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American Civil War
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American Civil War
The Battle of Gettysburg
Date
April 12, 1861 – April 9, 1865 (last
shot fired June 22, 1865)
Southern United States,
Location
Northeastern United States,
Western United States, Atlantic
Ocean
Union victory
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Result
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Territorial integrity of the
United States of America
preserved
Reconstruction
Slavery abolished
Belligerents
United States
Confederate States
Commanders and leaders
Abraham Lincoln
Jefferson Davis
Winfield Scott
P. G. T. Beauregard
George B. McClellan
Joseph E. Johnston
Henry Wager Halleck
Robert E. Lee
Ulysses S. Grant
Stephen Mallory
Gideon Welles
and others
and others
Strength
2,100,000
1,064,000
Casualties and losses
140,414 killed in
[1]
action
~ 365,000 total dead[1]
275,200 wounded
72,524 killed in action[1]
~ 260,000 total dead
137,000+ wounded
[show]
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Theaters of the American Civil War
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The American Civil War (1861–1865), often referred to simply as The Civil War in the
United States, was a civil war fought in the United States of America. In response to the
election of Abraham Lincoln as President of the United States, 11 southern slave states
declared their secession from the United States and formed the Confederate States of
America ("the Confederacy"); the other 25 states supported the federal government ("the
Union"). After four years of warfare, mostly within the Southern states, the Confederacy
surrendered and slavery was outlawed everywhere in the nation. Issues that led to war were
partially resolved in the Reconstruction Era that followed, though others remained
unresolved.
In the presidential election of 1860, the Republican Party, led by Abraham Lincoln, had
campaigned against expanding slavery beyond the states in which it already existed. The
Republicans strongly advocated nationalism, and in their 1860 platform they denounced
threats of disunion as avowals of treason. After a Republican victory, but before the new
administration took office on March 4, 1861, seven cotton states declared their secession
and joined to form the Confederate States of America. Both the outgoing administration of
President James Buchanan and the incoming administration rejected the legality of
secession, considering it rebellion. The other eight slave states rejected calls for secession
at this point. No country in the world recognized the Confederacy.
Hostilities began on April 12, 1861, when Confederate forces attacked a U.S. military
installation at Fort Sumter in South Carolina. Lincoln responded by calling for a volunteer
army from each state to recapture federal property, which led to declarations of secession
by four more slave states. Both sides raised armies as the Union seized control of the
border states early in the war and established a naval blockade. Land warfare in the East
was inconclusive in 1861–62, as the Confederacy beat back Union efforts to capture its
capital, Richmond, Virginia, notably during the Peninsular Campaign. In September 1862,
the Confederate campaign in Maryland ended in defeat at the Battle of Antietam, which
dissuaded the British from intervening.[2] Days after that battle, Lincoln issued the
Emancipation Proclamation, which made ending slavery a war goal.[3]
In 1863, Confederate general Robert E. Lee's northward advance ended in defeat at the
Battle of Gettysburg. To the west, the Union gained control of the Mississippi River after
the Battle of Shiloh and Siege of Vicksburg, splitting the Confederacy in two and
destroying much of their western army. Due to his western successes, Ulysses S. Grant was
given command of the eastern army in 1864, and organized the armies of William
Tecumseh Sherman, Philip Sheridan and others to attack the Confederacy from all
directions, increasing the North's advantage in manpower. Grant restructured the union
army, and put other generals in command of divisions of the army that were to support his
push into Virginia. He fought several battles of attrition against Lee through the Overland
Campaign to seize Richmond, though in the face of fierce resistance he altered his plans
and led the Siege of Petersburg which nearly finished off the rest of Lee's army.
Meanwhile, Sherman captured Atlanta and marched to the sea, destroying Confederate
infrastructure along the way. When the Confederate attempt to defend Petersburg failed,
the Confederate army retreated but was pursued and defeated, which resulted in Lee's
surrender to Grant at Appomattox Court House on April 9, 1865.
The American Civil War was one of the earliest true industrial wars. Railroads, the
telegraph, steamships, and mass-produced weapons were employed extensively. The
practices of total war, developed by Sherman in Georgia, and of trench warfare around
Petersburg foreshadowed World War I in Europe. It remains the deadliest war in American
history, resulting in the deaths of 620,000 soldiers and an undetermined number of civilian
casualties. Historian John Huddleston estimates the death toll at ten percent of all Northern
males 20–45 years old, and 30 percent of all Southern white males aged 18–40.[4]
Victory for the North meant the end of the Confederacy and of slavery in the United States,
and strengthened the role of the federal government. The social, political, economic and
racial issues of the war decisively shaped the reconstruction era that lasted to 1877.
Contents
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1 Causes of secession
o
o
o
o
o
o
1.1 Slavery
1.2 Sectionalism
1.3 The Territorial Crisis and the United States Constitution
1.4 Nationalism and honor
1.5 States' rights
1.6 Slave power and free soil issues
1.7 Tariffs
o 1.8 Election of Lincoln
o 1.9 Battle of Fort Sumter
2 Secession begins
o 2.1 Secession of South Carolina
o 2.2 Secession winter
o 2.3 The Confederacy
o 2.4 The Union states
o 2.5 Border states
3 Overview
o
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o
o
o
o
o
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3.1 The beginning of the war, 1861
3.2 Anaconda Plan and blockade, 1861
3.3 Conscription and desertion
3.4 Eastern theater 1861–1863
3.5 Western theater 1861–1863
3.6 Trans-Mississippi theater 1861–1865
3.7 Conquest of Virginia and end of war: 1864–1865
3.8 Confederacy surrenders
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4 Emancipation during the war
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5 Blocking international intervention
6 Victory and aftermath
o 6.1 Results
 6.1.1 Reconstruction
7 Memory and historiography
o 7.1 150th anniversary
o 7.2 Hollywood
 7.2.1 Filmography
8 See also
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9 Notes
10 References
o 10.1 Overviews
o 10.2 Biographies
o 10.3 Reference books and bibliographies
o 10.4 Primary sources
11 External links
Causes of secession
Main articles: Origins of the American Civil War and Timeline of events leading to the
American Civil War
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The causes of the Civil War were complex, and have been controversial since the war
began. The issue has been further complicated by historical revisionists, who have tried to
improve the image of the South by lessening the role of slavery.[5] Slavery was the central
source of escalating political tension in the 1850s. The Republican Party was determined to
prevent any spread of slavery, and many Southern leaders had threatened secession if the
Republican candidate, Lincoln, won the 1860 election. Following Lincoln's victory, many
Southern whites felt that disunion had become their only option.
While not all Southerners saw themselves as fighting to preserve slavery, most of the
officers and over a third of the rank and file in Lee's army had close family ties to slavery.
To Northerners, in contrast, the motivation was primarily to preserve the Union, not to
abolish slavery.[6] Abraham Lincoln consistently made preserving the Union the central
goal of the war, though he increasingly saw slavery as a crucial issue and made ending it
an additional goal.[7] Lincoln's decision to issue the Emancipation Proclamation angered
both Peace Democrats ("Copperheads") and War Democrats, but energized most
Republicans.[8] By warning that free blacks would flood the North, Democrats made gains
in the 1862 elections, but they did not gain control of Congress. The Republicans'
counterargument that slavery was the mainstay of the enemy steadily gained support, with
the Democrats crushed at the 1863 elections in Ohio when they tried to resurrect anti-black
sentiment.[9]
Slavery
Main article: Slavery in the United States
The slavery issue addressed not only the well-being of the slaves (although abolitionists
raised the issue) but also the question of whether slavery was an anachronistic evil that was
incompatible with American values or a profitable economic system protected by the
Constitution. All sides agreed slavery exhausted the land and had to find new lands to
survive. The strategy of the anti-slavery forces was to stop the expansion and thus put
slavery on a path to gradual extinction.
To the South this strategy made Southerners second-class citizens and trampled their
Constitutional rights. The anti-slavery movement in the United States had roots in the
Declaration of Independence. Slavery was banned in the Northwest Territory with the
Northwest Ordinance of 1787.
By 1804 all the Northern states (states north of the Mason-Dixon line) had passed laws to
abolish slavery gradually. Congress in 1807 banned the international slave trade. Slavery
faded in the border states and urban areas but expanded in highly profitable cotton states of
the Deep South.
Despite compromises in 1820 and 1850, the slavery issues exploded in the 1850s. The new
Republican Party angered slavery interests by demanding the end to its expansion. The
Republican idea was that without expansion slavery would eventually die out (as it did in
other nations). Abraham Lincoln, for example, in his 1858 House Divided Speech, called
for America to "arrest the further spread of it, and place it where the public mind shall rest
in the belief that it is in the course of ultimate extinction."[10] Much of the political battle in
the 1850s focused on the expansion of slavery into the newly created territories.[11][12] Eric
Foner notes that both North and South assumed that if slavery could not expand, it would
wither and die.[13] Lincoln in 1845 explained how slavery could die a natural death: "we
should never knowingly lend ourselves directly or indirectly, to prevent that slavery from
dying a natural death — to find new places for it to live in, when it can no longer exist in
the old."[14] With tobacco and cotton wearing out the soil so fast, the South needed to
expand to new lands,[15] and many wanted to reopen the international slave trade.[16]
Southern fears of losing control of the federal government to antislavery forces, and
Northern resentment of the influence that the Slave Power already wielded in government,
brought the crisis to a head in the late 1850s. Disagreements between Abolitionists and
others over the morality of slavery, the scope of democracy and the economic merits of
free labor versus slave plantations caused the Whig and "Know-Nothing" parties to
collapse, and new ones to arise (the Free Soil Party in 1848, the Republicans in 1854, the
Constitutional Union in 1860). In 1860, the last national political party, the Democratic
Party, split along sectional lines.
