Download BIOLOGICAL AGRICULTURE

EL/2004/B/F/PP-148258
ALTERNATIVE FORMS OF OCCUPATION
CONTINUING TRAINING IN RURAL AREAS
BIOLOGICAL AGRICULTURE
HISTORY – REGULATORY FRAMEWORK – BASIC
CONCEPTS
ATHENS
2006
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Purpose
This section provides a history of the Biological Agriculture development and
basic concepts while the minimum requirements for organic farm management in
accordance with European and national legislation are described.
Keywords
•
IFOAM (International Federation of
•
Certified organic seed
Organic Agriculture Movements)
•
Biological
•
Crop rotation
Agriculture/Organic
•
Biological/Organic Agriculture
Farming product
•
Biological control
•
Livestock welfare
Development and Food
•
Regulation (EEC) 2092/91
(MRDF), Biological
•
Compost
Agriculture Directorate
•
AGROCERT
•
Biological Product Control and
•
•
Ministry of Rural
Green manure
Certification Organization
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Index
Glossary ........................................................................................................ 4
Introduction.................................................................................................. 6
1. History....................................................................................................... 7
1.1. The Beginnings of Biological Agriculture.......................................................7
1.2. Biological Agriculture Development in Greece ...............................................9
1.2.1. Prior to the Regulation (EEC) 2092/91...................................................9
1.2.2. After the Regulation (EEC) 2092/91 ....................................................10
1.2.3. The Biological Agriculture Future.........................................................13
1.2.3.1. The European Action Plan for Biological Agriculture .......................13
1.2.3.2. Subsidy programme for Organic Farming and Livestock Farming ....14
2. Definitions............................................................................................... 16
2.1. Regulatory Framework..............................................................................16
2.2. Biological Agriculture Definition .................................................................16
2.3. Control Field – Product Labeling ................................................................17
Organic Farming – EC control system ...........................................................17
2.4. Operator Obligations – Control System ......................................................18
3. Propagating material .............................................................................. 20
4. Organic Farming Fertilizers .................................................................... 21
4.1. Regulation (EEC) 2092/91 Minimum Requirements .....................................21
4.2. Soil..........................................................................................................21
4.2.1. Replacement Law...............................................................................22
4.2.2. Law of the Minimum ..........................................................................22
4.3. Organic Fertilizers.....................................................................................22
4.4. Green manure ..........................................................................................22
4.5. Compost ..................................................................................................23
4.5.1. Compost Characteristics .....................................................................24
Composted material, characteristically dark in colour, homogenous and
soil-like................................................................................................25
4.5.2. Materials for Composting....................................................................25
4.5.3. Compost preparation and handling......................................................26
4.6. Manure ....................................................................................................28
5. Plant Protection ...................................................................................... 29
5.1. Regulation (EEC) 2092/91 Minimum Requirements .....................................29
5.2. Crop rotation............................................................................................30
5.3. Weed management ..................................................................................30
5.4. Biological control ......................................................................................31
Bibliography .......................................................................................................34
Texts for further study – useful websites: ............................................................34
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Glossary
Agrochemicals:
All complex substances used in agriculture. Chemical
fertilizers, pesticides and hormones are included
Azadirachtin:
Botanical insecticide produced as an extract of a
tropical plant, Neem (Azadirachta indica)
Crop rotation:
Alternation of different crops being planted on the
same land area
Bacillus thuringiensis:
Bacterium used in biological control programmes to
control Lepidoptera larvae.
Biological/
Organic Agriculture:
A method of agricultural land
environmentally friendly ways
management
in
Biological control:
Use of a natural enemy to control a parasite
Organic product:
A product whose production meets the requirements of
the Regulation (EEC) 2092/91
GMO:
Genetically Modified Organisms
Generative propagation: This is plant propagation by seed. The resulting plant is
called sporophyte (seedling)
Uniform
National Trademark:
Regulation
(EEC) 2092/91:
Regulation
(EEC) 1804/99:
The trademark all Greek organic products must have
on packaging
European legislation describing the Organic Product
Control System and the production, processing and
trade rules.
An addendum to 2092/91 describing the Organic
Livestock Production Control System and principles
Compost:
The result of the aerobic fermentation of organic
materials
Manure:
Livestock excreta
Logo:
The special label on product packaging providing
information about the organic production method
Organic fertilization:
All practices aiming at the soil fertility enhancement
and adequate plant nutrition through exclusively
natural materials
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Certification:
All procedures through which it is ensured that a
product has met certain specifications throughout the
production period
Pyrethrum:
The Chrysanthemum cineraria folium plant, a
chrysanthemum species, whose flowers are the origin
of the insecticidal substance, pyrethrin
Rotenone:
Insecticidal substance produced from the roots of the
Derris elliptica plant
Third countries:
All non EU member states countries
Green manure:
A soil fertility enhancement method based on planting
mainly legumes as well as other plant types, usually
followed by their incorporation to the soil
Humus:
The stabilized part of the soil organic matter which
creates humic complexes of great value for soil fertility
Legumes:
A botanical family which includes edible pulses and
various fodder plants such as clover, lucerne, vetch,
lupin, etc. Their characteristic is that useful nitrogenfixing bacteria grow at their roots
Beneficial organisms:
These are insects and other organisms which either
destroy crop enemies or assist in crop growth
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Introduction
The rise of the 21st century seems to find Biological Agriculture in the position
it deserves. Up to the early 90s, the sector had gone through a period of intense
doubts and indifference while from 1992 to 2004 it embarked on a rapid
development phase having ensured the EU political support. Biological or Organic
Agriculture is now recognized. Starting as Movement at the beginning of last century,
it is now a very large emerging business sector in agricultural production.
