Download The History of Giving Birth in Duluth, MN

Birthing Progress:
The History of Giving Birth in Duluth, MN
Project completed 9/2013 for Birthing Ways - Doula Connection
Compiled and written by Gina Temple-Rhodes, Cedar Story Services and Heidi Bakk-Hansen
Images, clockwise from top left: Sister Ernestine, Supervisor of the St. Mary’s Maternity Department,
signing a birth certificate, 1954. 1915 Polk Directory Ad. 1962 Cover of St. Luke’s Annual Report. 1915
Polk Directory ad.
Financed in part with funds provided by the State of Minnesota from the Arts and Cultural
Heritage Fund through the Minnesota Historical Society. Grant number 1208-12549.
Table of Contents/Documents Produced
1. Summary Article: The History of Giving Birth in Duluth
pg. 4-10
2. Annotated Bibliography of Local Resources
pg. 11-21
3. Interpretive Product Potential and Visual Resource Listing
pg. 22-24
4. Excerpts of 2011 Duluth Birth Oral History Project
pg. 25-32
5. Digital Birth History Archive Summaries
pg. 33-51
The Digital Archives, located at the NE Minnesota History Center at the UMD Library and
possibly with other organizations related to birth in Duluth, consists of approximately 150
clippings and scans from local newspapers (mostly the 1880s-1922, with some 1940s-1960s),
hospital annual reports and other resources, saved as PDF files or images in the following
categories, with associated summaries.
-Advertisements for Midwives and Hospitals
-Articles against Midwives
-Cultural Conditions- Birth (includes historic birth announcements)
-Doctors, Nurses, Hospitals (includes files on prominent doctors and St. Mary’s and St. Luke’s,
and childbed fever death reports)
-Infant Welfare Efforts, Registration Efforts
-Maternity Hospital Movement
-Midwives, Private Hospitals (includes directly listings of midwives 1888-1948 and information
about their homes and locations)
-Restrictions, Laws, Rules
-Tragedies, Anti-Immigrant Discrimination
This Digital Archives is stored with the audio and video files of the 2011 Duluth Birth Oral history files
and a Powerpoint presentation summarizing the project. Files can be printed for future scrapbooks, etc
as desired.
6. Acknowledgements
pg. 52
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Introduction
In all communities around the world, babies are born. One often hears about the “birth of a city” or
nation, but one rarely hears stories about the actual births of the leaders and residents of those locales.
Everyone was born somewhere, but this part of local history has rarely been well documented. In
Duluth, early residents were born in homes all over the city, in small maternity hospitals or later in larger
hospitals. They were attended to by midwives and doctors, some now completely forgotten and others
featured on plaques on the walls of local hospitals.
Does it matter where and how these people came into the world? Examining historic birth culture helps
us understand the true birth of a community, and reflects and illustrates some of the important trends
of history and larger world events. Duluth was a city of immigrants, one isolated in the relative
wilderness of Northern Minnesota. Babies were born from day one, but the way they were born
changed significantly. The attendants to the births changed, and the locations changed. Some of these
attendants were later jailed and others rose to prominence as local business leaders. Birth moved from
the realm of homes and women to the scientific and sometimes secret world of hospitals and male
doctors. It is a process that is now returning to traditions, with some women preferring less technical
methods of birth in 2013, turning to homes and small birthing centers to have their babies with
midwives again.
Changes in how babies were born were happening all over the United States throughout the early part
of the 1900s, and Duluth’s culture eventually reflected those changes. This is a summary of a research
effort undertaken in the summer of 2013 by Gina Temple-Rhodes and Heidi Bakk-Hansen, contractors to
Duluth’s Birthing Ways - Doula Connection, to gather information related to this change in Duluth, to
illustrate stories gathered during a 2011 “Duluth Birth Oral History Project,” and to explore the history
further back than oral history interviews can provide. It was also an effort to gather as much information
as possible about midwives of the past and any remaining structures or examples of more modest
“maternity homes” which had largely faded away, undocumented, by the 1940’s.
Resources and the local built environment were also approached with an eye toward a possible future
interpretive project such as a video or book. Information was gathered from newspaper archives, census
data, local hospital annual reports, Health Department records, and local building office records. Visual
and other resources for possible short video reenactments, etc were explored and noted. There are
some good local resources that offered collaboration for the Oral History project, and the discovery of
some photos, etc from long-time midwives’ families. One hospital, Webber Hospital, still exists in much
its original form and includes some rooms described in the original articles about the opening in 1927.
There seem to be good opportunities for a future video or other follow-up project.