Northerners ranging from the abolitionist William Lloyd Garrison to the moderate
Republican leader Lincoln[17] stressed Jefferson's declaration that all men are created equal.
Lincoln mentioned this proposition many times, including his 1863 Gettysburg Address.
Almost all the inter-regional crises involved slavery, starting with debates on the
three-fifths clause and a twenty-year extension of the African slave trade in the
Constitutional Convention of 1787. The 1793 invention of the cotton gin by Eli Whitney
increased by fiftyfold the quantity of cotton that could be processed in a day and greatly
increased the demand for slave labor in the South.[18] There was controversy over adding
the slave state of Missouri to the Union that led to the Missouri Compromise of 1820. A
gag rule prevented discussion in Congress of petitions for ending slavery from
1835–1844, while Manifest Destiny became an argument for gaining new territories,
where slavery could expand. The acquisition of Texas as a slave state in 1845 along with
territories won as a result of the Mexican–American War (1846–1848) resulted in the
Compromise of 1850.[19] The Wilmot Proviso was an attempt by Northern politicians to
exclude slavery from the territories conquered from Mexico. The extremely popular
anti-slavery novel Uncle Tom’s Cabin (1852) by Harriet Beecher Stowe greatly increased
Northern opposition to the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850.[20][21]
John Brown being adored by an enslaved mother and child as he walks to his
execution on December 2, 1859.
The 1854 Ostend Manifesto was an unsuccessful Southern attempt to annex Cuba as a
slave state. The Second Party System broke down after passage of the Kansas-Nebraska
Act in 1854, which replaced the Missouri Compromise ban on slavery with popular
sovereignty, allowing the people of a territory to vote for or against slavery. The Bleeding
Kansas controversy over the status of slavery in the Kansas Territory included massive
vote fraud perpetrated by Missouri pro-slavery Border Ruffians. Vote fraud led pro-South
Presidents Franklin Pierce and James Buchanan to attempt to admit Kansas as a slave state.
Buchanan supported the pro-slavery Lecompton Constitution.[22]
Violence over the status of slavery in Kansas erupted with the Wakarusa War,[23] the
Sacking of Lawrence,[24] the caning of Republican Charles Sumner by the Southerner
Preston Brooks,[25][26] the Pottawatomie Massacre,[27] the Battle of Black Jack, the Battle of
Osawatomie and the Marais des Cygnes massacre. The 1857 Supreme Court Dred Scott
decision allowed slavery in the territories even where the majority opposed slavery,
including Kansas.
The Lincoln-Douglas debates of 1858 included Northern Democratic leader Stephen A.
Douglas' Freeport Doctrine. This doctrine was an argument for thwarting the Dred Scott
decision that, along with Douglas' defeat of the Lecompton Constitution, divided the
Democratic Party between North and South. Northern abolitionist John Brown's raid at
Harpers Ferry Armory was an attempt to incite slave insurrections in 1859.[28] The
North-South split in the Democratic Party in 1860 due to the Southern demand for a slave
code for the territories completed polarization of the nation between North and South.
James Hopkinson's Plantation. Planting sweet potatoes. ca. 1862/63.
Scars of whipped slave. This famous 1863 photo was distributed by abolitionists to
illustrate what they saw as the barbarism of Southern society.[29] The victim likely
suffered from keloid, according to Kathleen Collins, making the scars more prominent
and extensive.[30]
Support for secession was strongly correlated to the number of plantations in the region.[31]
States of the Deep South, which had the greatest concentration of plantations, were the first
to secede. The upper South slave states of Virginia, North Carolina, Arkansas, and
Tennessee had fewer plantations and rejected secession until the Fort Sumter crisis forced
them to choose sides. Border states had fewer plantations still and never seceded.[32][33]
As of 1860 the percentage of Southern families that owned slaves has been estimated to be
43 percent in the lower South, 36 percent in the upper South and 22 percent in the border
states that fought mostly for the Union.[34] Half the owners had one to four slaves. A total of
8000 planters owned 50 or more slaves in 1850 and only 1800 planters owned 100 or more;
of the latter, 85% lived in the lower South, as opposed to one percent in the border states.[35]
According to the 1860 U.S. census, 393,975 individuals, representing 8 percent of all US
families, owned 3,950,528 slaves.[36]
Ninety-five percent of African-Americans lived in the South, comprising one third of the
population there as opposed to one percent of the population of the North, chiefly in larger
cities like New York and Philadelphia. Consequently, fears of eventual emancipation were
much greater in the South than in the North.[37]
The Supreme Court decision of 1857 in Dred Scott v. Sandford escalated the controversy.
Chief Justice Roger B. Taney's decision said that slaves were "so far inferior that they had
no rights which the white man was bound to respect".[38] Taney then overturned the
Missouri Compromise, which banned slavery in territory north of the 36°30' parallel. He
stated, "[T]he Act of Congress which prohibited a citizen from holding and owning
[enslaved persons] in the territory of the United States north of the line therein is not
warranted by the Constitution and is therefore void."[39]
Southern Democrats praised the Dred Scott decision, but Republicans branded it a "willful
perversion" of the Constitution. They argued that if Scott could not legally file suit, the
Supreme Court had no right to consider the Missouri Compromise's constitutionality.
Lincoln warned that "the next Dred Scott decision"[40] could threaten Northern states with
slavery.
Lincoln said, "This question of Slavery was more important than any other; indeed, so
much more important has it become that no other national question can even get a hearing
just at present."[41] The slavery issue was related to sectional competition for control of the
territories,[42] and the Southern demand for a slave code for the territories was the issue
used by Southern politicians to split the Democratic Party in two, which all but guaranteed
the election of Lincoln and secession. When secession was an issue, South Carolina planter
and state Senator John Townsend said that, "our enemies are about to take possession of
the Government, that they intend to rule us according to the caprices of their fanatical
theories, and according to the declared purposes of abolishing slavery."[43] Similar opinions
were expressed throughout the South in editorials, political speeches and declarations of
reasons for secession. Even though Lincoln had no plans to outlaw slavery where it existed,
whites throughout the South expressed fears for the future of slavery.
Southern concerns included not only economic loss but also fears of racial equality.[44][45][46][47]
The Texas Declaration of Causes for Secession[48][49] said that the non-slave-holding states
were "proclaiming the debasing doctrine of equality of all men, irrespective of race or
color", and that the African race "were rightfully held and regarded as an inferior and
dependent race". Alabama secessionist E. S. Dargan warned that whites and free blacks
could not live together; if slaves were emancipated and remained in the South, "we
ourselves would become the executioners of our own slaves. To this extent would the
policy of our Northern enemies drive us; and thus would we not only be reduced to poverty,
but what is still worse, we should be driven to crime, to the commission of sin."[50]
Beginning in the 1830s, the US Postmaster General refused to allow mail which carried
abolition pamphlets to the South.[51] Northern teachers suspected of any tinge of
abolitionism were expelled from the South, and abolitionist literature was banned.
Southerners rejected the denials of Republicans that they were abolitionists.[52] The North
felt threatened as well, for as Eric Foner concludes, "Northerners came to view slavery as
the very antithesis of the good society, as well as a threat to their own fundamental values
and interests."[53]
During the 1850s, slaves left the border states through sale, manumission and escape, and
border states also had more free African-Americans and European immigrants than the
lower South, which increased Southern fears that slavery was threatened with rapid
extinction in this area. Such fears greatly increased Southern efforts to make Kansas a
slave state. By 1860, the number of white border state families owning slaves plunged to
only 16 percent of the total. Slaves sold to lower South states were owned by a smaller
number of wealthy slave owners as the price of slaves increased.[54]
Even though Lincoln agreed to the Corwin Amendment, which would have protected
slavery in existing states, secessionists claimed that such guarantees were meaningless.
Besides the loss of Kansas to free soil Northerners, secessionists feared that the loss of
slaves in the border states would lead to emancipation, and that upper South slave states
might be the next dominoes to fall. They feared that Republicans would use patronage to
incite slaves and antislavery Southern whites such as Hinton Rowan Helper. Then slavery
in the lower South, like a "scorpion encircled by fire, would sting itself to death."[55]
According to historian Chandra Manning, both Union and Confederate soldiers who did
the actual fighting believed slavery to be the cause of the Civil War. He argues that a
majority of Confederate soldiers fought to protect slavery, which they viewed as an
integral part of southern economy, culture, and manhood. Further, he argues that Union
soldiers believed the primary reason for the war was to bring emancipation to the slaves.
However, many Union soldiers did not fully endorse the idea of shedding their own blood
for African American slaves, whom they viewed as inferior. Manning's research involved
reading military camp newspapers and personal correspondence between soldiers and
families during the Civil War. Manning stated that the primary debate in Confederate states
over secession was not over state rights, but rather "the power of the federal government to
affect the institution of slavery, specifically limiting it in newly added territories."[56] Other
historians, such as Eric Foner, argue that no two people held the same motivations. He
argues that while some were motivated mainly by slavery, most were motivated by some
mixture of politics, culture, nationalism, honor, or any other number of motivations.[2]
Sectionalism
Status of the states, 1861.
