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Study Guide – Honors Biology
Scientific Method
_C_ hypothesis
_A_ independent variable
_D_ dependent variable
_B_ control group
A. the variable the individual (“I) changes in
the experiment
B. the standard for comparing experimental
effects
C. an educated guess/prediction about the relationship between the variables
D. the variable that responds to the changes in the
independent variable
Ecology
Energy Flow……..
What is the original source of almost all energy in
most ecosystems ?
What organisms can capture the energy from the sun
to produce food ? What is the other name used ……
What organisms must eat other organisms to get
energy because they cannot make their own food?
What is the other name used …….
What organisms that break down and obtain
nutrients/energy from dead organisms ? Give
examples ……
What organism feeds only on animals/consumers ?
What organism feeds only on plants/producers ?
What organism feeds on both animals and plants ?
In the pyramid of energy, are the consumers or
producers at the bottom ?
In the pyramid of energy, do you find the most
energy at the bottom or the top ?
sunlight
* autotroph
* producer
* heterotroph
* consumer
* decomposers
* bacteria, fungi
carnivores
herbivore
omnivore
producers
at the bottom with the
producers
Arrange the words listed in a food chain and label each trophic level below it:
mouse ……grass………hawk……….grasshopper
grass ---------------grasshopper ------- mouse ----------------hawk
(primary producer)(primary consumer)(secondary consumer)(tertiary consumer)
What percent of the energy stored in an organism can be passed onto the next
trophic level ? 10 %
What happens to the remaining energy ? it is used for life
processes or eliminated as heat
True or False: Energy flows in one direction in an ecosystem from the sun to autotrophs
to heterotrophs. (true)
Biogeochemical (Nutrient) Cycles: Study your notes on each of the cycles ____
True or False: Matter such as nutrients cycle within the ecosystem. (true)
Community Interactions
_E_ predation
A. an organism’s way of life and its role in the environment
_D_ mutualism
B. symbiosis in which one organism benefits and the other
_B_ commensalism
neither helped nor harmed
_C_ parasitism
C. symbiosis in which one organism benefits and the other
_A_ niche
is harmed
D. symbiosis in which both species benefit
E. interaction in which one organism captures and feeds on
another organism
Succession …… be able to order diagrams of primary succession correctly ____
Populations …..
True or False: No two species can occupy the same niche in the same place at the same
time.
What factors can increase population size ? births and immigration
Which will reduce competition in a species’
fewer individuals
population ?
(fewer individuals or fewer resources)
Give examples of limiting factors
competition, predation, parasitism and
disease, drought, human disturbances
What effect do limiting factors have on
cause them to decrease
population growth ?
What is carrying capacity ?
the largest number of individuals that an
environment can support
What does carrying capacity look like on a
the line curves up and then flattens out
graph ? (you can draw and label the point)
When does exponential growth occur ?
when individuals in a population reproduce
at a constant rate
What does exponential growth look like on a it looks like a J-shape; continues to go
graph ? (you can draw it)
straight up
What is population density ?
the number of individuals per unit area
What is global warming ? the increase in the average temperature in the biosphere over
the past century
What is the greenhouse effect ? heat is retained in the Earth’s atmosphere by carbon,
methane, water vapor, and other gases
Microscopy and Prokaryotes Part A: Microscope Technology
What type of microscope allows light to pass through the
specimen and uses 2 lenses ?
Why should you begin with the low-power objective rather
than high-power objective when viewing a specimen on a
prepared slide ?
What part of the microscope is used to obtain a clearer
image of the specimen when it is out of focus ?
Is the field of vision smaller or larger when viewing a
specimen under low power compared to high power ?
What is the equation for calculating total magnification of
an image under a microscope ?
What is the correct way to carry a microscope ?
* compound light microscope
Why should you lower a coverslip at an angle onto a slide
when preparing a wet mount ?
What are the advantages of using an electron microscope
? Disadvantages ?
* to prevent air bubbles
Part B: Facts About Prokaryotes ….Make
Name an organism that is an example of a
prokaryote.
Are prokaryotic cells smaller or larger in
size than human cells ?
What type of bacteria would increase the
amount of oxygen in the atmosphere ?