Greece has to face some concrete risks in exporting agricultural products. If
necessary measures are not taken, we will have to pay the price of shipment
rejections and export reductions. The reason is that European citizens are sensitized
concerning the conventional agriculture adverse effects on the environment, the
quality of agricultural products and potential risks thereof and they now demand
more from producers. The only viable solution is the production of agricultural
products using environmentally friendly methods, as happens with Organic Farming.
Increased consumer sensitivity concerning food safety issues as well as
environmental concerns have contributed to the development of biological agriculture
in recent years. Although it only represented around 3 % of the total EU utilised
agricultural area (UAA) in 2000, organic farming has in fact developed into one of
the most dynamic agricultural sectors in the European Union.
The organic farm
sector grew by about 25 % a year between 1993 and 1998 and, since 1998, it is
estimated to have been growing by around 30 % a year. In some Member States,
however, it now seems to have reached a plateau.
Organic agriculture is to be seen as part of a sustainable farming system and
a viable alternative to the more traditional approaches to agriculture. Since the EU
regulations on organic farming came into force in 1992, tens of thousands of farms
have converted to this system, as a result of increased consumer awareness of as
well as demand for organically grown products.
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1. History
1.1. The Beginnings of Biological Agriculture
Biological Agriculture first appeared at the beginning of 20th century almost
simultaneously with the “Green Revolution”, i.e. the industrialization of Agriculture.
The sociologist Rudolf Steiner is
considered the founder of Biodynamic
Agriculture, a forerunner of Biological
Agriculture as is known today. After 1924,
he gave a series of lectures on an
alternative form of agriculture and his
expressed viewpoint of man through
healthy nutrition and healthy living later
became the foundation of “Biodynamic
Agriculture”. These lectures were later
published
Foundations
under
the
for
the
title
Spiritual
Renewal
of
Agriculture. This publication is listed as
the first Standard to describe Biological
Agriculture principles.
Figure 1
Rudolf Steiner’s photo
At the same time, the British botanist, Sir Albert Howard, developed new
cultivation techniques in India, inspired by the traditional methods, which local
farmers had been using for years. His work resulted in the publication of his book,
An Agricultural Testament, in 1940, which later influenced many scientists and
farmers. Sir Howard is today considered the father of Organic Agriculture.
Having been inspired by Sir Howard’s work, in 1939 Lady Eve Balfour initiated
biological and conventional farming experiments. Four years later she presented her
results in her book, The Living Soil. This book inspired some other scientist who
founded the Soil Association in 1946. This began as an organization promoting the
role and importance of the soil organic substances and biological processes for plant
growth and durability. Today, it has become the most important Biological Product
Control and Certification Organization on a global level. At the same period, other
scientists such as the Japanese microbiologist Masanobu Fukuoka, working on the
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soil science and phytopathology areas, started doubting the contemporary
conventional agriculture movement.
Figure 2
Lady Balfour in her farm
The Biological Agriculture Movement, i.e. the Conventional Agriculture
dissenters, multiplied in the next decades. In 1972, they joined forces to found the
International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements, commonly known as
IFOAM. Today, IFOAM full members number more than 750 organizations in more
than 108 countries. In the years that followed, the Organic Farming supporters kept
increasing, representing farmers, the scientific community as well as the consumers
who now seek safer and better quality agricultural products. As a result, France was
the first to adopt a regulatory framework aiming at recognizing Organic Farming as
an alternative cultivation method on the national level as well as at the acceptance
and respect of common production and control rules on the part of all organic farmer
groups. Then, IFOAM published the first International Standard of biological farming
production and control rules, which became the main body of the EU regulation. In
1986, for the first time the European Parliament votes in a proposal for the biological
agriculture promotion and in June 1991, the (EEC) 2092/91 Regulation is published.
This year became a landmark for organic farmer development on a global
level because the importance of this alternative form of agricultural production was
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officially acknowledged. Many countries then moved to adopting similar organic
farming rules.
Figure 3
The IFOAM logo development from 1972 to date
1.2. Biological Agriculture Development in Greece
1.2.1. Prior to the Regulation (EEC) 2092/91
The appearance of the first agriculturally induced environmental problems,
such as lake eutrofication, public health issues caused by chemical pesticide use,
underground water pollution, created the first contestation wave about the
agricultural standard of “conventional agriculture” implemented up to that point.
Such doubts started being expressed by a limited number of scientists, farmers and
consumers sometime in the 1970s. Later a related movement sprang up aiming at
sensitizing other citizens about the environment, nutrition and quality of life.
In the early 1980s, the first organic farmers are mainly amateur producers.
The first commercial attempt concerns sultana production in the Aigio area.