States that seceded before April 15, 1861
States that seceded after April 15, 1861
Union states that permitted slavery
Union states that banned slavery
Territories
Sectionalism refers to the different economies, social structure, customs and political
values of the North and South.[57][58] It increased steadily between 1800 and 1860 as the
North, which phased slavery out of existence, industrialized, urbanized and built
prosperous farms, while the deep South concentrated on plantation agriculture based on
slave labor, together with subsistence farming for the poor whites. The South expanded
into rich new lands in the Southwest (from Alabama to Texas).[59]
However, slavery declined in the border states and could barely survive in cities and
industrial areas (it was fading out in cities such as Baltimore, Louisville and St. Louis), so
a South based on slavery was rural and non-industrial. On the other hand, as the demand
for cotton grew the price of slaves soared. Historians have debated whether economic
differences between the industrial Northeast and the agricultural South helped cause the
war. Most historians now disagree with the economic determinism of historian Charles
Beard in the 1920s and emphasize that Northern and Southern economies were largely
complementary.[60]
Fears of slave revolts and abolitionist propaganda made the South militantly hostile to
abolitionism.[61][62] Southerners complained that it was the North that was changing, and was
prone to new "isms", while the South remained true to historic republican values of the
Founding Fathers (many of whom owned slaves, including Washington, Jefferson and
Madison). Lincoln said that Republicans were following the tradition of the framers of the
Constitution (including the Northwest Ordinance and the Missouri Compromise) by
preventing expansion of slavery.[63]
The issue of accepting slavery (in the guise of rejecting slave-owning bishops and
missionaries) split the largest religious denominations (the Methodist, Baptist and
Presbyterian churches) into separate Northern and Southern denominations.[64]
Industrialization meant that seven European immigrants out of eight settled in the North.
The movement of twice as many whites leaving the South for the North as vice versa
contributed to the South's defensive-aggressive political behavior.[65]
The Territorial Crisis and the United States Constitution
Between 1803 and 1854, a vast expansion of US territory was achieved through purchase,
negotiation and conquest. These acquisitions included over a million and a quarter square
miles acquired in just the last decade of this period alone.[66] Of the states carved out of
these territories by 1845, all had entered the union as slave states: Louisiana, Missouri,
Arkansas, Florida and Texas, as well as the southern portions of Alabama and
Mississippi.[67] And with the conquest of northern Mexico, including California, in 1848,
slaveholding interests looked forward to the institution flourishing in these lands as well.
Southerners also anticipated garnering slaves and slave states in Cuba and Central
America.[67][68] Northern free soil interests vigorously sought to curtail any further expansion
of slave soil. It was over these territorial disputes that the proslavery and antislavery forces
collided over the future of slavery in America.[69][70]
Woman with her slave, New Orleans, 1850
The existence of slavery in the southern states was far less politically polarizing than the
explosive question of the territorial expansion of the institution in the west.[71] Moreover,
Americans were informed by two well-established readings of the Constitution regarding
human bondage. First, that the slave states had complete autonomy over the institution
within their boundaries; and second, that the domestic slave trade – trade among the
states – was immune to federal interference.[72][73]
With the outlawing and criminalization of the Atlantic slave trade in 1808 and 1820, the
only constitutionally feasible strategy available to freesoilers to attack slavery was to
restrict its introduction into the territories. A policy of “containment” - limiting slavery
to where it already existed - would set the institution on a trajectory towards “ultimate
extinction”.[74] Slaveholding interests fully grasped the danger that this strategy posed to
the security and perpetuation of human bondage.[75][76] Both the South and the North drew
an identical conclusion: “The power to decide the question of slavery for the territories
was the power to determine the future of slavery itself.”[77][78]
Four doctrines, each mutually irreconcilable, emerged to provide the answer to the
question of federal control in the territories. All these theories claimed to be sanctioned by,
or derived from, the Constitution - either explicitly or implicitly.[79] The traditional or
“conservative” position was based on Article 4, Section 3, Clause 2 of the Constitution:
“The Congress shall have power to dispose of and make all needful Rules and
Regulations respecting the Territory or other Property belonging to the United States; and
nothing in this Constitution shall be so construed as to Prejudice any Claims of the United
States, or of any particular State.”
From these enumerated powers, two of the four doctrines emerged, each arguing that
Congress had full authority to decide the fate of slavery in the territories. The precedents of
the Northwest Ordinance of 1787 and the Missouri Compromise of 1820 were cited by
proponents of federal control. In each of these historic compromises, the territories under
consideration were divided into an explicitly designated free-soil region, as well as an
undesignated region lacking a slavery exclusion clause. In other words, the legislation
provided for, but did not require, a balance between free-soil and slave-soil. In all areas not
placed off-limits to slavery, the institution was quickly established there.[80]
Here, the two traditional or “conservative” doctrines parted ways. The Constitutional
Union Party regarded Congressional allocation of free-soil and, implicitly, slave-soil
territory as an established method of compromise. Any dispute over slavery expansion was
to end in similar apportionments. The Crittenden Compromise of 1860 was an expression
of this political outlook.[81]
The Republican Party, which also championed federal control over territories, rejected this
narrow interpretation of the precedents. They insisted that the clause conveying authority
to Congress in the territories did not bind legislators to any particular policy; slavery could
[81]
be constitutionally excluded altogether in a territory at their discretion.
The only caveat the Republicans issued was that the due process clause of the Fifth
Amendment be applied in the territories to slavery: Congress might positively prohibit
slavery, but they could never establish it; to do so, according to the Republicans, would
amount to a federal mandate for slavery and violate the principles of the Declaration of
Independence.[82][83]
Illinois Senator Stephen A. Douglas and his southern Democratic Party allies devised the
third of these political theories: territorial sovereignty. By this doctrine Congress would
relinquish direct federal control over the internal affairs of territories regarding slavery. In
this respect, territorial sovereignty (also known as “popular” or “squatter”
sovereignty) diverged sharply from the two aforementioned conservative theories.[83]
Douglas declared that “the people of every separate political community” – be it a
state, a territory, or otherwise – “have an inalienable right to govern themselves” with
respect to local concerns. Among these local concerns, Douglas included slavery. When
challenged to explain how territorial sovereignty trumped the role of Congress as
enumerated in Article Four, he replied this way: that Congress was empowered only to
confer authority into the hands of the territorial government, but never to exercise any
direct control, including the establishment of social institutions.[84]
The fourth in this quartet of constitutional doctrines was that of state sovereignty (also
known as states’ rights). Among the principles of state sovereignty was that all authority
regarding the institution of slavery in the territories resided in the slave states themselves.
The role of the federal government was merely to enable the implementation of slave state
laws when residents of the states entered the territories.[85]
As early as 1847, shortly after the introduction of the Wilmot Proviso, the ideology of state
sovereignty emerged as a rebuttal and antidote to free soil claims to the Mexican
Cession.[86][87] South Carolinian statesman John C. Calhoun asserted that the federal
government in the territories was only the trustee or agent of the several sovereign states,
obliged not to discriminate among the states and hence incapable of forbidding the
bringing into any territory of anything that was legal property in any state. He concluded
that citizens from every state had the right to take their property to any territory.[88]
State sovereignty gave the laws of the slaveholding states extra-jurisdictional effect. The
slave-owner and his property would settle in a territory much as a colonist settled in early
colonial America; all rights and privileges recognized in the mother country (or sovereign
slave state) would be retained by the colonists in their new home (US territory). The
United States federal government would be bound by law to protect the settlers sovereign
"rights" and intercede on their behalf if state statutes were threatened.[85]
Essentially, “states’ rights” was an ideology formulated and applied as a means of
advancing slave state interests through federal authority and thwarting free state interests,
by application of the same federal authority.[89] As historian Thomas L Krannawitter points
out, “[T]he Southern demand for federal slave protection represented a demand for an
unprecedented expansion of federal power.”[90]
By 1860, these four doctrines comprised the major ideologies presented to the American
public on the matters of slavery, the territories and the US Constitution.[91]
Nationalism and honor
Nationalism was a powerful force in the early 19th century, with famous spokesmen like
Andrew Jackson and Daniel Webster. While practically all Northerners supported the
Union, Southerners were split between those loyal to the entire United States (called
"unionists") and those loyal primarily to the southern region and then the Confederacy.[92] C.
Vann Woodward said of the latter group, "A great slave society...had grown up and
miraculously flourished in the heart of a thoroughly bourgeois and partly puritanical
republic. It had renounced its bourgeois origins and elaborated and painfully rationalized
its institutional, legal, metaphysical, and religious defenses....When the crisis came it chose
to fight. It proved to be the death struggle of a society, which went down in ruins."[93]
Perceived insults to Southern collective honor included the publication of Uncle Tom's
Cabin (1854)[94] and the actions of John Brown in 1859.[95]
While the South moved toward a Southern nationalism, leaders in the North were also
becoming more nationally minded, and rejected any notion of splitting the Union. The
Republican national electoral platform of 1860 warned that Republicans regarded disunion
as treason and would not tolerate it:
we denounce those threats of disunion...as denying the vital principles of a
free government, and as an avowal of contemplated treason, which it is the
imperative duty of an indignant people sternly to rebuke and forever
silence.[96] The South ignored the warnings: Southerners did not realize how
ardently the North would fight to hold the Union together.[97]
States' rights
Main article: States' rights
Everyone agreed that states had certain rights—but did those rights carry over when a
citizen left that state? The Southern position was that citizens of every state had the right to
take their property anywhere in the U.S. and not have it taken away—specifically they
could bring their slaves anywhere and they would remain slaves. Northerners rejected this
"right" because it would violate the right of a free state to outlaw slavery within its borders.
Republicans committed to ending the expansion of slavery were among those opposed to
any such right to bring slaves and slavery into the free states and territories. The Dred Scott
Supreme Court decision of 1857 bolstered the Southern case within territories, and angered
the North.[98]
Secondly the South argued that each state had the right to secede—leave the Union—at
any time, that the Constitution was a "compact" or agreement among the states.
Northerners (including President Buchanan) rejected that notion as opposed to the will of
the Founding Fathers who said they were setting up a "perpetual union".[98] Historian James
McPherson writes concerning states' rights and other non-slavery explanations:
While one or more of these interpretations remain popular among the Sons of
Confederate Veterans and other Southern heritage groups, few professional
historians now subscribe to them. Of all these interpretations, the state's-rights
argument is perhaps the weakest. It fails to ask the question, state's rights for what
purpose? State's rights, or sovereignty, was always more a means than an end, an
instrument to achieve a certain goal more than a principle.[99]
Slave power and free soil issues
Main article: Slave Power
Marais des Cygnes massacre of anti-slavery Kansans. May 19, 1858.