What is the scientific name for the
following bacteria shapes: (a) rod-shaped
(b) sphere-shaped
(c) spiral-shaped
Does a prokaryotic cell have a nucleus ???
What structure of the bacteria is used for
movement ?
What structure of the bacteria is used for
protection and maintaining shape ?
What structure of the bacteria is used to
regulate materials entering and leaving it ?
What is the function of DNA ?
What is the function of the ribosome ?
* the field of view is larger so you can
see more of the specimen
* fine adjustment knob
* larger
* eyepiece X objective
* by the arm and under the base
* very high resolution
* cannot view live specimens
sure to review the picture/diagram !!!!
* bacteria
* smaller
* photosynthetic bacteria
(a) bacillus
(b) coccus
(c) spirillum
* NO
* flagella
* cell wall
* cell membrane
* genetic information
* helps carry out instructions coded by
DNA
Part C: Water Structure and Properties …..
Bonds and Compounds
__A___
hydrogen bond
__C___
ionic bond
__B,D_
covalent bond (2)
__G___
ion
__E___
negative ion
__F___
positive ion
__H___
hydrogen bond
A. attraction between the positive end of a polar molecule and the negative part of another polar
molecule
B. formed as a result of sharing electrons between two atoms
C. formed when electrons are transferred between two atoms
D. the bonds holding the two hydrogen atoms to an oxygen atom in water
E. formed when an atom gains an electron
F. formed when an atom loses an electron
G. formed when an atom gains or loses an electron
H. the bond that holds one water molecule to another water molecule
Structure of Water Molecule …..
How many hydrogen atom(s) are found in a water molecule
* two
?
What is the charge of the hydrogen atom ?
* positive
How many oxygen atom(s) are found in a water molecule ?
* one
What is the charge of the oxygen atom ?
* negative
What type of bond holds one water molecule to another ?
* hydrogen bond
What molecule is most abundant in the cells of the human body ? water_
Most of water’s unique properties are made possible because water is polar and can form hydrogen
bonds_.
Matching…. Properties of water
_c_ cohesion
_f_ adhesion
_h_ surface tension
_a_ resistance to changes
in temperature
_d_ capillary action
_g_ expands as it freezes
_b_ high heat of vaporization
_e_ universal solvent
a. allows organisms to maintain a constant.
body temperature
b. allows sweating to cool the body
c. the attraction of molecules of the same type
d. causes water to travel from the roots to the
of a tree to the leaves
e. water dissolves many substances
f. the attraction between molecules of different
types
g. causes ice to float on water and breaks rocks into soil
h. molecules stick together due to cohesion allowing a
water strider to walk on the surface
pH
_b_
_g_
_a_
_f_
_d_
_c_
_e_
pH of 2
pH of 6
pH of 7
pH of 8
pH of 13
pH below 7
pH above 7
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
neutral
strong acid
acids
strong base
bases
weak base
weak acid
A solution with a higher concentration of H+ than pure water is a(n) acid_ .
A solution with a lower concentration of H+ than pure water is a(n) _base_ .
What will happen if you dilute an acid or base solution with pure water ?
_the pH value will move close to 7 but it will not go beyond a pH of 7_
When calculating how many times more hydrogen ions are in a solution with
different pH values, the difference is a factor of 10.
* Ex. pH of 3 is 10 times as strong as a pH of 4 (there is ONE step between 3 and 4,
So it is 10 times stronger).
* Ex. pH of 1 is 1000 times as strong as a pH of 4 (there are THREE steps between
1 and 4, so it is 10 x 10 x 10 [1000] times stronger).
Part D: Cell Membrane ….. also be able
What is the function of the cell
membrane ?
Why is the cell membrane considered
selectively permeable ?
Which part helps move large molecules
from one side of the membrane to the
other ?
Which part of the phospholipid molecule
is hydrophilic ?
Which part of the phospholipid molecule
is hydrophobic ?
What macromolecule is responsible for
the cell membrane’s insolubility in H2O?
to identify the parts from a diagram
* to regulate what enters and leaves the cell
* it allows some materials to pass through while
other substances cannot
* protein channels or pumps
* phosphate head
* fatty acid tails
* phospholipid
Part E: Diffusion, Osmosis, Solutions ….. review notes with diagrams too
Matching …….
