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OCEANOGRAPHY
STUDY OF THE MARINE WORLD
Overview
• 70.8% Earth covered by ocean
• Interconnected global or world ocean
• Oceans contain 97.2% of surface water
Fig. 1.3ab
Principal oceans
•
•
•
•
•
Pacific - Largest, deepest
Atlantic - Second largest
Indian - Mainly in Southern Hemisphere
Arctic - Smallest, shallowest, ice-covered
Antarctic or Southern Ocean - Connects
Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian
– South of about 50o S latitude
Ocean vs. Sea
• Smaller and shallower than oceans
• Salt water
• Usually enclosed by land
– Sargasso Sea defined by surrounding ocean
currents
• The Seven Seas
Comparison of elevation and depth
Oceans
Land
• Average depth 3729 m
(12,234 ft)
• Average elevation 840
m (2756 ft)
• Deepest ocean
Mariana Trench
11,022 m (36,161 ft)
• Highest mountain Mt.
Everest 8850 m
(29,935 ft)
Fig. 1.3cd
GAINING KNOWLEDGE OF
THE OCEANS
Early Explorers
• Voyaging on water was important to many
early civilizations
• Cartographers recorded information about
locations, landmarks and currents.
• Today, charts are detailed graphic
representations of water and water-related
information
Early Explorers
~1500 B.C. – THE PHOENICIANS
Early Explorers
• The Library at
Alexandria, in Egypt,
was founded in the
third century B.C.
• The principles of
celestial navigation
were invented at the
Library at Alexandria.
The ancient library in Alexandria, Egypt,
contained more than half a million scrolls,
which had to be organized by subject.
Abu Dhabi Men's College Library
Early Explorers
• The Greeks
– Eratosthenes of Cyrene
• 2nd librarian at
Alexandria.
• First to calculate the
circumference of Earth.
- 40000 km
• Invented a system of
longitude and latitude.
Early Explorers
• The Greeks
– Aristotle (384-322 B.C.)
• catalogued marine organisms
– Pliny The Elder (23-79 A.D.)
• related phases of the moon to the tides
• described the ocean currents moving through the
Straits of Gibraltar
– Ptolemy (127-151 A.D.)
• produced the first world atlas with the then-known
world boundaries
Early Explorers
• The Polynesian colonies
are an example of
knowledge of oceans
and marine science used
to colonize a vast
number of islands.
• “Red Arrows” indicate
the direction and order
of settlement.
© 2002 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc.
Early Polynesians Sailed
Thousands of Miles for Trade
Early Explorers
• The Chinese
– Invented (among other things)
•
•
•
•
The Compass
The central rudder
Water-tight compartments
Sails on multiple masts
Thinkquest.com
The Middle Ages
• The Vikings
– Pirates & Raiders
– Farmers & Explorers
– Colonized:
• Iceland, Greenland, Vinland (America)
• Iceland to Greenland
– 25 boats, ~600 people
– 14 boats remained
Sources: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vikings
http://www.collectionscanada.ca/explorers/kids/index-e.html
The Vikings
• Boats
– “Knarrs” – merchant ships
– Longboats (drakkar) –
warships
• Navigation table
– Needle in center of table
measured sun’s height
– Bar around edge plotted
ship’s course
Sources: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vikings
http://www.collectionscanada.ca/explorers/kids/index-e.html
Models, Viking Ship Museum in Roskilde,
Denmark (April 1991). Photo by Harri Blomberg.
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Vikingeskibsmuseet_12.jpg)
The Vikings
• Bjarni Herjólfsson
– First to “find” North America in
986 A.D.
• Leifr Eiriksson
– First to set foot in North
America in 995 A.D.
• Thorfinnr Thordarson and
Freydis Eiriksdøttir
– First to colonize Vinland (1003
to 1015 A.D.)
• Snorri Karlsefni
– First baby born in North
America (a boy)
Sources: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vikings
http://www.collectionscanada.ca/explorers/kids/index-e.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Vikings-Voyages.png
New World Exploration
• Prince Henry The Navigator
– 3rd son of the royal family of
Portugal
– May have established a
center for the study of marine
science & navigation.