Antislavery forces in the North identified the "Slave Power" as a direct threat to republican
values. They argued that rich slave owners were using political power to take control of the
Presidency, Congress and the Supreme Court, thus threatening the rights of the citizens of
the North.[100]
"Free soil" was a Northern demand that the new lands opening up in the west be available
to independent yeoman farmers and not be bought out by rich slave owners who would buy
up the best land and work it with slaves, forcing the white farmers onto marginal lands.
This was the basis of the Free Soil Party of 1848, and a main theme of the Republican
Party.[101] Free Soilers and Republicans demanded a homestead law that would give
government land to settlers; it was defeated by Southerners who feared it would attract to
the west European immigrants and poor Southern whites.[102]
Tariffs
Main article: Tariffs in United States history
The Democrats in Congress, controlled by Southerners, wrote the tariff laws in the 1830s,
1840s, and 1850s, and kept reducing rates, so that the 1857 rates were the lowest since
1816. The South had no complaints but the low rates angered Northern industrialists and
factory workers, especially in Pennsylvania, who demanded protection for their growing
iron industry. The Whigs and Republicans complained because they favored high tariffs to
stimulate industrial growth, and Republicans called for an increase in tariffs in the 1860
election. The increases were finally enacted in 1861 after Southerners resigned their seats
in Congress.[103][104]
Historians in recent decades have minimized the tariff issue, noting that few Southerners in
1860–61 said it was of central importance to them. Some secessionist documents do
mention the tariff issue, though not nearly as often as the preservation of slavery.
Election of Lincoln
Main article: United States presidential election, 1860
Abraham Lincoln, 16th President (1861–1865)
The election of Lincoln in November 1860 was the final trigger for secession.[105] Efforts at
compromise, including the "Corwin Amendment" and the "Crittenden Compromise", failed.
Southern leaders feared that Lincoln would stop the expansion of slavery and put it on a
course toward extinction. The slave states, which had already become a minority in the
House of Representatives, were now facing a future as a perpetual minority in the Senate
and Electoral College against an increasingly powerful North. Before Lincoln took office
in March 1861, seven slave states had declared their secession and joined to form the
Confederacy.
Battle of Fort Sumter
Main article: Battle of Fort Sumter
The Lincoln Administration, just as the outgoing Buchanan administration before it,
refused to turn over Ft. Sumter—located in the middle of the harbor of Charleston, South
Carolina. Jefferson Davis ordered the surrender of the fort. Union Maj. Anderson gave a
conditional reply which the Confederate government rejected, and Davis ordered
Beauregard to attack the fort before a relief expedition could arrive. After a heavy
bombardment on April 12–13, 1861 (with no intentional casualties), the fort surrendered.
On April 15, Lincoln then called for 75,000 troops from the states to recapture the fort and
other federal property.[106]
Rather than furnish troops and access for an attack on their fellow southern states, Virginia,
North Carolina, Tennessee and Arkansas elected to join them in secession. North and
South the response to Ft. Sumter was an overwhelming demand for war to uphold national
honor. Only Kentucky tried to remain neutral. Hundreds of thousands of young men across
the land rushed to enlist.[107]
Secession begins
Jefferson Davis, the only President of the Confederate States of America (1861–1865)
The Union: blue, yellow (slave);
The Confederacy: brown
*territories in light shades; control of Confederate territories disputed
Secession of South Carolina
See also: Antebellum South Carolina
South Carolina did more to advance nullification and secession than any other Southern
state. South Carolina adopted the "Declaration of the Immediate Causes Which Induce and
Justify the Secession of South Carolina from the Federal Union" on December 24, 1860. It
argued for states' rights for slave owners in the South, but contained a complaint about
states' rights in the North in the form of opposition to the Fugitive Slave Act, claiming that
Northern states were not fulfilling their federal obligations under the Constitution. All the
alleged violations of the rights of Southern states were related to slavery.
Secession winter
Before Lincoln took office, seven states had declared their secession from the Union. They
established a Southern government, the Confederate States of America on February 4,
1861.[108] They took control of federal forts and other properties within their boundaries
with little resistance from outgoing President James Buchanan, whose term ended on
March 4, 1861. Buchanan said that the Dred Scott decision was proof that the South had no
reason for secession, and that the Union "was intended to be perpetual", but that "the
power by force of arms to compel a State to remain in the Union" was not among the
"enumerated powers granted to Congress".[109] One quarter of the U.S. Army—the entire
garrison in Texas—was surrendered in February 1861 to state forces by its commanding
general, David E. Twiggs, who then joined the Confederacy.
As Southerners resigned their seats in the Senate and the House, Republicans were able to
pass bills for projects that had been blocked by Southern Senators before the war,
including the Morrill Tariff, land grant colleges (the Morill Act), a Homestead Act, a
transcontinental railroad (the Pacific Railway Acts), the National Banking Act and the
authorization of United States Notes by the Legal Tender Act of 1862. The Revenue Act of
1861 introduced the income tax to help finance the war.
The Confederacy
Confederate States
in the
American Civil War

South Carolina

Mississippi

Florida
 Alabama
 Georgia
 Louisiana
 Texas
 Virginia
 Arkansas
 North Carolina
 Tennessee
Border states

Delaware
 Maryland
 West Virginia
 Kentucky
 Missouri
Territories


Indian
Arizona



v
t
e
Main article: Confederate States of America
Seven Deep South cotton states seceded by February 1861, starting with South Carolina,
Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas. These seven states formed
the Confederate States of America (February 4, 1861), with Jefferson Davis as president,
and a governmental structure closely modeled on the U.S. Constitution.
Following the attack on Fort Sumter, President Lincoln called for a volunteer army from
each state. Within two months, an additional four Southern slave states declared their
secession and joined the Confederacy: Virginia, Arkansas, North Carolina and Tennessee.
The northwestern portion of Virginia subsequently seceded from Virginia, joining the
Union as the new state of West Virginia on June 20, 1863. By the end of 1861, Missouri
and Kentucky were effectively under Union control, with Confederate state governments in
exile.
The Union states
Main article: Union (American Civil War)
Twenty-three states remained loyal to the Union: California, Connecticut, Delaware,
Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan,
Minnesota, Missouri, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, Oregon,
Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Vermont, and Wisconsin. During the war, Nevada and West
Virginia joined as new states of the Union. Tennessee and Louisiana were returned to
Union military control early in the war.
The territories of Colorado, Dakota, Nebraska, Nevada, New Mexico, Utah, and
Washington fought on the Union side. Several slave-holding Native American tribes
supported the Confederacy, giving the Indian Territory (now Oklahoma) a small, bloody
civil war.[110][111][112]
Border states
Main article: Border states (American Civil War)
The border states in the Union were West Virginia (which separated from Virginia and
became a new state), and four of the five northernmost slave states (Maryland, Delaware,
Missouri, and Kentucky).
Maryland had numerous pro-Confederate officials who tolerated anti-Union rioting in
Baltimore and the burning of bridges. Lincoln responded with martial law and sent in
militia units from the North.[113] Before the Confederate government realized what was
happening, Lincoln had seized firm control of Maryland and the District of Columbia, by
arresting all the prominent secessionists and holding them without trial (they were later
released).
In Missouri, an elected convention on secession voted decisively to remain within the
Union. When pro-Confederate Governor Claiborne F. Jackson called out the state militia, it
was attacked by federal forces under General Nathaniel Lyon, who chased the governor
and the rest of the State Guard to the southwestern corner of the state. (See also: Missouri
secession). In the resulting vacuum, the convention on secession reconvened and took
power as the Unionist provisional government of Missouri.[114]
A Roman Catholic Union army chaplain celebrating a Mass
Kentucky did not secede; for a time, it declared itself neutral. When Confederate forces
entered the state in September 1861, neutrality ended and the state reaffirmed its Union
status, while trying to maintain slavery. During a brief invasion by Confederate forces,
Confederate sympathizers organized a secession convention, inaugurated a governor, and
gained recognition from the Confederacy. The rebel government soon went into exile and
never controlled Kentucky.[115]
After Virginia's secession, a Unionist government in Wheeling asked 48 counties to vote
on an ordinance to create a new state on October 24, 1861. A voter turnout of 34%
approved the statehood bill (96% approving).[116] The inclusion of 24 secessionist
counties[117] in the state and the ensuing guerrilla war[118] engaged about 40,000 Federal
troops for much of the war.[119] Congress admitted West Virginia to the Union on June 20,
1863. West Virginia provided about 20,000-22,000 soldiers to both the Confederacy and
the Union.[120]
A Unionist secession attempt occurred in East Tennessee, but was suppressed by the
Confederacy, which arrested over 3000 men suspected of being loyal to the Union. They
were held without trial.[121]
Overview
Over 10,000 military engagements took place during the war, 40% of them in Virginia and
Tennessee.[122] Since separate articles deal with every major battle and many minor ones,
this article only gives the broadest outline. For more information see List of American
Civil War battles and Military leadership in the American Civil War.
The beginning of the war, 1861
For more details on this topic, see Battle of Fort Sumter.
Lincoln's victory in the presidential election of 1860 triggered South Carolina's declaration
of secession from the Union. By February 1861, an additional six Southern states made
similar declarations. On February 7, the seven states adopted a provisional constitution for
the Confederate States of America and established their temporary capital at Montgomery,
Alabama. A pre-war February Peace Conference of 1861 met in Washington in a failed
attempt at resolving the crisis. The remaining eight slave states rejected pleas to join the
Confederacy. Confederate forces seized most of the federal forts within their boundaries.