_B_ 1. diffusion
_F_ 2. facilitated diffusion
_D_ 3. osmosis
_A_ 4. passive transport
_C_ 5. plasmolysis
_E_ 6. turgor pressure
_I_ 7. active transport
_G_ 8. concentration gradient
_H_ 9. endocytosis
A. no energy is required for substances to diffuse through a
membrane
B. movement of particles from an area of higher concentration to
an area of lower concentration
C. created when water diffuses out of a cell causing animal cells
to shrink
D. diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane
E. created when water diffuses into a cell keeping plants rigid and
causing animal cells to swell
F. materials pass through protein channels in the membrane
without the use of energy; move from area of high concentration to
area of low concentration
G. created whenever there is unequal concentration of substance
on either side of the cell membrane
H. active transport process that allows larger materials to enter
the cell through infolding of the cell membrane
I. movement of materials into the cell through proteins using
energy
Solution
Isotonic:
Concentration of solutes is the same inside and outside.
Hypertonic:
Solution has a greater solute concentration than the cell.
Hypotonic:
Solution has a lower solute concentration than the cell.
Effect on Cell
there is no change in the cell
water leaves the cell causing it to
shrink
water enters the cell causing it to
swell
How does the rate of facilitated diffusion compare to the rate of simple diffusion ?
Facilitated diffusion starts off at a fast rate and then slows down and levels out. Simple
diffusionhappens at a steady rate.
Protein Synthesis Unit
**** Know the difference between an organic molecule and an inorganic molecule.
**** Know the difference in cell structures between prokaryotes and eukaryotes.
DNA structure
What are the building blocks/monomers ?
What are the three components of the nucleotide?
What is the name of the sugar?
What are the complementary base pairings?
What bond holds the two DNA strands together between
the nitrogen bases?
* nucleotides
* phosphate
* sugar
* nitrogenous base
* nitrogen bases
* deoxyribose
* adenine (A) = thymine (T)
* cytosine (C) = guanine (G)
RNA structure…….
What are the three components of the nucleotide ?
* phosphate
* sugar
* nitrogenous base
* ribose
* single stranded
* adenine (A) = uracil (U)
* thymine (T) = adenine (A)
* cytosine (C) = guanine (G)
* guanine (G) = cytosine (C)
* nucleotide
What is the name of the sugar ?
How many strand(s) is the molecule ?
What RNA bases would complement these DNA bases ?
What are the building blocks/monomers ?
Process of DNA Replication……..
Where does it occur in the cell ?
* nucleus
Where on the DNA molecule does the “unzipping”
* attake
the hydrogen
place ?
bonds between the
nitrogen bases
How many DNA molecules
are made from the process ?
* two identical
RNA Transcription……..
What is produced from the process?
Where in the cell does the process take place ?
What determines the sequence of nucleotides in a mRNA
molecule?
What is the job of the mRNA ?
What is the name of the enzyme involved in transcription ?
RNA Translation………….
Where in the cell does the process occur ?
What is the job of tRNA (transfer) ?
What makes up the genetic code (codon) for
one amino acid?
Where does the anticodon attach ?
* RNA molecule
* nucleus
* base sequence of DNA
molecule
* carries copies of instruction
for assembling amino acids
* RNA polymerase
* on the ribosomes
* transfers each amino acid to mRNA
* three (3) nucleotide bases
* to the complimentary nucleotide
bases on the mRNA
What is produced from the process?
* proteins
What are the building blocks/monomer of protein ?
* amino acids
How many different kinds are there ?
* twenty (20)
What is the job/function of the Golgi apparatus ?
* modifies and packages for secretion
of proteins
Genes contain instructions for assembling _ proteins_.
Cell Theory
What is “spontaneous generation”?
 The idea that living things can come from non-living things (for example, flies come from
rotting meat).
How was spontaneous generation disproved?
Francisco Redi’s experiment (flies come
from fly eggs not rotting meat)
What



Louis Pasteur’s experiment (bacteria come from
other bacteria in the air, not from broth)
are the three parts of the cell theory?
