian tubules
Arthropods: Spider (book lungs), Crayfish (gills), Frog
Frogs and Humans: Kidney, ureter, bladder
(gills, then lungs) Grasshooper ( spiracles and tracheal
tubes).
Effect of Exercise on the Human Body: benefits the muscular (muscle), skeletal ( bones), cardiovascular (heart) systems.
Digestive system breaks down food into usable biomolecules using enzymes and the nutrients are circulated in the body using the
circulatory system.
Plant Body of Flowering Plant
A.
B.
C.
D.
Leaves—chief centers of photosynthesis; exchange gases (including water
vapor) with atmosphere through stomata
Stems—produce leaves; conduct food and water; may store food
Roots—anchor plant; absorb water and minerals; may store food
Flowers—specialized organs for reproduction
Tissues of Flowering Plants
A.
Ground Tissues—“building” tissues from which all parts of organism are made
B.
Vascular Tissues—conducting tissue; moves food and water throughout the plant
1.
Xylem—conducts water and minerals
2.
Phloem—conducts food
C.
Dermal tissues—form outside covering of plants
Epidermis—outer layer of cells; protects plant, reduces water loss (cuticle), aids in gas exchange.
Openings in the epidermis are called stomata that regulate the passage of gases (CO2 and O2) into and out of the plant along with water in
transpiration.
Root Systems :
1. taproot system—plant has one long,
large root (usually develops from the
primary root) called a taproot; ideal for
anchorage and reaching water deep
underground. Examples: carrot, radish
2. fibrous root system—plant has a
mass of slender roots that branch and rebranch; remain near the top of the soil
spreading out and anchoring the plant.
Example: grasses
Stem Function
Flowers: Organ of reproduction in plants.
1.
2.
3.
pollination is the transferring of pollen (containing
sperm) between the anther (stamen--male) & stigma (pistil-female). Fruit develops from flowers and contains seeds.
Transportation of food
Transportation of water and minerals
Storage of food
a. tubers—white potatoes
b. bulbs—onion, lily, tulip
.
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The organization of live is Biosphere, Ecosystems, Communities, Populations, and Organisms
Ecology- The study of interactions between organisms and their environment
Biosphere-Life supporting layer of Earth
Biotic Factors- All living things. EX Animals and Plants
Abiotic Factors- All nonliving things in the environment. EX Rocks, Dirt, Air
RULE of 10- Only 10% of energy is transferred from one trophic level to the next
Autotrophs- Make their own food. They are photosynthetic. All plants; some bacteria and protists.
Heterotrophs- Get their food from other plants and animals.
Carnivores- Meat Eaters. EX Lions and Tigers.
Omnivores-Meat and Plant Eaters. EX Humans and Bears.
Herbivores- Plant Eaters. EX Cows and Deer.
Decomposers- Natures RECYCLERS/DECOMPOSERS. EX Fungus and Bacteria.
EX GrassCarterpillarHawkWolfMushroom/Bacteria
ProducerPrimary Consumer Secondary ConsumerTeritary ConsumerQuaternary ConsumerDecomposer.
Living things all start with the SUN and end with DECOMPOSERS!! CIRCLE of LIFE!!!
-Producers- All plants. Harness sunlight and make sugars/glucose for all of us
-Primary consumers- Herbivores eat the plants
-Secondary consumers-Usually smaller carnivores that eat smaller primary consumers.
-Tertiary consumers- Medium sized carnivores that eat primary consumers and secondary consumers
-Quaternary consumers- Apex predators. They eat everything underneath them on the food chain/web
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Meiosis involves two successive divisions of a diploid (2N) eukaryotic cell
of a sexually reproducing organism that result in four haploid (N) progeny
cells, each with half of the genetic material of the original cell. Through
the mechanisms by which paternal and maternal chromosomes
segregate, and the process of crossing-over, genetic variation is produced
in the haploid cells.
• Meiosis occurs in diploid cells. The chromosomes duplicate once, and
through two successive divisions, four haploid cells are produced, each
with half the chromosome number of the parental cell.
• Meiosis occurs only in sexually reproducing organisms. Depending on
the organism, it may produce haploid gametes, which do not divide
further but instead fuse to produce a diploid zygote; or it may produce
haploid spores, which divide by mitotic cell cycles and produce unicellular
or multicellular organisms.
• In animals, where the somatic (body) cells are diploid, the products of
meiosis are the gametes.
• In many fungi and some algae, meiosis occurs immediately after two
haploid cells fuse, and mitosis then produces a haploid multicellular
"adult" organism (e.g., filamentous fungi, algae) or haploid unicellular
organisms (e.g., yeast, unicellular algae).
• Plants and some algae have both haploid and diploid multicellular
stages. The multicellular diploid stage is the sporophyte. Meiosis in a
sporophyte produces haploid spores. These spores alone are capable of
generating a haploid multicellular stage called a gametophyte. The
gametophyte produces gametes by mitotic cell cycles.
Meiosis information retrieved from Pearson website: http://www.phschool.com/science/biology_place/biocoach/meiosis/overview.html
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