President Buchanan protested but made no military response apart from a failed attempt to
resupply Fort Sumter using the ship Star of the West, which was fired upon by South
Carolina forces and turned back before it reached the fort.[123] However, governors in
Massachusetts, New York, and Pennsylvania quietly began buying weapons and training
militia units.
The great meeting in Union Square, New York, to support the government, April 20,
1861
On March 4, 1861, Abraham Lincoln was sworn in as President. In his inaugural address,
he argued that the Constitution was a more perfect union than the earlier Articles of
Confederation and Perpetual Union, that it was a binding contract, and called any secession
[124]
"legally void". He stated he had no intent to invade Southern states, nor did he intend to
end slavery where it existed, but that he would use force to maintain possession of federal
property. His speech closed with a plea for restoration of the bonds of union.[125]
The South sent delegations to Washington and offered to pay for the federal properties and
enter into a peace treaty with the United States. Lincoln rejected any negotiations with
Confederate agents because he claimed the Confederacy was not a legitimate government,
and that making any treaty with it would be tantamount to recognition of it as a sovereign
government.[126] However, Secretary of State William Seward engaged in unauthorized and
indirect negotiations that failed.[126]
Fort Monroe in Virginia, Fort Sumter in Charleston, South Carolina, and Fort Pickens, Fort
Jefferson, and Fort Taylor, all in Florida, were the remaining Union-held forts in the
Confederacy, and Lincoln was determined to hold them all. Under orders from Confederate
President Jefferson Davis, troops controlled by the Confederate government under P. G. T.
Beauregard bombarded Fort Sumter on April 12, forcing its capitulation. Northerners
rallied behind Lincoln's call for all the states to send troops to recapture the forts and to
preserve the Union,[127] citing presidential powers given by the Militia Acts of 1792. With
the scale of the rebellion apparently small so far, Lincoln called for 75,000 volunteers for
90 days.[128] For months before that, several Northern governors had discreetly readied their
state militias; they began to move forces the next day.[129] Confederate sympathizers seized
Liberty Arsenal in Liberty, Missouri on April 20, eight days after Fort Sumter. On May 3,
1861, Lincoln called for an additional 42,034 volunteers for a period of three years.[130]
Four states in the upper South (Tennessee, Arkansas, North Carolina, and Virginia), which
had repeatedly rejected Confederate overtures, now refused to send forces against their
neighbors, declared their secession, and joined the Confederacy. To reward Virginia, the
Confederate capital was moved to Richmond.[131]
The city was the symbol of the Confederacy. Richmond was in a highly vulnerable
location at the end of a tortuous Confederate supply line. Although Richmond was heavily
fortified, supplies for the city would be reduced by Sherman's capture of Atlanta and cut
off almost entirely when Grant besieged Petersburg and its railroads that supplied the
Southern capital.
Anaconda Plan and blockade, 1861
Main article: Union blockade
1861 cartoon of Scott's "Anaconda Plan"
Winfield Scott, the commanding general of the U.S. Army, devised the Anaconda Plan to
win the war with as little bloodshed as possible.[132] His idea was that a Union blockade of
the main ports would weaken the Confederate economy; then the capture of the Mississippi
River would split the South. Lincoln adopted the plan in terms of a blockade to squeeze to
death the Confederate economy, but overruled Scott's warnings that his new army was not
ready for an offensive operation because public opinion demanded an immediate attack.[133]
In April 1861, Lincoln announced the Union blockade of all Southern ports; commercial
ships could not get insurance and regular traffic ended. The South blundered in
embargoing cotton exports in 1861 before the blockade was effective; by the time they
realized the mistake it was too late. "King Cotton" was dead, as the South could export less
than 10% of its cotton.[134] British investors built small, fast blockade runners that traded
arms and luxuries brought in from Bermuda, Cuba and the Bahamas in return for
high-priced cotton and tobacco.[135] When the Union Navy seized a blockade runner, the
ship and cargo were sold and the proceeds given to the Navy sailors; the captured crewmen
were mostly British and they were simply released. The Southern economy nearly
collapsed during the war. Shortages of food and supplies were caused by the blockade, the
failure of Southern railroads, the loss of control of the main rivers, foraging by Northern
armies, and the impressment of crops by Confederate armies. The standard of living fell
even as large-scale printing of paper money caused inflation and distrust of the currency.
By 1864 the internal food distribution had broken down, leaving cities without enough
food and causing bread riots across the Confederacy.[136]
On March 8, 1862, the Confederate Navy waged a fight against the Union Navy when the
ironclad CSS Virginia attacked the blockade. Against wooden ships, she seemed
unstoppable. The next day, however, she had to fight the new Union warship USS Monitor
in the Battle of the Ironclads.[137] Their battle ended in a draw. The Confederacy lost the
Virginia when the ship was scuttled to prevent capture, and the Union built many copies of
Monitor. Lacking the technology to build effective warships, the Confederacy attempted to
obtain warships from Britain.
Northern technology achieved another breakthrough on April 10–11, 1862, when a joint
Army-Navy expedition reduced a major masonry fortification at Fort Pulaski guarding
Savannah, Georgia. Employing the Parrott rifle cannon made masonry coastal defenses
obsolete overnight. The Federals left a small garrison, releasing troops and ships for other
blockading operations.[138] The Union victory at the Second Battle of Fort Fisher in January
1865 closed the last useful Southern port and virtually ended blockade running.
Conscription and desertion
A Union Regimental Fife and Drum Corps
In the first year of the war, both sides had far more volunteers than they could effectively
train and equip. After the initial enthusiasm faded, reliance on the cohort of young men
who came of age every year and wanted to join was not enough. Both sides used a draft
law—conscription—as a device to encourage or force volunteering; relatively few were
actually drafted and served. The Confederacy passed a draft law in April 1862 for young
men aged 18 to 35; overseers of slaves, government officials, and clergymen were
exempt.[139] The U.S. Congress followed in July, authorizing a militia draft within a state
when it could not meet its quota with volunteers.
When the Emancipation Proclamation went into effect in January 1863, ex-slaves were
energetically recruited by the states, and used to meet the state quotas. States and local
communities offered higher and higher cash bonuses for white volunteers. Congress
tightened the law in March 1863. Men selected in the draft could provide substitutes or,
until mid-1864, pay commutation money. Many eligibles pooled their money to cover the
cost of anyone drafted. Families used the substitute provision to select which man should
go into the army and which should stay home. There was much evasion and overt
resistance to the draft, especially in Catholic areas. The great draft riot in New York City
in July 1863 involved Irish immigrants who had been signed up as citizens to swell the
machine vote, not realizing it made them liable for the draft.[140] Of the 168,649 men
procured for the Union through the draft, 117,986 were substitutes, leaving only 50,663
who had their personal services conscripted.[141]
North and South, the draft laws were highly unpopular. An estimated 120,000 men evaded
conscription in the North, many of them fleeing to Canada, and another 280,000 Northern
soldiers deserted during the war,[142][143] along with at least 100,000 Southerners, or about
10% all together.[144] However, desertion was a very common event in the 19th century; in
the peacetime Army about 15% of the soldiers deserted every year.[145] In the South, many
men deserted temporarily to take care of their families,[146] then returned to their units.[147] In
the North, "bounty jumpers" enlisted to get the generous bonus, deserted, then went back to
a second recruiting station under a different name to sign up again for a second bonus; 141
were caught and executed.[148]
Union soldiers in trenches before storming Marye's Heights at the Second Battle of
Fredericksburg, Virginia, May 1863.
Eastern theater 1861–1863
For more details on this topic, see Eastern Theater of the American Civil War.
Because of the fierce resistance of a few initial Confederate forces at Manassas, Virginia,
in July 1861, a march by Union troops under the command of Maj. Gen. Irvin McDowell
on the Confederate forces there was halted in the First Battle of Bull Run, or First
Manassas,[149] McDowell's troops were forced back to Washington, D.C., by the
Confederates under the command of Generals Joseph E. Johnston and P. G. T. Beauregard.
It was in this battle that Confederate General Thomas Jackson received the nickname of
"Stonewall" because he stood like a stone wall against Union troops.[150]
Alarmed at the loss, and in an attempt to prevent more slave states from leaving the Union,
the U.S. Congress passed the Crittenden-Johnson Resolution on July 25 of that year, which
stated that the war was being fought to preserve the Union and not to end slavery.
Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan took command of the Union Army of the Potomac on July
26 (he was briefly general-in-chief of all the Union armies, but was subsequently relieved
of that post in favor of Maj. Gen. Henry W. Halleck), and the war began in earnest in 1862.
Upon the strong urging of President Lincoln to begin offensive operations, McClellan
attacked Virginia in the spring of 1862 by way of the peninsula between the York River
and James River, southeast of Richmond. Although McClellan's army reached the gates of
Richmond in the Peninsula Campaign,[151][152][153] Johnston halted his advance at the Battle of
Seven Pines, then General Robert E. Lee and top subordinates James Longstreet and
Stonewall Jackson[154] defeated McClellan in the Seven Days Battles and forced his retreat.
The Northern Virginia Campaign, which included the Second Battle of Bull Run, ended in
yet another victory for the South.[155] McClellan resisted General-in-Chief Halleck's orders
to send reinforcements to John Pope's Union Army of Virginia, which made it easier for
Lee's Confederates to defeat twice the number of combined enemy troops.
Rioters attacking a building on Lexington Avenue during the New York City draft riots
of 1863
Emboldened by Second Bull Run, the Confederacy made its first invasion of the North.
General Lee led 45,000 men of the Army of Northern Virginia across the Potomac River
into Maryland on September 5. Lincoln then restored Pope's troops to McClellan.