Certification was granted in 1982 by a Dutch Biological Product Control and
Certification Organization, because no regulatory framework existed in Greece at that
time. In 1985 the Greek Ecological Agriculture Association (SOGE) is founded and the
“Biocultivations” magazine is first published (Vlontakis, Desyllas and Bisti, 2003). In
1986, a second great effort is made to commercially promote biological production,
and especially organic olive oil in the Mani region, again certified by a foreign
organization. Within the next five years, activities increase with the foundation of
other Organizations supporting the same principles. Between 1990 and 1992, the
Ministry of Agriculture, anticipating the implementation of the Biological Agriculture
European Regulation (EEC 2092/91 Reg.), initially appoints officials and then
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establishes the Biological Product Office. In 1993, the first Biological Product Control
and Certification Organization in Greece receives a license of operation from the
competent Ministry, under the name “DIO”.
Today, there are 6 Biological Product Control and Certification Organizations
operating in Greece:
1.
The “DIO” Organization «ΔΗΩ»
2.
The «BioHellas» Institute
3.
The «PHYSIOLOGIKI» SPE
4.
5.
6.
The Certification Organization
«Q-Ways»
The Certification Organization
«a-Cert»
The Certification Organization
«Iris»
1.2.2. After the Regulation (EEC) 2092/91
Biological agriculture growth has been startling, especially in recent years,
due to consecutive food crises.
In 2003, organic farms covered 389,951,000 square metres representing
1.01% of the total farmed land in Greece, while in 2004, organic farms reached
543,420,000 square metres, a great increase of 153,469,000 square metres,
reaching 1.5% of the total farmed land in our country! Organic farmlands in Greece,
including rangeland, covered 2,671,599,000 square metres overall in 2004.
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YEAR
AREA
(square metres)
1994
11,880,000
1995
24,010,000
1996
52,960,000
1997
100,000,000
1998
154,020,000
1999
214,510,000
2000
267,070,000
2001
311,180,000
2002
295,050,000
2003
389,950,000
2004
543,420,000
600000
500000
400000
Στρ
300000
200000
100000
0
1994
2004
2000
ΕΤΟΣ
Table 1
Yearly growth of total organic farmland in Greece (Source: Ministry of Rural
Development & Food, 2006)
Only between 2001 and 2002, there was a small reduction in organic farmer
numbers as well as the total of organic farmlands, which was reduced by 5.1%. This
is probably due to a dysfunction of the EU subsidy programme. In recent years, the
situation is stable and the last three year statistics demonstrate that organic farmers
are getting familiarized with the operation of the whole system and organic farming
requirements.
The main organic crops in Greece, with the corresponding percentage of the
total production they represent, are in descending order:
•
olive tree at 47.5%
•
grains at 23%
•
Vine at 6.1%
•
citrus at 3.8%
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In
Greece,
organic
livestock
production
started
growing
after
the
implementation of the Council Regulation (EC) No 1804/1999 supplementing, in
reference to livestock production, the Regulation (EEC) No 2092/91 on organic
production of agricultural products and indications referring thereto on agricultural
products and foodstuffs.
In view of organic livestock farming, Greece has a comparative advantage
compared to other countries due to favourable weather and soil conditions, rich
natural resources in mountainous and semi-mountainous regions and the practice of
extensive livestock farming which can easily be converted to organic farming.
Organic livestock farming is directly connected to organic farming because animal
feeding needs may be covered with organic fodder in addition to grazing. The
animal-plant system is interdependent and its protection ultimately aims at
sustainable development. In the following figure, the part (%) of the total organic
livestock farming animals each animal represented in 2004 is presented.
Organic livestock farming 2004
1%
17%
4%
24%
Bovines
Sheeps
1%
Goats
Pig
Poultry
Bees (hives)
53%
Diagram 1
Organic livestock farming distribution per animal type in 2004 (Source: Ministry of
Rural Development & Food, 2006)
The largest organic livestock farming share is covered by goats at 49% (in
2004) followed by sheep at 30% (in 2004) and poultry at 16% (in 2004).
The number of animals raised according to the Regulation 2092/91 production
rules has been constantly on the increase in recent years. At the same time, with the
subsidies granted to Organic Farming & Livestock Farming, a further increase may be
expected both in square metres used and in numbers of animals raised.
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1.2.3. The Biological Agriculture Future
1.2.3.1. The European Action Plan for Biological Agriculture
In June 2004, the European Commission responded to the steep rise of
Organic Farming & Livestock Farming throughout the EU by adopting a European
Action Plan which aimed at safeguarding the sector as well as strengthening and
developing it further. In designing a global policy for organic farming, the dual
societal role of Organic Farming was recognized. Based on this, the European
Commission came to two conclusions:
•
Organic food marketing responds to the concerns of some consumers
and therefore it should be rewarded by the market resulting in turn in financing by
the consumers. In this way, the development of organic farming will be governed by
market rules.
•
Organic land management is known to deliver public goods, primarily
environmental, but also rural development benefits and in certain respects may also
result in improved animal welfare. In this respect, the development of organic
farming should be driven by society.