– sponsored voyages down the
coast of Mauretania
(primarily slaving
expeditions)
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
New World Exploration
• Christopher Columbus (1451? –
1506)
– “Discovered” North America
while trying to find a western route
to Asia
A replica of the Santa
Maria, Columbus'
flagship . Photo by:
Dietrich Bartel.
Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Image:Santa-Maria.jpg
1492 - Columbus’ first voyage “discovered” San Salvador (now the
Bahamas), although the natives called it Guanahani
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
1493 - Columbus’ second voyage through Hispaniola, Juana (Cuba), and
other islands; established the short-lived settlement of Isabela on
Hispaniola
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
1498 - Columbus’ third voyage brought him to South America, which he
thought was adjacent to China
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
1502 - Columbus’ fourth voyage was primarily to search for the Strait of
Malacca to the Indian Ocean.
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
VESPUCCI, AMERIGO (1454-1512)
Italian navigator who explored the northern shore
of South America during 4 voyages. The American
continent was named in his honor in 1507.
1st Voyage
3rd Voyage
2nd Voyage
4th Voyage
Juan Ponce de León (14601521)
• Spanish explorer, born in San
Servos, León.
• In 1493 he accompanied
Christopher Columbus on his
second voyage to America.
• Explored Florida
Ferdinand Magellan (1480- 1521)
• initiator and leader of the first expedition
to circumnavigate the globe (1519-21)
• 42,000 miles - 22,000 of them over
waters no white man had ever seen - was
an achievement without parallel in an era
of fragile wooden ships.
Detail from a map of Ortelius:
Magellan's ship Victoria
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
James Cook (1728 – 1779)
• The first real scientific
oceanographic voyages.
– Ships HMS Endeavour,
Resolution, Adventure
– Mapped many islands in Pacific
– Systematically measured ocean
characteristics
– Marine chronograph (longitude)
– Samples of marine life, land
plants & animals, the ocean floor,
& geologic formations
– Recorded all of the information in
logbooks.
portrait by
Nathaniel
Dance, c.
1775,
National
Maritime
Museum,
Greenwich
A general chart of the island of Newfoundland.
Surveyed by James Cook and Michael Lane, and
"publish'd according to Act of Parliament by
Thomas Jefferys Geographer to the King, 1775."
Cook's first voyage was to the South Pacific Ocean
Copyright/Source
During his second voyage, Cook tried to find out if there was land at the
South Pole
Copyright/Source
During his third voyage to try and find the Northwest Passage, Cook
became the first European to land on Vancouver Island
Copyright/Source
HMS Challenger
• The Royal Society of London &
Charles Wyville Thomson
borrowed the Challenger
from the Royal Navy
• 1870 – 1872 - the first
expedition devoted solely
to marine science
– modified the ship for scientific work
– separate laboratories for natural
history and chemistry.
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
HMS Challenger
• The results: the Report Of The Scientific
Results of the Exploring Voyage of H.M.S.
Challenger during the years 1873-76,
–
–
–
–
–
127500 km
492 deep sea soundings
133 bottom dredges
151 open water trawls
263 serial water
temperature observations
– about 4717 new species
of marine life were discovered.
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
JOHN MURRAY (1841- 1914)
• 1872 – took over publishing 50
volumes & reports on the HMS
Challenger voyage
• coined the word “oceanography”
• Mid-Atlantic Ridge &
oceanic trenches
• Saharan desert deposits
in deep ocean sediments
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
TWENTIETH CENTURY
EXPLORATIONS
• Polar Expeditions (The Arctic)
– 1564 - Jacques Cartier - Saint Lawrence River
– 1845 – 1848 – Sir John Franklin (died with crew)
– 1854 – Robert McClure finds Franklin crew &
overland passage
http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Newsroom/NewImages/images.php3?img_id=16340
TWENTIETH CENTURY
EXPLORATIONS
• Polar Expeditions (The Arctic)
– Roald Amundsen
• First Voyage (1897 – 1899) to
Antarctica
– first people to winter there
• Second Voyage (1903- 1906)
to the Arctic
– Fishing boat “Gjöa”
– First to travel the Northwest
Passage
– Discovered the Magnetic North
Pole wanders
Sources: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
http://www.collectionscanada.ca/explorers/kids/index-e.html
Copyright/Source
Amundsen's Northwest Passage
The Northwest Passage that Roald Amundsen
navigated with great difficulty starting in 1903 is
opening for the second year in a row, as shown in
the AMSR-E sea ice product from the University
of Bremen (Figure 4).