McClellan and Lee fought at the Battle of Antietam[154] near Sharpsburg, Maryland, on
September 17, 1862, the bloodiest single day in United States military history.[156] Lee's
army, checked at last, returned to Virginia before McClellan could destroy it. Antietam is
considered a Union victory because it halted Lee's invasion of the North and provided an
opportunity for Lincoln to announce his Emancipation Proclamation.[157]
When the cautious McClellan failed to follow up on Antietam, he was replaced by Maj.
Gen. Ambrose Burnside. Burnside was soon defeated at the Battle of Fredericksburg[158] on
December 13, 1862, when over 12,000 Union soldiers were killed or wounded during
repeated futile frontal assaults against Marye's Heights. After the battle, Burnside was
replaced by Maj. Gen. Joseph Hooker.
Confederate dead behind the stone wall of Marye's Heights, Fredericksburg, Virginia,
killed during the Battle of Chancellorsville, May 1863
Hooker, too, proved unable to defeat Lee's army; despite outnumbering the Confederates
by more than two to one, he was humiliated in the Battle of Chancellorsville[159] in May
1863. Gen. Stonewall Jackson was mortally wounded by his own men during the battle and
subsequently died of complications. Gen. Hooker was replaced by Maj. Gen. George
Meade during Lee's second invasion of the North, in June. Meade defeated Lee at the
Battle of Gettysburg[160] (July 1 to July 3, 1863). This was the bloodiest battle of the war,
and has been called the war's turning point. Pickett's Charge on July 3 is often considered
the high-water mark of the Confederacy because it signaled the collapse of serious
Confederate threats of victory. Lee's army suffered 28,000 casualties (versus Meade's
23,000).[161] However, Lincoln was angry that Meade failed to intercept Lee's retreat, and
after Meade's inconclusive fall campaign, Lincoln turned to the Western Theater for new
leadership. At the same time the Confederate stronghold of Vicksburg surrendered, giving
the Union control of the Mississippi River, permanently isolating the western Confederacy,
and producing the new leader Lincoln needed, Ulysses S. Grant.
Western theater 1861–1863
For more details on this topic, see Western Theater of the American Civil War.
While the Confederate forces had numerous successes in the Eastern Theater, they were
defeated many times in the West. They were driven from Missouri early in the war as a
result of the Battle of Pea Ridge.[162] Leonidas Polk's invasion of Columbus, Kentucky
ended Kentucky's policy of neutrality and turned that state against the Confederacy.
Nashville and central Tennessee fell to the Union early in 1862, leading to attrition of local
food supplies and livestock and a breakdown in social organization.
The Mississippi was opened to Union traffic to the southern border of Tennessee with the
taking of Island No. 10 and New Madrid, Missouri, and then Memphis, Tennessee. In
April 1862, the Union Navy captured New Orleans[163] without a major fight, which allowed
Union forces to begin moving up the Mississippi. Only the fortress city of Vicksburg,
Mississippi, prevented Union control of the entire river.
General Braxton Bragg's second Confederate invasion of Kentucky ended with a
meaningless victory over Maj. Gen. Don Carlos Buell at the Battle of Perryville,[164]
although Bragg was forced to end his attempt at invading Kentucky and retreat due to lack
of support for the Confederacy in that state. Bragg was narrowly defeated by Maj. Gen.
William Rosecrans at the Battle of Stones River[165] in Tennessee.
The Battle of Chickamauga was one of the deadliest battles in the Western Theater.
The one clear Confederate victory in the West was the Battle of Chickamauga. Bragg,
reinforced by Lt. Gen. James Longstreet's corps (from Lee's army in the east), defeated
Rosecrans, despite the heroic defensive stand of Maj. Gen. George Henry Thomas.
Rosecrans retreated to Chattanooga, which Bragg then besieged.
The Union's key strategist and tactician in the West was Ulysses S. Grant, who won
victories at Forts Henry and Donelson (by which the Union seized control of the Tennessee
and Cumberland Rivers); the Battle of Shiloh;[166] and the Battle of Vicksburg,[167] which
cemented Union control of the Mississippi River and is considered one of the turning
points of the war. Grant marched to the relief of Rosecrans and defeated Bragg at the Third
Battle of Chattanooga,[168] driving Confederate forces out of Tennessee and opening a route
to Atlanta and the heart of the Confederacy.
Trans-Mississippi theater 1861–1865
For more details on this topic, see Trans-Mississippi Theater of the American Civil
War.
Guerrilla activity turned much of Missouri into a battleground. Missouri had, in total, the
third-most battles of any state during the war.[169] The other states of the west, though
geographically isolated from the battles to the east, saw numerous small-scale military
actions. Battles in the region served to secure Missouri, Indian Territory, and New Mexico
Territory for the Union. Confederate incursions into New Mexico territory were repulsed in
1862 and a Union campaign to secure Indian Territory succeeded in 1863. Late in the war,
the Union's Red River Campaign was a failure. Texas remained in Confederate hands
throughout the war, but was cut off from the rest of the Confederacy after the capture of
Vicksburg in 1863 gave the Union control of the Mississippi River.
Conquest of Virginia and end of war: 1864–1865
The Peacemakers (1868) by George P.A. Healy. Aboard the River Queen, March 28,
1865, General William T. Sherman, General Ulysses S. Grant, Lincoln, and Admiral
David Dixon Porter discuss military plans for final months of the Civil War.
At the beginning of 1864, Lincoln made Grant commander of all Union armies. Grant
made his headquarters with the Army of the Potomac, and put Maj. Gen. William
Tecumseh Sherman in command of most of the western armies. Grant understood the
concept of total war and believed, along with Lincoln and Sherman, that only the utter
defeat of Confederate forces and their economic base would end the war.[170] This was total
war not in terms of killing civilians but rather in terms of destroying homes, farms, and
railroads. Grant devised a coordinated strategy that would strike at the entire Confederacy
from multiple directions. Generals George Meade and Benjamin Butler were ordered to
move against Lee near Richmond, General Franz Sigel (and later Philip Sheridan) were to
attack the Shenandoah Valley, General Sherman was to capture Atlanta and march to the
sea (the Atlantic Ocean), Generals George Crook and William W. Averell were to operate
against railroad supply lines in West Virginia, and Maj. Gen. Nathaniel P. Banks was to
capture Mobile, Alabama.
Union forces in the East attempted to maneuver past Lee and fought several battles during
that phase ("Grant's Overland Campaign") of the Eastern campaign. Grant's battles of
attrition at the Wilderness, Spotsylvania, and Cold Harbor[171] resulted in heavy Union
losses, but forced Lee's Confederates to fall back repeatedly. An attempt to outflank Lee
from the south failed under Butler, who was trapped inside the Bermuda Hundred river
bend. Grant was tenacious and, despite astonishing losses (over 65,000 casualties in seven
weeks),[172] kept pressing Lee's Army of Northern Virginia back to Richmond. He pinned
down the Confederate army in the Siege of Petersburg, where the two armies engaged in
trench warfare for over nine months.
Generals Sherman, Grant & Sheridan
Army Issue of 1937
Grant finally found a commander, General Philip Sheridan, aggressive enough to prevail in
the Valley Campaigns of 1864. Sheridan was initially repelled at the Battle of New Market
by former U.S. Vice President and Confederate Gen. John C. Breckinridge. The Battle of
New Market would prove to be the Confederacy's last major victory of the war. After
redoubling his efforts, Sheridan defeated Maj. Gen. Jubal A. Early in a series of battles,
including a final decisive defeat at the Battle of Cedar Creek. Sheridan then proceeded to
destroy the agricultural base of the Shenandoah Valley,[173] a strategy similar to the tactics
Sherman later employed in Georgia.
Confederate dead of General Ewell's Corps who attacked the Union lines at the Battle
of Spotsylvania, May 19, 1864.
Meanwhile, Sherman maneuvered from Chattanooga to Atlanta, defeating Confederate
Generals Joseph E. Johnston and John Bell Hood along the way. The fall of Atlanta on
September 2, 1864, guaranteed the reelection of Lincoln as president.[174] Hood left the
Atlanta area to swing around and menace Sherman's supply lines and invade Tennessee in
the Franklin-Nashville Campaign.[175] Union Maj. Gen. John Schofield defeated Hood at the
Battle of Franklin, and George H. Thomas dealt Hood a massive defeat at the Battle of
Nashville, effectively destroying Hood's army.
Leaving Atlanta, and his base of supplies, Sherman's army marched with an unknown
destination, laying waste to about 20% of the farms in Georgia in his "March to the Sea".
He reached the Atlantic Ocean at Savannah, Georgia in December 1864. Sherman's army
was followed by thousands of freed slaves; there were no major battles along the March.
Sherman turned north through South Carolina and North Carolina to approach the
Confederate Virginia lines from the south,[176] increasing the pressure on Lee's army.
Lee's army, thinned by desertion and casualties, was now much smaller than Grant's. Union
forces won a decisive victory at the Battle of Five Forks on April 1, forcing Lee to
evacuate Petersburg and Richmond. The Confederate capital fell[177] to the Union XXV
Corps, composed of black troops. The remaining Confederate units fled west and after a
defeat at Sayler's Creek, it became clear to Robert E. Lee that continued fighting against
the United States was both tactically and logistically impossible.