Based on this analysis and building upon the achievements already
accomplished, the main proposals in the Action Plan concentrate on:
•
an information-led development of the organic food market, by
increasing consumer awareness, providing more information and promotion to
consumers and operators, stimulating the use of the EU logo, including on imported
products, providing more transparency on different standards, and improving the
availability of production, supply and demand statistics as policy and marketing tools
•
increase the efficiency of public financing of organic farming, by
encouraging Member States to make a more coherent and greater use of the
different rural development measures, for example, by means of the national action
plans, and by strengthening research on organic farming
•
improving and reinforcing of the Community’s organic farming standards,
import and inspection requirements by: defining the basic principles of organic
agriculture and thus making its public service explicit; increasing transparency and
consumer confidence; establishing an independent committee for scientific and
technical advice; further harmonisation and reinforcement of the standards making
use of international organisations; improving standards, for example, with regard to
animal welfare; completing the standards for areas not yet covered such as
aquaculture or environment-related standards such as fossil energy use, etc.;
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explaining the standards laid down for the prohibition of the use of GMOs; increasing
the efficiency and transparency of the inspection system and, finally, making import
provisions more efficient
The full text is provided at the following EUROPA server address:
http://europa.eu.int/comm/agriculture/qual/organic/plan/index_el.htm.
1.2.3.2. Subsidy programme for Organic Farming and Livestock Farming
Concerning subsidies for organic farming and livestock farming, the measures
3.1 on «Organic Farming» and 3.2 «Organic Livestock Farming» of Axis 3 «Agrienvironmental measures» of the Rural Development Program Document (EPAA)
2000-2006 (Council Regulation (EEC) 1257/99 on support for rural development).
€/100 m2
Crop
Olive oil groves
7,220
Table olive groves
9,000
Crocus
9,000
Vineyards
9,000
Pom trees, stone trees, other woody
9,000
Nut trees (chestnut, hazelnut, walnut trees)
4,000
Citrus trees
9,000
Garden produce, asparagus, strawberries, medick
6,000
Irrigated arable
6,000
Grains, pulses, dry farming
3,350
Aromatic – pharmaceutical plants
3,350
Table 2
Organic Farming Subsidies, Support Measure 3.1 (Source: MRD&F, 2006)
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ANIMAL TYPE
A. CATTLE
ANIMAL CATEGORY
SUBSIDY
(EURO/LU)
1. Dairy cattle
68,80
2. Beef cattle (suckler) selectable
73,50
2a. Beef cattle (suckler) non selectable
68,50
3. Calves aged over 6 months and up to
24 months
4. Heifer calves aged over 6 months
and up to 24 months
250,00
279,60
Β. SHEEP /GOATS
1. Ewes and/or goats
235,80
C. PIGS
1. Sows (and products)
549,62
Table 3
Organic Livestock Farming Subsidies, Support Measure 3.2 (Source: MRD&F, 2006)
Additionally, the EU has approved of two new measures (6.1 measure and
6.2 measure) within the EPAA 2000-2006 framework, axis 6 «Food Quality»
concerning:
a) subsidies of up to 3,000 euros / year and five-year exploitation, covering
“fixed costs” for inclusion in the Council Regulation 2092/91 on Biological
Agriculture control status.
b) subsidies to producer associations for consumer information activities and
promotion of organic agricultural products and foodstuff. The subsidy
amounts to 70% of selectable expenses, i.e. equity participation is at 30%.
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2. Definitions
2.1. Regulatory Framework
Organic Farming in Greece, as well as in the other European Union member
states, is governed by the Regulation (EEC) 2092/91 and amendments thereof. In
1999, the Regulation was supplemented by Regulation (EC) 1804/99 to include
organic livestock production. Today, we are in a Regulation review phase aiming at
simplification, improvement and expansion to other fields such as aquaculture. The
new regulation to replace the basic act (Regulation (EEC) 2092/91) and amendments
thereof, is expected to be voted in by the European Council and implemented from
1/1/2007.
Also, in Greece, Organic Farming is now governed by the Joint Ministerial
Decision 245090/10-2-2006 which established the required supplementary measures
to implement Regulations 2092/91 and 1804/99.
2.2. Biological Agriculture Definition
By biological, ecological or organic agriculture/farming we mean mild,
environmentally friendly farming with no use of chemical pesticides and fertilizers.
More specifically, we could define organic farming as a production system based on
crop rotation, recycling of crop residues and animal manure, green manure,
reasonable
use
of
agricultural
machinery
and
biological
control
methods.
Appropriate combination of such practices ensure:
•
Conservation of soil fertility and adequate crop nutrition;
•
Crop enemy, disease and weed control.
Organic farmers may achieve the above with no need to resort to synthetic
chemical pesticides and fertilizers (Vlontakis, Desyllas and Bisti, 2003).
According to the International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements
(IFOAM), «It is an ecologically, socially and economically sustainable agricultural
production system which promotes safe products minimizing environmental adverse
consequences and the use of non renewable natural resources»
Biological agriculture differs from other agriculture systems in many points. It
favours renewable resources and recycling returning to the soil all nutrients
remaining in residues. Concerning animal capital, meat and poultry production is
governed by special care for good living conditions for animals and the use of natural
animal feed. Organic farming respects environmental systems themselves concerning
crop and livestock parasite and disease control and avoids the use of synthetic
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biocides, herbicides, chemical fertilizers, growth hormones, antibiotics or genetic
modifications. Instead, organic farmers use a range of methods which help with the
preservation of ecosystems and pollution reduction.