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The History of Giving Birth in Duluth from the 1800’s to 1970
By Gina Temple-Rhodes with contributions by Heidi Bakk-Hansen
Written for Duluth’s Birthing Ways Doula Connection, 2013
Funding provided by the state of Minnesota from the Arts and Cultural Heritage Fund through the
Minnesota Historical Society Legacy Grant program. Follow-up to the 2011 Duluth Birth Oral History
Project.
People have been born in the Duluth area since the arrival of Native people, but no written
records exist before the 1800’s. The first documented “white child” born within Duluth was said
to be Eustache Roussain, born to a Native American woman and her American Fur Trade
Company agent husband in 1839. Eustache lived to be 73 and was a resident of Fond du Lac all
his life. (Van Brunt, 1922) No mention is made about the method or attendants at his birth, but
one might speculate that his healthy life may have started via a delivery assisted by native birth
culture or attendants related to his mother.
Another story relates to the first birth and death at the “Head of the Lakes” area (Superior, WI)
in 1854. Mrs. Rogers, age 17, one of the first female settlers who arrived with her husband and
brother, died in the spring after giving birth to a baby. “There was no possibility of medical
attendance … not even a woman whose hand might smooth her pillow, and mother and child
died the same day. The funeral occurred on the 15th, Mr. Zachau bearing both bodies on a dog
sled to the cemetery on Wisconsin Point.” (Van Brunt, 1922)
Midwives and Maternity Homes
Babies were born more successfully after that as settlement grew, attended to by female
friends or family and eventually midwives and doctors. The first mention of a midwife in the
written records is “Old Mrs. Hanson, the midwife” in the 1877 Minnesotian. The first midwife
appears in the business portion of the Polk City Directories for Duluth in 1888, with a consistent
listing of about 6-8 midwives every year, peaking in about 1915. Larger ads containing a photo
or a few details were sometimes purchased. The midwife listings fade to just one or two listings
each year after 1920. The last listing in that format appeared 1948. (Polk, 1888-1948)
Midwives undoubtedly delivered babies at the mother’s homes, but some also operated small
private maternity hospitals in their homes. In the early part of the 20th century, most of them
were located in West Duluth or the near West End. These private hospitals served as a way for
birthing mothers to get away from their homes for their “confinement,” in a place where they
would be taken care of with less disruption to the household routine. There is some indication
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that these places of refuge were used even outside the parameters of birth—cases arise in
which battered or abandoned women would take shelter within their walls.
Mrs. Haldora Olson, described in a 1907 Duluth News Tribune article as “the oldest and most
popular midwife at the head of the lakes” operated a private hospital at 329 North 58 th Ave W.
There is a glowing account of her facility and “largest obstetrical profession” in that article,
including her “most enviable professional record of 1110 births in 14 years” a record “of which
any midwife or physician might well be proud and one which shows her extreme popularity
among the women.” She had even filed a patent in 1900 for an “obstetrical appliance”
consisting of ribbons to put around a baby’s head to help pull it out during birth. The 1907
article concludes with “Mrs. Olson’s success in her chosen profession is remarkable… she looks
forward to a brighter and more successful future.”
However, things would soon change for midwives and the women giving birth all around in the
country and in Duluth. Around the US, there was a significant struggle in the early 1900s over
regulation, licensing and the rights of midwives to operate. Midwives as a whole were often the
targets of smear campaigns and government efforts at control. The first attempts to license
midwives in Minnesota came in 1891, when 254 midwives were licensed state-wide after
legislation sponsored by Dr. Mayo of Rochester. This was part of an attempt to formalize
licensure for all medical professionals, including doctors, which was very loose and rarely
enforced in the early part of the 1900s. The medical profession became increasingly critical of
traditional midwifery. In 1913, Charles Ziegler published an article called “The Elimination of the
Midwife” in Journal of the American Medical Association. He declared at a talk in Pittsburgh in
1915 (mentioned in the Duluth News Tribune) that “the midwife ought to be entirely
eliminated and her work placed in the hands of physicians and nurses. He said the fault lay with
the public.” (DNT 9/17/2015)
Nation-wide efforts toward birth registration (for establishing community school, employment
and draft records, etc) were also used against midwives in the 1910’s. There was a noted
controversy in Duluth in 1914 about the percentage of unregistered births, and it was clear that
midwives were not considered to be “part of the medical profession” by that time (DNT article,
2/13/1914). It is implied that midwives were not as good at filing these required registrations.
In June of 1917, respected midwife Haldora Olson was arrested (and later released on bail) for
filing a birth registration 11 days late (DNT article, 6/29/1917). She was arrested through a
warrant from the Secretary of the City Health Department, who was charged by Washington to
make sure records were filed on time. It seems like harsh treatment for the formerly “most
popular midwife” in the area. It is not known how much Mrs. Olson practiced after that, and
she passed away in 1921.