Confederacy surrenders
Main article: Conclusion of the American Civil War
Map of Confederate territory losses year by year
Lee surrendered his Army of Northern Virginia on April 9, 1865, at the McLean House in
the village of Appomattox Court House.[178] In an untraditional gesture and as a sign of
Grant's respect and anticipation of peacefully restoring Confederate states to the Union,
Lee was permitted to keep his sword and his horse, Traveller. On April 14, 1865, President
Lincoln was shot by John Wilkes Booth, a Southern sympathizer. Lincoln died early the
next morning, and Andrew Johnson became president. Meanwhile, Confederate forces
across the South surrendered as news of Lee's surrender reached them.[179] On June 23, 1865,
Cherokee leader Stand Watie was the last Confederate general to surrender his forces.[180]
Emancipation during the war
Black and White soldiers in the Union Army. 1860s
At the beginning of the war, some Union commanders thought they were supposed to
return escaped slaves to their masters. By 1862, when it became clear that this would be a
long war, the question of what to do about slavery became more general. The Southern
economy and military effort depended on slave labor. It began to seem unreasonable to
protect slavery while blockading Southern commerce and destroying Southern production.
As one Congressman put it, the slaves "...cannot be neutral. As laborers, if not as soldiers,
they will be allies of the rebels, or of the Union."[181]
The same Congressman—and his fellow Radical Republicans—put pressure on Lincoln to
rapidly emancipate the slaves, whereas moderate Republicans came to accept gradual,
compensated emancipation and colonization.[182] Copperheads and some War Democrats
opposed emancipation, although the latter eventually accepted it as part of total war needed
to save the Union.
Many of the recent immigrants in the North viewed freed slaves as competition for scarce
jobs, and as the reason why the Civil War was being fought.[183] Due in large part to this
fierce competition with free blacks for labor opportunities, the poor and working class Irish
Catholics generally opposed emancipation. When the draft began in the summer of 1863
they launched a major riot in New York City that was suppressed by the military, as well
as much smaller protests in other cities.[184] Many Catholics in the North had volunteered to
fight in 1861, sending thousands of soldiers to the front and taking high casualties,
especially at Fredericksburg; their volunteering fell off after 1862.[185] Sentiment among
German Americans was largely anti-slavery, especially among Forty-Eighters.[186] Hundreds
of thousands of German Americans volunteered to fight for the Union.[187]
In 1861, Lincoln worried that premature attempts at emancipation would mean the loss of
the border states, and that "to lose Kentucky is nearly the same as to lose the whole
game."[188] At first, Lincoln reversed attempts at emancipation by Secretary of War Simon
Cameron and Generals John C. Frémont (in Missouri) and David Hunter (in South
Carolina, Georgia and Florida) to keep the loyalty of the border states and the War
Democrats.
Lincoln warned the border states that a more radical type of emancipation would happen if
his gradual plan based on compensated emancipation and voluntary colonization was
rejected.[189] Only the District of Columbia accepted Lincoln's gradual plan, which was
enacted by Congress. When Lincoln told his cabinet about his proposed emancipation
proclamation, Seward advised Lincoln to wait for a victory before issuing it, as to do
otherwise would seem like "our last shriek on the retreat".[190]
In September 1862 the Battle of Antietam provided this opportunity, and the subsequent
War Governors' Conference added support for the proclamation.[191] Lincoln had already
published a letter[192] encouraging the border states especially to accept emancipation as
necessary to save the Union. Lincoln later said that slavery was "somehow the cause of the
war".[193]
Lincoln issued his preliminary Emancipation Proclamation on September 22, 1862, and his
final Emancipation Proclamation on January 1, 1863. In his letter to Hodges, Lincoln
explained his belief that "If slavery is not wrong, nothing is wrong ... And yet I have never
understood that the Presidency conferred upon me an unrestricted right to act officially
upon this judgment and feeling ... I claim not to have controlled events, but confess plainly
that events have controlled me."[194]
Contrabands—an escaped slaves who fled to the Union Army for freedom and
protection, ca. 1862.
Since the Emancipation Proclamation was based on the President's war powers, it only
included territory held by Confederates at the time. However, the Proclamation became a
symbol of the Union's growing commitment to add emancipation to the Union's definition
of liberty.[195] Lincoln also played a leading role in getting Congress to vote for the
Thirteenth Amendment,[196] which made emancipation universal and permanent.
Enslaved African Americans did not wait for Lincoln's action before escaping and seeking
freedom behind Union lines. From early years of the war, hundreds of thousands of
African Americans escaped to Union lines, especially in occupied areas like Nashville,
Norfolk and the Hampton Roads region in 1862, Tennessee from 1862 on, the line of
Sherman's march, etc. So many African Americans fled to Union lines that commanders
created camps and schools for them, where both adults and children learned to read and
write.
The American Missionary Association entered the war effort by sending teachers south to
such contraband camps, for instance establishing schools in Norfolk and on nearby
plantations. In addition, approximately 180,000 or more African-American men served as
soldiers and sailors with Union troops. Most of those were escaped slaves. Probably the
most prominent of these African-American soldiers is the 54th Massachusetts Volunteer
Infantry.
Confederates enslaved captured black Union soldiers, and black soldiers especially were
shot when trying to surrender at the Fort Pillow Massacre.[197] This led to a breakdown of
the prisoner and mail exchange program[198] and the growth of prison camps such as
Andersonville prison in Georgia,[199] where almost 13,000 Union prisoners of war died of
starvation and disease.[200] After the war, Henry Wirz, the prison's commandant, was tried
for war crimes and executed.
Union Army soldier on his release from Andersonville prison in May, 1865.
In spite of the South's shortage of soldiers, most Southern leaders — until 1865 —
opposed enlisting slaves. They used them as laborers to support the war effort. As Howell
Cobb said, "If slaves will make good soldiers our whole theory of slavery is wrong."
Confederate generals Patrick Cleburne and Robert E. Lee argued in favor of arming blacks
late in the war, and Jefferson Davis was eventually persuaded to support plans for arming
slaves to avoid military defeat. The Confederacy surrendered at Appomattox before this
plan could be implemented.[201]
Historian John D. Winters, in The Civil War in Louisiana (1963), referred to the
exhilaration of the slaves when the Union Army came through Louisiana: "As the troops
moved up to Alexandria, the Negroes crowded the roadsides to watch the passing army.
They were 'all frantic with joy, some weeping, some blessing, and some dancing in the
exuberance of their emotions.' All of the Negroes were attracted by the pageantry and
excitement of the army. Others cheered because they anticipated the freedom to plunder
and to do as they pleased now that the Federal troops were there."[202]
The Emancipation Proclamation[203] greatly reduced the Confederacy's hope of getting aid
from Britain or France. Lincoln's moderate approach succeeded in getting border states,
War Democrats and emancipated slaves fighting on the same side for the Union. The
Union-controlled border states (Kentucky, Missouri, Maryland, Delaware and West
Virginia) were not covered by the Emancipation Proclamation. All abolished slavery on
their own, except Kentucky and Delaware.[204]
The great majority of the 4 million slaves were freed by the Emancipation Proclamation, as
Union armies moved south. The 13th amendment,[205] ratified December 6, 1865, finally
made slavery illegal everywhere in the United States, thus freeing the remaining
slaves—65,000 in Kentucky (as of 1865),[206] 1,800 in Delaware, and 18 in New Jersey as
of 1860.[207]
Historian Stephen Oates said that many myths surround Lincoln: "man of the people",
"true Christian", "arch villain" and racist. The belief that Lincoln was racist was caused by
an incomplete picture of Lincoln, such as focusing on only selective quoting of statements
Lincoln made to gain the support of the border states and Northern Democrats, and
ignoring the many things he said against slavery, and the military and political context
within which such statements were made. Oates said that Lincoln's letter to Horace Greeley
has been "persistently misunderstood and misrepresented" for such reasons.[208]
Blocking international intervention
Main articles: Britain in the American Civil War and France in the American Civil War
Europe in the 1860s was more fragmented than it had been since before the American
Revolution. France was in a weakened state while Britain was still shocked by their poor
performance in the Crimean War.[209] France was unable or unwilling to support either side
without Britain, where popular support remained with the Union though elite opinion was
more varied. They were further distracted by Germany and Italy, who were experiencing
unification troubles, and by Russia, who was almost unflinching in their support for the
Union.[209][210]
Though the Confederacy hoped that Britain and France would join them against the Union,
this was never likely, and so they instead tried to bring Britain and France in as
mediators.[209][210] The Union, under Lincoln and Secretary of State William H. Seward
worked to block this, and threatened war if any country officially recognized the existence
of the Confederate States of America. In 1861, Southerners voluntarily embargoed cotton
shipments, hoping to start an economic depression in Europe that would force Britain to
enter the war in order to get cotton.[211]
Crewmembers of USS Wissahickon by the ship's 11-inch Dahlgren gun, circa 1863
Cotton diplomacy proved a failure as Europe had a surplus of cotton, while the 1860–62
crop failures in Europe made the North's grain exports of critical importance. It also helped
to turn European opinion further way from the Confederacy. It was said that "King Corn
was more powerful than King Cotton", as U.S. grain went from a quarter of the British
import trade to almost half.[211] When Britain did face a cotton shortage, it was temporary,
being replaced by increased cultivation in Egypt and India. Meanwhile, the war created
employment for arms makers, ironworkers, and British ships to transport weapons.[212]
Charles Francis Adams proved particularly adept as minister to Britain for the U.S. and
Britain was reluctant to boldly challenge the blockade. The Confederacy purchased several
warships from commercial ship builders in Britain. The most famous, the CSS Alabama,
did considerable damage and led to serious postwar disputes. However, public opinion
against slavery created a political liability for European politicians, especially in Britain
(who had herself abolished slavery in her own colonies in 1834).[213]
War loomed in late 1861 between the U.S. and Britain over the Trent Affair, involving the
U.S. Navy's boarding of a British mail steamer to seize two Confederate diplomats.