2.3. Control Field – Product Labeling
According to the Community Legislation on Organic Farming, organic
products certified within the EU territory are divided in three categories:
a)
Non
processed
agricultural plant products, animals
and non processed livestock products
b)
Processed
agricultural
and livestock products for human
consumption which have been mainly
manufactured
by
one
or
more
components of agricultural or animal
Figure 4
Community Logo
origin
c)
Animal
feed,
compound
animal feed and animal feed raw
materials
The label about products meeting the European Regulations control
requirements is set on all official EU languages and in Greece the label reads:
Organic Farming – EC control system
The Community logo use is optional. However, national legislation (JMD
245090/10-2-2006) has established the compulsory use of the Uniform National
Trademark on organic farming products, which is to be present on such product
labeling.
Figure 5
Organic Farming Product Recognition Uniform Trademark
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Figure 6
Figure 7
Organic lemons with individual labels
Organic oranges in net bag packaging
Figure 8
Organic produce shop in Germany
2.4. Operator Obligations – Control System
Any operator who produces, manufactures or imports organic products from
third countries with a view to marketing should notify the Rural Development
Directorate the business belongs to concerning such activity; he should also submit
his business to the Control System described in Regulation 2092/91. In Greece, the
competent organizations charged with following this Control System are the 6
authorized Biological Product Control and Certification Organizations (DIO, BioHells,
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Physiologiki, Q-Ways, A-Cert and Iris), which are in turn monitored by the Ministry of
Rural Development & Food and AGROCERT.
At the start of the control status, the operator is called upon to describe his
operating unit and activities in detail as well as define all specific measures the
operation has to take so that meeting the Regulation 2092/91 requirements is
ensured.
The Biological Product Control and Certification Organizations are required to
conduct a full review of the unit under control at least once a year while they may
also take samples and conduct lab tests in order to detect substances which are
prohibited according to Regulation 2092/91. Also, the Control Organizations may
conduct more review visits yearly, after due notification or not. Following the end of
the review visit, a relevant report is prepared which is jointly signed by the Control
Organization representative and the operation representative.
The circulation of certified organic products within the EU boundaries is free
and the Member-States may not restrict or stop such product circulation for any
reason whatsoever.
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3. Propagating material
Organic farming requires farmers to use organically produced seed. To help
farmers and companies with access to organically produced seed, member states
have established online databases where seed suppliers register organically produced
seed and seed potatoes that they wish to put on the market. The National organic
seed
database
is
found
at
the
following
web
address:
http://www.minagric.gr/greek/sp_biologikh.html
If there is no seed available of the species which an organic farmer wants to
grow, or if there is no appropriate variety available, the farmer may ask the Ministry
of Rural Development & Food, Biological Agriculture Directorate, for a derogation to
use non-organically produced seed.
It should not be possible to use seed and seed potatoes from non-organic
farming for those species, for which there will be adequate amounts of organically
produced seed available in the future. Therefore, a list of the species excluded from
the scope of the derogation will be established as soon as possible.
With regard to vegetative propagating material, other than seed potatoes,
this falls under the discretion of the Member States, until appropriate criteria can be
adopted at Community level. This means that the Ministry of Rural Development &
Food is again responsible for approving or not approving an appropriate list.
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4. Organic Farming Fertilizers
4.1. Regulation (EEC) 2092/91 Minimum Requirements
Organic Farming places great importance on soil and the preservation of soil
fertility. Soil fertility and organic activity should be preserved or enhanced as
appropriate:
a)
by legume cultivation, green manure or by deep-rooted plant cultivation
within the framework of an appropriate multi-annual crop rotation programme
b)
by the incorporation into the soil of manure produced by organic animal
capital
c)
by the incorporation into the soil of other organic, decayable or non-
decayable substances produced in other organic operations
Regulation (EEC) 2092/91 includes a relevant Annex (Annex ΙΙ), comprising a
positive list of nutrition and soil improvement products which organic farmers may
use as a supplement to the aforementioned methods. In Organic Farming, fertilizing
is not a panacea but it is used as an aid when applied methods do not suffice to
ensure proper crop growth.
Additionally, based on these strict requirements, there are several restrictions
on the use of even those fertilizing products permitted by Legislation. It is not rare
the use of such products by an organic farmer requires approval by a Biological
Product Control and Certification Organization.
4.2. Soil
It is the growth medium for plants. Generally, soil consists of four types of
components: Two types of solids (inorganic components at an approximate
percentage of 45% - and organic matter – 5%) resulting from rock erosion,
vegetation and animal as well as other micro-organism residues, one liquid
component (water - 25%) and one gas component (gas mixture – 25%). In addition
to being a plant growth medium, soil is also the storehouse for nutrients necessary
for vegetative growth. Based on this, Liebig, a soil scientist, in 1885 in his work
«Fundamental Laws of Agricultural Chemistry», developed two theories which are in
principle still implemented and are the cornerstone of fertilizing practice: (Tsitsias,
1996)
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4.2.1. Replacement Law
Harvesting removes elements from the soil which become part of the plant.