The most recent operational analysis from the
Canadian Ice Service and the U.S. National Ice
Center on August 8 showed a small section of
Amundsen’s historic path still blocked by a 50kilometer (31-mile) stretch of sea ice, although
that should melt within the next few days.
Amundsen’s route requires sailing through
treacherous narrow and shallow channels, making
it impractical for deep-draft commercial ships.
The more important northern route, through the
wide and deep Parry Channel, is still ice-clogged.
The northern route opened in mid-August last
year; it may still open up before the end of this
year's melt season.
source
TWENTIETH CENTURY
EXPLORATIONS
• Polar Expeditions (The Arctic)
• Third Voyage (1910 – 1912) - back to Antarctica
Roald Amundsen, Olav Olavson Bjaaland, Hilmer
Hanssen, Sverre H. Hassel and Oscar Wisting by their
South Pole marker tent and flag
Sources: 1, 2, 3
TWENTIETH CENTURY
EXPLORATIONS
• Polar Expeditions (The Arctic)
– April 6th, 1909, Robert Peary claimed to be the
first person in recorded history to reach the North
Pole
– First people to reach the
north Pole on foot/skis
without outside help:
Richard Weber (Canada)
and Misha Malakhov
(Russia) in 1995
North Pole Web Cam Photo.
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
http://www.arctic.noaa.gov/gallery_np.html.
Credit NOAA/Pacific Marine Environmental
Laboratory.
TWENTIETH CENTURY EXPLORATIONS
• Polar Expeditions (The Antarctic)
– James Cook (1772 – 1775) first person to cross
Antarctic Circle & circumnavigated Antarctica
without actually sighting it
– Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen (Russia)
circumnavigated continent during 1819-1821
– Charles Wilkes (1840, US Navy) realized that
Antarctica was a continent
– James Clark Ross (Britain) sailed through ice
shelf, discovered Mt Erebus (a volcano)
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
TWENTIETH CENTURY EXPLORATIONS
• Polar Expeditions (The Antarctic)
– Adrian de Gerlache (1898-1899, Begium) –
first expedition to winter in Antarctica
– Roald Amundsen, third Voyage (1910 – 1912)
back to Antarctica
• First person to reach the South Pole
– 1956 - US Navy established the AmundsenScott South Pole Station
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
source
TWENTIETH CENTURY EXPLORATIONS
• METEOR EXPEDITION (1925) – first use
of an echo sounder
• U.S.S. ATLANTIS (1931) – first research
ship built specifically for ocean studies,
confirmed MAR.
• HMS CHALLENGER (1951) – Discovered
the deepest part of the ocean’s deepest
trenches.
TWENTIETH CENTURY EXPLORATIONS
• GLOMAR CHALLENGER (1968)
– (Glomar = Global Marine)
– First deep sea drilling vessel
– Confirmed ages of sea floor
sediments & Sea Floor
Spreading Hypothesis
– Evaporites in cores = first
evidence that the Mediterranean
Sea once dried up
– led to the JOIDES Resolution and eventually
the Deep Sea Drilling Program.
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
TWENTIETH CENTURY EXPLORATIONS
• OCEANOGRAPHIC INSTITUTIONS
– Musée Océanographique de Monaco
• 1910 By Prince Albert of Monaco
– Japan Marine Science and Technology Center
(JAMSTEC)
– Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute
– Scripps Institution of Oceanography
– National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA)
TWENTIETH CENTURY EXPLORATIONS
• SATELLITE OCEANOGRAPHY
– SEASAT (1978 – 1978)
• first oceanographic satellite
– Radar altimeter to measure spacecraft height
above the ocean surface
– Microwave scatterometer to measure wind
speed and direction
– Scanning multichannel microwave radiometer to measure
sea surface temperature
– Visible and infrared radiometer to identify cloud, land and
water features
– Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) L-band, HH polarization,
fixed look angle to monitor the global surface wave field
and polar sea ice conditions
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
TWENTIETH CENTURY EXPLORATIONS
• SATELLITE OCEANOGRAPHY
– TOPEX/Poseidon (1995 – 2005)
• Measures sea surface topography
http://sealevel.jpl.nasa.gov/technology/technology.html
~ End ~