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Ancient Chinese Social Classes
What 'class' of America do you see yourself or your family in? Class today is generally
considered in terms of income level. Interestingly, in America today, recent polling has shown
that most of United States considers itself middle class, including families which make $40,000 a
year and those who make $4,000,000 a year! Regardless of how amorphous class labels might be
in America today, in some ancient cultures these labels were far more concrete and important. In
this lesson we'll explore the class system which existed in ancient China, its origins, and the
important distinctions between each class.
Origins and Emperor
The social structure of ancient China evolved over several centuries, likely solidifying
sometime in either the second or third century A.D. The social structure was very rigid; there
was virtually no possibility of upward (or even downward) mobility. In other words, if your
father was a farmer, chances were you were going to be a farmer, too. The genders were not
equal in ancient Chinese society either; women were largely domestic creatures, and even
aristocratic women were not allowed to attend school. This social structure was reinforced by the
revered Chinese thinker, Confucius, who claimed that social structure and rigid order was
important if one wanted a peaceful kingdom and a happy society.
It should be mentioned that the one occupation which existed outside the realm of ancient
Chinese social structure was the emperor and the royal family. The emperor was often
considered ordained by god in ancient Chinese society, and therefore he did not have to answer
to any humans on earth. He expected complete obedience from his subjects and had total control
over military affairs.
Aristocrats and Farmers
The first social class which existed below the emperor was the aristocratic class. The
aristocrats made up a very small portion of Chinese society and were often well connected to the
emperor. These aristocrats were generally landowners who collected rent from their tenants and,
in turn, paid tribute to the emperor as a show of allegiance. This class is also sometimes called
the 'gentry scholars' because many sons began their adult lives by being sent to state schools if
their families could afford it. After attending school and taking the requisite exams, these young
aristocrats took up positions as officials in the state bureaucracy.
The next social class in importance in ancient China was farmers. Farmers were respected
in ancient China as they fed the country's already burgeoning population. Many of these farmers
were successful enough that they owned their own land, while others worked as tenants on the
farms of aristocrats. The life of a farmer in ancient China was hard as their livelihood was often
subject to the randomness of weather while still being subjected to the taxes imposed by the
emperor and the upper classes. In the farmer class, gender roles were not as rigid as they were in
other classes; though it was considered ideal for women to stay in the house, they at times were
required to help in the fields during harvest times or under extreme circumstances.
Artisans and Merchants
The next rung on the ladder of Chinese society was craftsmen and artisans. These
included a wide swath of the population with varied occupations; anyone, from carpenters to
metalworkers to those who crafted expensive jewelry, was considered in this class. Artisans
often did not own land, and some did not even own the tools they worked with. However, highly
skilled artisans in important or rare skills, like metalworking, could make a great deal more
money than farmers ever made. Artisans were generally respected for their skills, but their lack
of attachment or ownership of land placed them at a social disadvantage.
The lowest class, according to ancient Chinese society, was merchants and traders.
Merchants and traders, because of their occupation, could sometimes make far more money than
either farmers or artisans, but were considered lower than the other two as they did not produce
anything of worth. Farmers produced food, artisans produced goods, and merchants merely made
a profit by buying and selling those goods. In various ancient Chinese writings, merchants are
often portrayed as greedy and avaricious.
Summary
Ancient Chinese society had a very rigid social structure, reinforced by the teachings of
the revered Chinese philosopher, Confucius. Above it all sat the emperor, who answered to no
man and was in general considered separate from Chinese society. The top social class below the
emperor was the aristocrats and nobles, who often owned land and occupied key positions in the
Chinese bureaucracy. Though they were often the poorest, the next highest social level was
farmers, who produced all the food to feed the growing Chinese population. Below the farmers
were the artisans and craftsmen, who produced most of the goods of ancient China, from pottery
to swords. Finally, below all were the merchants. Though merchants were often wealthier than
either the farmers or the artisans, they were considered beneath them because merchants rarely
produced anything of their own; they merely profited off the other classes.
Confucianism
Are you on Twitter? If you are, you probably 'follow' many people from news
organizations to media personalities to your own friends. It's how you get information about
what they're thinking and what's important to them.
Well, long before the advent of Twitter, if you wanted to 'follow' someone, you really had
to actually follow them around! Such was the case for the followers of the ancient Chinese
philosopher Confucius, whose followers codified his beliefs and teachings after his death into
something akin to a religion, which had an enormous impact on Chinese civilization in the
centuries after his death.
Origins
Confucius was not the philosopher's given name; after all, Confucius hardly sounds
Chinese, does it? Confucius is a Latinized name of the Chinese title K'ung-Fu-tzu, and was given
by later Western scholars to the teacher and wandering philosopher, who was born around 552
B.C.E. Confucius certainly did not set out to start a new religion or even start a movement. What
Confucius really wanted was to be an advisor to a king or powerful statesman in China. When
this position never materialized, he sometimes considered himself a failure.