Therefore, soil content in nutrients is altered by harvesting. After a number of years
and an equal number of harvests, soil fertility is reduced and for it to be preserved
used elements must be replaced.
4.2.2. Law of the Minimum
All nutrients necessary for plant
nutrition are of the same value. Crop
yield depends on that element that is
in
the
shortest
supply.
This
is
illustrated by a barrel. The barrel
capacity is always limited by the
shortest stave (figure 9).
Figure 9
Liebig’s barrel
4.3. Organic Fertilizers
This is any natural organic material having part of its nutrients in organic
compounds, and containing no toxic substances or pathogens. Thus, organic
fertilizers may be natural materials such as manure, compost, animal waste, crop
residues, industrial by-products, turf, lignite, et. al. (Tsitsias, 1996).
Organic fertilizers bear a direct effect on plants due to the addition into the
soil of nutrients which may be immediately used by plants and affect soil fertility for
a long time period.
4.4. Green manure
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Green manure is the incorporation by tillage into the soil of plants in the
development stage which are cultivated for this purpose. In addition to providing
the soil with organic material, green manure also enriches it with nutrients especially
if the plants used are leguminous. Such nutrients are stored within the plant mass
and are not removed with spargings and they gradually return to the soil through
organic material decomposition. Moreover, green manure applications protects soil
from erosion and it greatly limits weed growth due to competition.
Better results may be achieved with
green manure from nitrogen-binding plants
or deep rooted plants (because they tap
elements from the subsoil) or, finally, plants
assimilating hard to absorb potassium (K)
and phosphorus (P) forms. In general,
legumes (various clover species, pea plants,
broad beans plants, etc.), cruciferous (cole,
mustard, etc.), as well as rich vegetation
plants (large quantity of organic material)
are used for green manure. Green manure
is recommended when soil humidity is
Figure 10
Green manure in an orchard
appropriate (Sidiras, 1997).
Plant incorporation (plough-in) is conducted in two ways: Plants are either cut and
harrowed in or rolled on followed by ploughing. The right time to incorporate the
plants is during blooming although it is after blooming that plants contain more
nitrogen (N). The richer in nitrogen content the green manure plants are, the faster
decomposition occurs, especially for legumes. In all cases however, incorporation
(plough-in) should follow immediately after cutting, because amides, an easily
absorbable nitrogen compound, rapidly form in darkness; if plants remain exposed to
the sunlight, there are great losses in nutrients.
4.5. Compost
Compost is stabilized organic material, resulting from aerobically decomposed
remnants of organic materials converted into humus with the assistance of microorganisms. The use of compost in agriculture has been known for long. It requires
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some knowledge and quality depends on the type and quality of materials added in
during composting. Naturally, other factors also affect compost quality level, such as
the piling system, preparation area, material decomposition speed, fermentation
process, maturation, humification, etc. (Sidiras, 1997).
4.5.1. Compost Characteristics
Organic vegetative and animal waste contain usable nutrient content which is
lost to the farmer.
Composting
provides
a
premium opportunity to use such
nutrients and it is so very simple as a
process
that
the
producer
may
conduct it within his own operation. In
order for waste to be composted, it
should have the appropriate nitrogen
and carbon content so that microorganism propagation and growth is
favored.
The
C/N
ratio
(carbon/nitrogen) ranges between 30
and 50, with the optimal value at 25
Figure 11
(Sidiras, 1997).
Composting
Humidity is also of great importance and its optimal value is between 40-60%.
Compost exposed to the sunlight during summer requires wetting because the great
intensity of the process results in high temperatures (up to 60°C), which tend to dry
the material damaging the composting process. On the other hand, excess humidity
tends to result in anaerobic conditions leading to the release of foul odourgenerating compounds.
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Figure 12
Composted material, characteristically dark in colour, homogenous and soil-like
4.5.2. Materials for Composting
The greater the variety of materials in the compost pile, the better and higher
in nutrient content the end product will be. However, not all materials are
appropriate for composting. The following table lists appropriate and inappropriate
materials for adding into a compost pile:
Crop residues: Leaves, cut stalks, weeds,
cut grass, straw
Sawdust and wood chips
Vegetative
Kitchen waste: vegetable peels, fruit
peels, etc.
Agricultural industry waste: olive leaves
from olive presses, grape dregs from
wineries, ginning cotton residues, etc.
Various manures: cattle, sheep and goat,
Appropriate materials
Animal
horse, rabbit, poultry
Blood meal, meat meal, animal hairs and
wool, crushed egg shells
Seaweed
Wood ash (non chemically processed
Miscellaneous
wood)
Rock dust, lime dust
Old compost amounts (functioning as
yeast for the new fermentation)
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Plant parts which have been sprayed
with pesticides
Vegetative
Sick plants
Eucalyptus, thuya, fig leaves
Oils from foods, remains of cooked food
Inappropriate
materials
Bones, entrails, meat, dairy products,
Animal
remains of cooked food
Plastic, metallic objects, glass, coloured
Miscellaneous
papers, colours and chemical substances
in general
Table 2
Indicated and non indicated materials for use in compost
4.5.3. Compost preparation and handling
The surface heaping method is the simplest and easiest to use in the absence
of special facilities. The various materials are spread over part of the land available,
on live soil which has been previously dug slightly at a depth of about 10 cm. The
heap should be toll-like at a width of 1.5-2 metres and at a height of 1.3 metres. The
length depends only on the quantity of available materials and space. Coarse
materials such as branches are placed on the soil so that air may circulate and we
add other materials on top. Materials are usually placed in layers as shown in figure
13. If we have a shredder, then we may use all pruned cutoffs and the material
becomes homogenized, retains the appropriate moisture level and may be easily
turned. When all materials are layered, we cover the pile with a thin soil layer,
placing dry weeds and straw on top.