All living things are composed of cells.
Cells are the smallest unit of life.
All cells come from pre-existing cells.
Organelles……. match the organelle to the correct function.
A
Mitochondria
C
Cell Wall
E
Chloroplast
B
Golgi Bodies
D
Nucleus
F
Lysosome
G
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
H
Vacuole
I
Ribosome
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
H.
I.
Converts energy stored in food into compounds easier for use by cells; “powerhouse”
Sorts and packages proteins for export from the cell
Provides protection and support; found in plants but not in animals
Contains DNA; control center of the cell --- controls cell functions
Converts energy from the sun into chemical energy; carries out photosynthesis; found in
plants only
Breaks down food and cellular waste products; clean up crew
System of canals that helps transport molecules in cytoplasm and is covered in ribosomes
and has a rough appearance. Proteins to be exported from the cell are made here.
Stores water, waste, and food for the cell
Site of protein synthesis; uses coded instructions that come from the nucleus
* What 2 organelles are present in plant cells that are NOT found in animal cells ?
chloroplast and cell wall_
* One factor that allows DNA to fit inside the nucleus of a cell is its ability to
( uncoil loosely or coil tightly_) around associated proteins.
Macromolecules…….(carbohydrates, lipids, protein, nucleic acid)
* Both lipids and carbohydrates are important in cells because they store energy_.
* _Lipids are molecules which provide insulation, cushioning, and water-proof coverings.
Prokaryotic Cells vs. Eukaryotic Cells …….
1- _Prokaryotic cells_ do not have a nucleus.
2- Prokaryotic cells do not have membrane-bound organelles.
3- Both prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells contain DNA (genetic material).
4- _Eukaryotic cells_ have a nucleus and membrane bound organelles.
5- Eukaryotic cells have a more advanced cellular organization.
** What cellular structure allows a euglena to move ? flagella_
** What cellular structure allows a paramecium to move ? cilia_
Purpose
Organelle
Reactants
(raw materials,
what’s needed)
Products
(outcome, yielded)
Photosynthesis
Process by which plants convert
light energy into chemical
(food/glucose) energy.
Cellular Respiration
Process by which the energy stored in glucose is
converted into a form more easily used by the
cell (ATP).
Chloroplast
 sunlight
 carbon dioxide
 water
 glucose
 oxygen
Mitochondria
 oxygen
 glucose
Relationshhip of One
Process to the Other



ATP (energy)
carbon dioxide
water
the products of one are the reactants of the other
Enzymes…..
1- In biological systems, enzymes (_slow down , speed up_) most cellular reactions.
2- What part of the enzyme is involved in the catalytic activity ? _active site_
3- _True or False_ Enzymes only work with specific substrates because each enzyme
has a specific active site for substrate attachment.
Viruses…….
1- What is the only way viruses can reproduce ? they must infect living cells_
2- Are viruses “alive” ? _NO_
3- _True or False_ Viruses contain a nucleic acid (either DNA or RNA). True.
Why do cells divide?


When cells become too large, there is not enough membrane to transport in all of the
food the cells need, or to transport out all of the waste. So, when they grow too large,
they can fix the problem by dividing into two smaller cells.
Cell division is how organisms grow, and how they replace dead or damaged tissue.
Mitosis – What is the purpose?
 The process in which one cell divides to form two genetically identical cells.
 This type of cell division is used for asexual reproduction.
 It is also used for growth of the body, and to replace worn-out cells.
What are the stages of the cell cycle?
Stage
Interphase
Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
Cytokinesis
Events
Chromosomes replicate in preparation for cell
division.
Nuclear membrane breaks down; chromosomes
become visible
Chromosomes move to the middle of the cell.
Spindle fibers pull the two sister chromatids
away from each other, to opposite ends of the
cell.
Two new nuclei are formed.