However, London and Washington were able to smooth over the problem after Lincoln
released the two. In 1862, the British considered mediation—though even such an offer
would have risked war with the U.S. Lord Palmerston reportedly read Uncle Tom’s
Cabin three times when deciding on this.[213]
The Union victory in the Battle of Antietam caused them to delay this decision. The
Emancipation Proclamation over time would reinforce the political liability of supporting
the Confederacy. Despite sympathy for the Confederacy, France's own seizure of Mexico
ultimately deterred them from war with the Union. Confederate offers late in the war to
end slavery in return for diplomatic recognition were not seriously considered by London
or Paris. After 1863, the Polish revolt against Russia further distracted the European
powers, and ensured that they would continue to remain neutral.[214]
Victory and aftermath
Comparison of Union and CSA[215]
Union
CSA
Total population
22,100,000 (71%)
9,100,000 (29%)
Free population
21,700,000
5,600,000
Slave population,
1860
400,000
3,500,000
Soldiers
2,100,000 (67%)
1,064,000 (33%)
Railroad length
21,788 miles (35,064 km)
(71%)
8,838 miles (14,223 km)
(29%)
Manufactured items
90%
10%
Firearm production
97%
3%
Bales of cotton in
1860
Negligible
4,500,000
Bales of cotton in
1864
Negligible
300,000
Pre-war U.S. exports
30%
70%
Andersonville National Cemetery is the final resting place for the Union prisoners
who perished while being held at Camp Sumter.
Historians have debated whether the Confederacy could have won the war. Most scholars,
such as James McPherson, argue that Confederate victory was at least possible.[216]
McPherson argues that the North’s advantage in population and resources made Northern
victory likely but not guaranteed. He also argues that if the Confederacy had fought using
unconventional tactics, they would have more easily been able to hold out long enough to
exhaust the Union.[217]
Confederates did not need to invade and hold enemy territory to win, but only needed to
fight a defensive war to convince the North that the cost of winning was too high. The
North needed to conquer and hold vast stretches of enemy territory and defeat Confederate
armies to win.[217]
Some scholars, such as those of the Lost Cause tradition, argue that the Union held an
insurmountable long-term advantage over the Confederacy in terms of industrial strength
and population. Confederate actions, they argue, only delayed defeat. Civil War historian
Shelby Foote expressed this view succinctly: "I think that the North fought that war with
one hand behind its back...If there had been more Southern victories, and a lot more, the
North simply would have brought that other hand out from behind its back. I don't think
the South ever had a chance to win that War."[218]
The Confederacy sought to win independence by out-lasting Lincoln; however, after
Atlanta fell and Lincoln defeated McClellan in the election of 1864, all hope for a political
victory for the South ended. At that point, Lincoln had succeeded in getting the support of
the border states, War Democrats, emancipated slaves, Britain, and France. By defeating
the Democrats and McClellan, he also defeated the Copperheads and their peace
platform.[219]
Also important were Lincoln's eloquence in rationalizing the national purpose and his skill
in keeping the border states committed to the Union cause. Although Lincoln's approach to
emancipation was slow, the Emancipation Proclamation was an effective use of the
President's war powers.[220] The Confederate government failed in its attempt to get Europe
involved in the war militarily, particularly the United Kingdom and France. Southern
leaders needed to get European powers to help break up the blockade the Union had
created around the Southern ports and cities.
Lincoln's naval blockade was 95% effective at stopping trade goods; as a result, imports
and exports to the South declined significantly. The abundance of European cotton and the
United Kingdom's hostility to the institution of slavery, along with Lincoln's Atlantic and
Gulf of Mexico naval blockades, severely decreased any chance that either the United
Kingdom or France would enter the war.
The more industrialized economy of the North aided in the production of arms, munitions
and supplies, as well as finances and transportation. The table shows the relative advantage
of the Union over the Confederate States of America (CSA) at the start of the war. The
advantages widened rapidly during the war, as the Northern economy grew, and
Confederate territory shrank and its economy weakened. The Union population was 22
million and the South 9 million in 1861. The Southern population included more than 3.5
million slaves and about 5.5 million whites, thus leaving the South's white population
outnumbered by a ratio of more than four to one.[221]
Collecting bones after the Battle of Cold Harbor. April 1865.
The disparity grew as the Union controlled an increasing amount of southern territory with
garrisons, and cut off the trans-Mississippi part of the Confederacy. The Union at the start
controlled over 80% of the shipyards, steamships, riverboats, and the Navy. It augmented
these by a massive shipbuilding program. This enabled the Union to control the river
systems and to blockade the entire southern coastline.[222]
Excellent railroad links between Union cities allowed for the quick and cheap movement of
troops and supplies. Transportation was much slower and more difficult in the South,
which was unable to augment its much smaller rail system, repair damage, or even perform
routine maintenance.[223] The failure of Davis to maintain positive and productive
relationships with state governors (especially Governor Joseph E. Brown of Georgia and
Governor Zebulon Baird Vance of North Carolina) damaged his ability to draw on regional
resources.[224] The Confederacy's "King Cotton" misperception of the world economy led to
bad diplomacy, such as the refusal to ship cotton before the blockade started.[225]
The Emancipation Proclamation enabled African-Americans, both free blacks and escaped
[226]
slaves, to join the Union Army. About 190,000 volunteered, further enhancing the
numerical advantage the Union armies enjoyed over the Confederates, who did not dare
emulate the equivalent manpower source for fear of fundamentally undermining the
legitimacy of slavery. Emancipated slaves mostly handled garrison duties, and fought
numerous battles in 1864–65.[227] European immigrants joined the Union Army in large
numbers, including 177,000 born in Germany and 144,000 born in Ireland.[228] The railroad
industry became the nation's largest employer outside of agriculture. The American Civil
War was followed by a boom in railroad construction, which contributed to the Panic of
1873.[229][230]
Results
A double amputee Alfred A. Stratton lost his arms at Petersburg in 1864.
Slavery for the Confederacy's 3.5 million blacks effectively ended when Union armies
arrived; they were nearly all freed by the Emancipation Proclamation. Slaves in the border
states and those located in some former Confederate territory occupied prior to the
Emancipation Proclamation were freed by state action or (on December 18, 1865) by the
Thirteenth Amendment. The full restoration of the Union was the work of a highly
contentious postwar era known as Reconstruction.
The war produced about 1,030,000 casualties (3% of the population), including about
620,000 soldier deaths—two-thirds by disease.[231] Binghamton University historian J.
David Hacker believes the number of soldier deaths was approximately 750,000, 20%
higher than traditionally estimated, and possibly as high as 850,000.[232][233] The war
accounted for roughly as many American deaths as all American deaths in other U.S. wars
combined.[234]
The causes of the war, the reasons for its outcome, and even the name of the war itself are
subjects of lingering contention today. Based on 1860 census figures, 8% of all white
males aged 13 to 43 died in the war, including 6% in the North and 18% in the South.[235][236]
About 56,000 soldiers died in prisons during the Civil War.[237] An estimated 60,000 men
lost limbs in the war.[238]
One reason for the high number of battle deaths during the war was the use of Napoleonic
tactics, such as charging. With the advent of more accurate rifled barrels, Minié balls and
(near the end of the war for the Union army) repeating firearms such as the Spencer
repeating rifle, soldiers were mowed down when standing in lines in the open. This led to
the adoption of trench warfare, a style of fighting that defined the better part of World War
I.
The war destroyed much of the wealth that had existed in the South. Income per person in
the South dropped to less than 40% than that of the North, a condition which lasted until
well into the 20th century. Southern influence in the US federal government, previously
considerable, was greatly diminished until the latter half of the 20th century.[239]
Reconstruction
Main article: Reconstruction Era of the United States
Reconstruction began during the war (and continued to 1877) in an effort to solve the
issues caused by reunion, specifically the legal status of the 11 breakaway states, the
Confederate leadership, and the freedmen. Northern leaders during the war agreed that
victory would require more than the end of fighting. It had to encompass the two war goals:
secession had to be repudiated and all forms of slavery had to be eliminated.
Lincoln and the Radical Republicans disagreed sharply on the criteria for these goals. They
also disagreed on the degree of federal control that should be imposed on the South, and
the process by which Southern states should be reintegrated into the Union. These disputes
became central to the political debates after the Confederacy collapsed.
Memory and historiography
Monument in honor of the Grand Army of the Republic, organized after the war.
The Civil War is one of the central events in America's collective memory. There are
innumerable statues, commemorations, books and archival collections. The memory
includes the home front, military affairs, the treatment of soldiers, both living and dead, in
the war's aftermath, depictions of the war in literature and art, evaluations of heroes and
villains, and considerations of the moral and political lessons of the war.[240] The last theme
includes moral evaluations of racism and slavery, heroism in combat and behind the lines,
and the issues of democracy and minority rights, as well as the notion of an "Empire of
Liberty" influencing the world.[241] Memory of the war in the white South crystallized in the
myth of the "Lost Cause", which shaped regional identity and race relations for
generations.[242]
150th anniversary
The year 2011 included the American Civil War's 150th anniversary. Many in the South
are attempting to incorporate both Black history and white perspectives. A Harris Poll
given in March 2011 suggested that Americans were still uniquely divided over the results
and appropriate memorials to acknowledge the occasion.[243] While traditionally American
films of the Civil War feature "brother versus brother" themes[244] film treatments of the war
are evolving to include African American characters. Benard Simelton, president of the
Alabama NAACP, said celebrating the Civil War is like celebrating the "Holocaust". In
reference to slavery Simelton said that black "rights were taken away" and that blacks
"were treated as less than human beings." National Park historian Bob Sutton said that
slavery was the "principal cause" of the war. Sutton also claimed that the issue of state
rights was incorporated by the Confederacy as a justification for the war in order to get
recognition from Britain. Sutton went on to mention that during the 100th anniversary of
the Civil War white southerners focused on the genius of southern generals, rather than
slavery. In Virginia during the fall of 2010, a conference took place that addressed the
slavery issue. During November 2010, black Civil War reenactors from around the country
participated in a parade at Harrisburg, Pennsylvania.[245]