Figure 13
Leaves and small branches shredder
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As soon as the pile is formed, various aerobic micro-organisms (bacteria,
fungi) start feeding on the greenest materials. Their populations are increasing fast
and thus the decomposition rate for compost materials is accelerated. As a result of
this activity compost temperature rises. As soon as green materials are consumed,
decomposition rate slows down and temperature also drops gradually.
At this stage, the farmer may accelerate the compost process by 2-3 turnings
of the heap. With this type of surface piles, composting is completed in
approximately 5 months (Vlontakis, Desyllas and Bisti, 2003).
Figure 14
Compost surface pile section with material layers (Source: Organic Farming Basics,
2003)
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4.6. Manure
Manure means liquid and solid waste from agricultural animals. Manure
usefulness for fertilizing cultivated land has been known from antiquity and has been
the main method for replenishing soil nutrients up to recent, although in recent
decades, its importance has been underrated due to the wide use of chemical
fertilizers (Vlontakis, Desyllas and Bisti, 2003).
Manure is rich in organic material content and contains significant nutrient
amounts (macro-elements and micro-elements) as well as growth substances and is
rightfully considered complete fertilizer. The manure importance as a nutrient source
for plants and as a improvement means of the soil natural and biological fertility is
fully comprehended in organic farming. As a result, plant nutrition relies on manure
and crop rotation while the use of inorganic components is only allowed in case of
need.
Manure is to be applied following digestion (biochemical phenomenon during
which the easy to break components decompose first followed by the transformation
of the hard to break components into humins and humic acids). Manure piling for
digestion should be under protection from the sun and rain so that nutrient loss is
minimized. The minimum digestion time should be around 6 months. In this way, not
only is the manure directly absorbed by plants but weed spores as well as
pathogenic micro-organisms are also destroyed as a result of the extremely high
temperature developed during anaerobic fermentation.
Figure 15
Manure pile resting for digestion
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5. Plant Protection
5.1. Regulation (EEC) 2092/91 Minimum Requirements
Fighting parasites, diseases and weeds is effected through the selection of
appropriate crop species and varieties, the proper crop rotation schedule, mechanical
cultivation methods (elimination of weeds, insect traps, etc.) as well as through the
protection and preservation of the parasite natural enemies. The general principle of
fighting against parasites in organic farming is that the farmer should mainly rely on
preventive plant protection means and resort to pesticides only if the parasite
development conditions demand such use.
As also applicable to fertilizers, Regulation 2092/91, Annex ΙΙ, also includes a
positive list of plant protection substances allowed for use in organic farming. This
list contains product categories allowed for use by organic farmers as follows:
¾ Agricultural or animal origin substances. This group includes among others
azadirachtin, lecithin, gelatin, natural pyrethrum, rotenone, beeswax, etc.
¾ Micro-organisms. These include bacteria, viruses and fungal antagonists. The
best known species may be the Bacillus thuringensis, which is used for the
biological control of lepidoptera, and the Granulosis virus
¾ Substances which may only be used in traps. These include pheromones and
two synthetic pyrethrin types (deltamethrin and λ-cyhalothrin) under
restrictions
¾ Substances which are traditionally used in organic farming. This group
includes copper as fungicide, paraffinic oils and mineral oils, sulphur, etc.
Figure 16
Pheromone trap on an olive tree to control the
Figure 17
olive moth populations
Glue trap on an olive tree to
control the olive fly populations
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5.2. Crop rotation
Crop rotation is the systematic, scheduled rotational change of crop
cultivation in the same space.
Crop rotation as a farming method was the result of farmers’ observation that
soil gets depleted by single-crop farming and deteriorates with monocultures.
Experience has shown that when crops alternate, the soil better retains its biological
activity and structure while plants become healthier and more resistant to parasites.
Crop rotation may only apply to annual crops (arable crops, garden produce,
etc.). Crop species rotate following a specific schedule on the basis of what the crops
in use require in nutrients, organic material, nitrogen they release to the soil
(legumes) after harvesting, root system form, economic importance, cultivation tasks
required and parasites affecting each species.
The following table lists some examples of two-, three- and five-year crop
rotation schedules on the basis of the aforementioned criteria:
Two-year crop rotation
Three-year crop
rotation
Four-year crop rotation
Clover
Potato
Winter wheat
Winter rye
Corn
Cotton
Winter wheat
Winter wheat
Winter barley
Oat
Sugar beet
Potato
Winter wheat
Winter wheat
Winter barley
Summer barley
Oat
Winter rye
Table 5
Examples of 2-, 3-, and 4-year crop rotation (Source: Sidiras, 1997 )
5.3. Weed management
In organic farming, weed management is carried out either through
preventive measures or mechanical elimination. At present there are no substances
which may replace the corresponding chemical herbicides and are allowed for use.
