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5.2 Photovoltaic Device Principles:
A simplified schematic diagram of a typical solar cell is shown in
Figure (5-8). Consider a pn junction with a very narrow and more
heavily doped n -region. The illumination is through the thin n-side. The
depletion region (W) or the space charge layer (SCL) extends primarily
into the p-side. There is a built-in field E, in this depletion layer. The
electrodes attached to the n-side must allow illumination to enter the
device and at the same time result in a small series resistance. They are
deposited on the n-side to form an array of finger electrodes on the
surface as depicted in Figure (5-9).
Fig (5-8) The principle of Operation of the Solar cell (Exaggerated Features to
Highlight Principles)
Fig (5-9) Finger Electrodes on the Surface of a Solar cell Reduce the Series
Resistance
A thin antireflection coating on the surface (not shown in the
figure) reduces reflections and allows more light to enter the device.
As the n-side is very narrow, most of the photons are absorbed within
the depletion region (W) and within the neutral p-side (  p ) and
photogenerate EHPs in these regions. EHPs photogenerated in the
depletion region are immediately separated by the built-in field Eo which
drifts them apart. The electron drifts and reaches the neutral n+-side
whereupon it makes this region negative by an amount of charge-e.
Similarly, the hole drifts and reaches the neutral p-side and thereby
makes this side positive.
Consequently an open circuit voltage develops between the
terminals of the device with the p-side positive with respect to the n side. If an external load is connected, then the excess electron in the nside can travel around the external circuit, do work, and reach the p-side
to recombine with the excess hole there. It is important to realize that
without the internal field E o it is not possible to drift apart the photo
generated EHPs and accumulate excess electrons on the n -side and
excess holes on the p-side.
The EHPs photo generated by long-wavelength photons that are
absorbed in the neutral P-side diffuse around in this region as there is no
electric field. If the recombination lifetime of the electron is  e , it
diffuses a mean distance Le  2De e where De is its diffusion coefficient
in the p-side. Those electrons within a distance L e to the depletion
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region can readily diffuse and reach this region whereupon they become
drifted by Eo to the n-side as shown in Figure (5-8). Consequently only
those EHPs photo generated within the minority carrier diffusion length
Le to the depletion layer can contribute to the photovoltaic effect. Again
the importance of the built-in field Eo is apparent. Once an electron
diffuses to the depletion region, it is swept over to the n-side by Eo to
give an additional negative charge there. Holes left behind in the p-side
contribute a net positive charge to this region. That photo generated
EHPs further away from the depletion region than Le are lost by
recombination. It is therefore important to have the minority carrier
diffusion length Le be as long as possible. This is the reason for choosing
this side of a si pn junction to be p-type which makes electrons the
minority carriers; the electron diffusion length in Si is longer than the
hole diffusion length. The same ideas also apply to EHPs photo
generated by short-wavelength photons absorbed in the n-side. Those
holes photo generated within a diffusion length Lh can reach the
depletion layer and become swept across to the p-side. The photo
generation of EHPs that contributes to the photovoltaic effect therefore
occurs in a volume covering Lh + W + Le. If the terminals of the device
are shorted, as in Figure (5-10), then the excess electron in the n-side
can flow through the external circuit to neutralize the excess hole in the
p-side. This current due to the flow of the photo generated carriers is
called the photocurrent.
Fig (5-10) Photo generated Carriers Within the Volume L h +W+L e Give rise
to a photocurrent/ph
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The Variation in the Photo generated EHP Concentration with Distance is
also shown where a is the absorption coefficient at the wavelength of interest
Under a steady-state operation, there can be no net current
through an open circuit solar cell. This means the photocurrent inside
the device due to the flow of photo generated carriers must be exactly
balanced by a flow of carriers in the opposite direction. The latter
carriers are minority carriers that become injected by the appearance of
the photovoltaic voltage across the pn junction as in a normal diode.
This is not shown in Figure (5-8).
EHPs photo generated by energetic photons absorbed in the n-side
near the surface region or outside the diffusion length L h to the
depletion layer are lost by recombination as the lifetime in the n-side is
generally very short (due to heavy doping). The n-side is therefore made
very thin, typically less than 0.2 m or less. Indeed, the length  n of the
n -side may be shorter than the hole diffusion length L h. The EHPs
photo generated very near the surface of the n-side, however, disappear
by recombination due to various surface defects acting as recombination
centers as discussed below.
At long wavelengths, around 1-1.2 m , the absorption coefficient
 of Si is small and the absorption depth (1/  ) is typically greater than
100 m . To capture these long wavelength photons, we therefore need a
thick p-side and at the same time a long minority carrier diffusion length
L e . Typically the p-side is 200-500 m and L e tends to be shorter
than this.
Crystalline silicon has a band gap of 1.1 eV which corresponds to
a threshold wavelength of 1.1 m . The incident energy in the wavelength
region greater than 1.1 m is then wasted; this is not a negligible
amount (  25%). The worst part of the efficiency limitation however
comes from the high-energy photons becoming absorbed near the crystal
surface and being lost by recombination in the surface region. Crystal
surfaces and interfaces contain a high concentration of recombination
centers which facilitate the recombination of photo generated EHPs near
the surface. Losses' due to EHP recombination's near or at the surface
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can be as high as 40 percent. These combined effects bring the
efficiency down to about 45 percent. In addition, the antireflection
coating is not perfect, which reduces the total collected photons by a
factor of about 0.8-0.9. When we also include the limitations of the
photovoltaic action itself (discussed below), the upper limit to a
photovoltaic device that uses a single crystal of Si is about 24-26
percent at room temperature.
Consider an ideal pn junction photovoltaic device connected to a
resistive load R as shown in Fig (5-11)(a) . Note that I and V in the
figure define the convention for the direction of positive current and
positive voltage. If the load is a short circuit, then the only current in the
circuit is that generated by the incident light. This is the photocurrent
I p h shown in Figure (5-11)(b) which depends on the number of EHPs
photo generated within the volume enclosing the depletion region (W)
and the diffusion lengths to the depletion region (Fig 5-10). The greater
is the light intensity, the higher is the photo generation rate and the
larger is Iph,. If I is the light intensity, then the short circuit current is, as
in eqn (2).
Isc = - Iph = - KI
(2)
Where K is a constant that depends on the particular device the
photocurrent does not depend on the voltage across the pn junction
because there is always some internal field to drift the photo generated
EHP. We exclude the secondary effect of the voltage modulating the
width of the depletion region.
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