This is not to say, of course, that Confucius was an unhappy man. Confucius had a deep
love of learning, education, and an unparalleled reverence for tradition and Chinese culture.
Instead of working to instill that culture from a high government position as he had hoped, he
traveled from place to place, teaching. He had a small group of followers that traveled with him
from location to location, learning from him as well as helping him teach, and several of these
followers took up important government positions after Confucius' death in 479 B.C.E.
In Confucius' time, he did not delineate the social system or worldview that was later
attributed to him. Instead, Confucius' teachings focused on real-world contemporary society and
ways in which humans could better respect one another, and he held especially high esteem for
one's elders and for state authority.
Views
In fact, some historians and theologians even question the categorization of Confucianism
as a religion because it does not necessarily consider many of the basic questions most religions
consider. For example, Confucius considered any contemplation of God or the afterlife to be
unimportant. Confucius believed absolute truth on either subject was impossible to know, so
humans should focus their energies on doing the right thing in this world, rather than worrying
about the next.
The main thrust of Confucius' teachings was creating a moral and just society in this
world. The foundation of this society, according to Confucius, should be mutual respect in all its
forms: respect for one another, respect for culture and tradition, respect for institutions, etc.
Confucius sought to revitalize society through instilling respect for various institutions,
traditions, and rituals, which Confucius claimed had long kept Chinese society just and moral.
Confucius felt that the family was one of the basic units of the social organization that should be
respected. The elderly and infirm were to be cared for by their able family members, while it was
the responsibility of the entire family to teach the children to be moral members of society.
Confucius believed the best way to fuel this respect in society was the promotion of
rituals. Rituals for Confucius encompassed many things, from the semi-religious routines and
practices that you and I would think of to the basic courtesies and social conventions of
conversation. Many of the rituals Confucius believed should be implemented were ancient
vestiges of the Zhou dynasty, which began ruling China several centuries before Confucius' time
and had slowly deteriorated. According to Confucius, through conformity to these ancient rituals
and social conventions, each individual could promote a more humane and moral society.
Finally, as just hinted at, Confucius taught that a moral and just society could only be
arrived at if each person committed to these ideals individually. On several occasions, when
questioned by his followers as to how best to encourage an ideal society in China, Confucius
replied that the best way to do that is to set an example for others by practicing Confucian
principles at home. Confucius himself often claimed to be on a personal journey of selfrealization through learning and teaching, and he instructed his followers to look inward to find
the strength to act in a moral and just manner.
Confucianism in History
Though in Confucius' time he may not have meant to set up an entirely new religion or
way of life, this is certainly what happened in the centuries after his death. Indeed, Confucius
never actually wrote a book or intended his teachings to have a major impact after his death, but
his committed followers were determined to spread Confucius' word. From their notes and
remembrances of his life and teachings, they compiled the Analects, a book of edited
conversations and lessons each had with or learned from Confucius.
In addition to compiling the Analects, several of Confucius' chief followers broke off into
different camps over various disagreements about the meaning of Confucius' teachings. The most
important of these camps was later supported by Mencius, who likely lived during the second
half of the 4th century B.C.E. Mencius was an adviser to kings and a major proponent of
Confucian ideology. He fostered implementation of Confucian ideals in all facets of Chinese life.
Perhaps more importantly, he helped create the class of scholars whose sole purpose was to
learn, educate, and advise the king on important matters. Over the following centuries, this class
morphed into the vast Chinese bureaucracy that required passing extensive examinations for
admittance.
The respect for authority and the respect for the various stations of life that Confucius
expounded were later infused into a rigid Chinese social structure. These social structures
dictated that the emperor was separate from normal Chinese society. Below him were the gentry
scholars (or aristocrats), beneath that were farmers, followed by artisans, and finally merchants.
These classes were rigidly ordered in later centuries, and social mobility was virtually
nonexistent. The station of these classes was not based on income as class so often is today; after
all, merchants then, as now, often made far more money than farmers! Instead, the varying levels
of respect for these classes were based on how closely their occupations conformed to Confucian
morals and ideology as judged by later centuries of Confucians.
Summary
Confucianism should be understood less as a religion and more as a way of life or
worldview. Regardless, Confucius did not set out do either; Confucius merely sought to educate,
teach, and perhaps become an advisor to a king or ruling noble, so he could do his part to help
create a moral and ideal society.
Confucius believed this could be achieved by instilling a sense of respect for institutions,
authority, and each other in all Chinese people. He believed society should be structured around
the rituals and social norms of the Zhou dynasty, and believed the best way to achieve this was to
do it personally and be an example to others.
Despite his traveling, Confucius in his time was little known, and it was only after that
his teachings became popular that he did as well. His followers compiled his conversations and
life teachings into the Analects, and his worldview was used in later centuries to form and justify
everything from Chinese bureaucracy to social structure.