Preventive measures mainly include crop rotations and green manure whose dense
plant growth results in suffocating and highly competitive environment for weeds
leading to their restriction.
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The most common weed control method is mechanical elimination with small
sized tools (hoes, mattocks), with larger engine powered cutting tools (grass cutters,
scrub clearers) and the use of agricultural tractors (harrows, tillers, ploughs). In all
cases, organic farmers should make sure they restrict weed appearance or facilitate
later management through the selection of appropriate crop rotation schedules and
implementation of proper agricultural practices, such as the timing and density of
planting or the timing of seeding and seed quantities respectively.
Another method which may mainly apply to permanent crops (trees) is soil
coverage. This may be implemented for annual crops, mainly garden produce, with
artificial means, such as the use of transparent plastic sheets (sun heating) or black
plastic sheets which is spread over the soil surface to create conditions adverse to
weed growth. Natural soil coverage (mulching) is applied through the use of plant
residues (tree bark, straw, wood chips, dry grass, etc.).
In addition to weed control, soil coverage also presents other advantages
because it provides heat insulation in both summer and winter months. It also
enhances moisture retaining through evaporation loss reduction and finally because
the material used is organic it is decomposed in time and produces humus, thus
improving soil structure.
Figure 18
Soil coverage application in linear
vineyard
5.4. Biological control
Biological enemy and disease control is nothing more than using a natural
enemy against a parasite during farming. In nature, all organisms have their natural
enemies (hunters, parasites, etc.). In biological control, imitating nature itself,
natural enemies are widely used to control crop problems. However, in addition to
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the introduction of beneficial organisms, organic farmers are mainly concerned with
preserving the populations of the natural enemies of parasites within the land
cultivated. This is achieved by preserving bio-diversity in agricultural plots of land
and the non chemical control of parasites, which results in killing beneficial insects
within the land along with the parasites.
Biological control is a method mainly used in greenhouses as space is limited
and the conditions are controlled. In all cases, insect purchase cost is high and
therefore overall management should be such as to allow the beneficial insect
populations to be preserved wherein they are released. Some examples of such
successful applications are the following:
¾ Insect against insect: The Encarsia formosa wasp against the greenhouse
whitefly, ladybirds against scale insects on citrus trees and aphids, etc.
¾ Mite against mite: Phytoseilus persimilis against tetranychid,
¾ Fungus against fungus: The Trichoderma spp. fungus against the vine
botrytis,
¾ Bacterium against insect: The Bacillus thuringiensis against the Lepidoptera
larvae (vine moth, olive moth, etc.)
¾ Virus against insect: The Granulosis virus against the apple moth
¾ Nematodes against insects: Entomophilous nematodes against diptera and
coleoptera, etc.
Figure 19
Ladybirds feeding on aphids
Figure 20
Dead Lepidoptera larva (left)
parasitized by the Bacillus thuringiensis
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Figure 21
Infestation stages of the whitefly larvae parasite by the beneficial Encarsia formosa
wasp. Upper left: The female lays an egg on the whitefly larva. Below left: The
parasitized larva changes color (black). Upper right: The fully grown wasp insect,
after completing its biological development within the whitefly larva, opens a hole
and flies away. Below right: Wasp emergence hole from the parasitized larva
Figure 22
The underside of a leaf
with parasitized
whitefly larvae (black)
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Bibliography
1. www.organic-europe.net
2. www.ifoam.org
3. www.europa.eu.int
4. ec.europa.eu/agriculture/qual/organic/index_el.htm
5. www.wikipedia.org
6. www.minagric.gr
7. Vlontakis, G., Desyllas, Μ., & Bisti, Μ., Organic Farming Basics, 3rd edition,
OEDV, Athens, 2003.
8. Council of the European Communities. Coded text produced by the CONSLEG
1991R2092 System, European Community Official Publication Service, 2004.
9. Tsitsias, Κ., Soil Science, OEDV, Athens, 1996.
10. Sidiras, Ν., Organic fertilization and crop rotations, ΔΗΩ, Athens, 1997.
Texts for further study – useful websites:
1. Sidiras, Ν., Organic fertilization and crop rotations, ΔΗΩ, Athens, 1997.
2. Kavallaris, P., The Organic Product Market, “Organic Farming" Two-Day
Conference Proceedings, Kalamata ΤΕΙ, Kalamata, 1998, pp. 113 – 125.
3. Spantidakis, Κ., Organic crops in the Greenhouse, Experience – Practice,
KOSTAS SPANTIDAKIS, Rethymno, 2002.
4. European Commission, European Action Plan for Biological Foodstuffs and
Organic Farming, Document C157/30, European Community Official Gazette,
Brussels, 2005.
5. www.minagric.gr/greek/3.6.Β.html (Ministry of Rural Development & Food,
Organic Farming Directorate website)
6. www.organicxseeds.com (EU certified organic seed ordering website)
7. www.bioagro.gr (Organic Farming web portal)
8. http://www.agrocert.gr/Inspection%20Institutes.pdf (Contact list for the
authorized Biological Product Control and Certification Organizations in
Greece)
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