The cytoplasm divides
Genetics Unit
Vocabulary……..
allele
heterozygous
homozygous
genotype
phenotype
locus
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
various forms of a gene (Ex. T or t)
2 different alleles (letters are different)
one capital letter and one lowercase letter (Ex. Tt, Bb, Aa)
2 identical alleles (letters are the same)
dominant = both capital (TT) and recessive = both lower case (tt)
gene combination or genetic makeup …… uses letters
physical appearance/characteristics of the offspring
uses descriptive words (tall, yellow, color blind)
location of an allele on a chromosome
Mendel’s studies………………
What did he conclude about
traits
from his genetic experiments ?
Do his principles apply to plants
only or to all organisms ?
What did he breed in his
experiments ?
* they are inherited through the passing of factors from parent
to
offspring
* ALL
* pea plants
Types of Genetic Problems…………study Punnett square examples from class notes
Incomplete dominance
* one allele for a gene is NOT completely dominant over another allele
for that gene
* “blending” of both parents’ traits
* ex.: purebred red flower is crossed with purebred white flower =
pink flowers
Codominance
* traits of both parents are “equally” expressed (phenotype)
* ex.: white feather chicken is crossed with black feather chicken =
speckled feather chicken
Sex-linked genes
* traits are controlled by genes located on an X chromosome
(sex chromosome)
* sex chromosomes: XX - female and XY – male
* ex. colorblind female XcXc and normal male XCY
(remember that cross will show possible traits for 2 girls and 2
boys)
Multiple alleles
* sometimes a gene can have more than 2 allelles
* ex. blood types (see class notes for genotype and phenotype
matches)
* ex. IAIA is homozygous and IAi is heterozygous
* ex. IAIA and IAi are different genotypes but same phenotype (Type
A)
Karyotype
What does it show ?
How are chromosomes arranged ?
What can be observed ?
What are chromosomes pairs 1-22
called ?
Which chromosomes determine
gender?
How many chromosomes are shown
in a normal human ?
Down syndrome is caused by
having 3 copies of what
chromosome?
How are 2 members of a
homologous pair of chromosomes
alike/similar ?
What determines the sex of the
offspring ?
* homologous chromosomes, autosomes, sex chromosomes
* in order from largest to smallest, sex chromosomes at end
* abnormal number of chromosomes
* autosomes
* sex chromosomes(XX – female and XY – male)
* 46 (23 pairs)
* chromosome 21 ( you will see 3 copies instead of 2 –trisomy)
* they are similar in size, appearance, and kinds of genes
* male (sperm cell ) usually determines the sex of the
offspring
Pedigrees
What is it ?
What can be observed ?
What does a darkened/shaded
shape indicate ?
What shape represents a female ?
What shape represents a male ?
* a graphic representation of a individual’s family tree
* how a trait is passed from one generation to the next
* the individual has/shows a particular trait or disorder
* circle
* square
Meiosis
What is the purpose?
 Meiosis is a cell division process that is used to form sex cells (gametes: eggs and sperm).
 During meiosis, there are two cell divisions, and four cells are produced. The four cells that
are produced become eggs or sperm, and they have only HALF the chromosome number.
 Meiosis ensures genetic continuity by cutting the chromosome number in gametes in half.
Therefore, when the egg and sperm fuse, the new embryo will have the same number of
chromosomes as the parent.
 Meiosis ensures genetic diversity by creating gametes that are not identical to one another.
This occurs through:
o crossing over
o independent assortment of non-homologous chromosomes
DNA technology……………
What is genetic modification
(engineering) ?
What are transgenic organisms ?
What has been an advantage of
producing transgenic plants ?
What has been an advantage of
producing transgenic animals ?
What is made from using the DNA
technology tool, polymerase chain
reaction (PCR) ?
What is one function of gel
electrophoresis ?
How is bacteria modified to
produce proteins such as insulin ?
What will the Human Genome
Project impact the most ?
Why is it possible to identify
someone by using their DNA ?
* the process of making changes in the DNA code of a living
organism
* organisms that contain genes from other organisms
* the plants can grow bigger, better, and more nutritional crops
* larger chicken/cows and more milk production
* many copies of a DNA sample
* to cut up and then separate DNA fragments by size
* by inserting a gene for protein into bacteria cells ……..the
bacteria multiply and produce human insulin
* curing genetic disease in humans
* every human has a different sequence of DNA nucleotides