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Another early 1900’s focus on the “misuse of mails” (often targeting women sending birth
control or abortion information through the mail) came to affect a Duluth midwife. In 1912,
midwife Magda Hansen was arrested as part of a nation-wide sting, for sending a letter giving
“unlawful advice.” (DNT article, 11/21/1912) She was pleaded guilty, but was “let off with a fine
of $250” because she had “borne a good reputation in Duluth for 22 years” and was
“commended for clemency by local physicians“(DNT article, 7/16/1913). However, Mrs. Hansen
was arrested again in 1920 on charges “having performed a criminal operation that resulted in
the death” of a woman from Cohassett, MN (possibly an abortion; but the woman did not die
here, she consulted other doctors and accused Mrs. Hansen before her death). Hansen denied
the charges, but was sentenced to “an indeterminate sentence, not to exceed 20 years” at the
women’s reformatory in Shakopee in 1922 (DNT article, 11/14/1922). That event, along with
Mrs. Olson’s death in 1921, marked the end of an era of birthing at home or with midwives in
Duluth. A few midwives remained listed in the City Directories until the final listing for a single,
long-time midwife, Hilda Eckstrom, appeared in 1948.
The Rise of Hospital Births
The records show that after about 1918, the number of births occurring at home with “other
person in attendance” was dropping significantly. Births often happened in homes in the 1910s
and 20s, but they were more often attended to by a doctor than a midwife. A 1938 Census
document shows intriguing details for the years between 1918 and 1937. In 1918, the earliest
year such numbers seem to be available, 26.1 percent of births (633) occurred in a hospital.
60.9 percent were at home with a physician, and 13 percent were at home with “other person
in attendance” (one can assume midwives). By 1937, 91.6 of births were at the hospital with a
physician, 8.2 were at home with a physician, and 0.2 (a total of 4 births) were at home with
“other person in attendance” (WPA, 1938).
The phenomenon of women going to hospitals to give birth evolved slowly between about 1900
and the 1920’s, both in the United States and in Duluth, but then the overall birth culture
seems to have changed rapidly. According to one source, when St. Luke’s opened in 1881, the
majority of patients were male, as “it was not considered respectable for women to go to a
hospital for treatment. In its first nineteen years of existence (until 1900), there were probably
fewer than 50 births at St. Luke’s” (Huch, 1983). A “Report of St. Mary’s Hospital” for 1904
notes that there were 96 “normal obstetrical cases” in 1904 and the beginning of 1905. One
hazard of early maternity hospitals nation-wide were the periodic outbreaks of childbed fever,
a feared and poorly understood infection that could strike a mother anywhere but seemed to
spread quickly in hospitals. By the mid 1910’s, it was better understood that it was an infection
that could be passed from an attendant’s dirty hands or unclean conditions, and early forms of
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antibiotics could often save mothers. However, this fear of infection led women to hospitals
and families accepted severe, sterile conditions for babies and birthing for decades to come.
An article from 1910 about St. Luke’s Hospital explains that mothers in their hospital would be
kept separate from the general population. “It may not be generally known that the hospital
conducts a separate maternity house where women may go to be confined at a small expense
compared with what they would have to pay out at home.” It goes on to explain, “It has never
paid its way but it is such a benefit to the general public and women in the larger cities are so
much going to maternity hospitals, that it has been felt that this separate work should be
maintained, until the public comes to appreciate it and patronize it.” (DNT, 7/18/1910)
The public did certainly begin to patronize these services in Duluth. By 1920, St. Mary’s was
reporting in an Annual Report on the Obstetrics Department that “Due to overcrowded
conditions it has been necessary to refuse many patients during the past year. One entire floor
in the new addition…will be given over entirely to this department.” 538 babies were born
there that year. An article about St. Luke’s had a full paragraph about the overcrowding the
maternity ward, where “eight patients occupy a room meant to hold just five” and “one
emergency maternity case had to spend the night on a stretcher placed in the corridor.” (DNT,
3/27/1921) 343 babies were delivered there in 1922.
By the mid 1920’s, both St. Mary’s Hospital and St. Luke’s had added more space for maternity
cases. This seems to have been driven somewhat by demand, but by the late 1920’s the
hospitals were actively encouraging maternity patients. In a 1929 “Hospital News” publication
by St. Mary’s hospital, there is a whole page given over to describing the “hospital baby” and
the benefits of a hospital birth. An article elsewhere in the publication proudly stated that 610
babies were born there in the last year, and also explained, “Not many years ago it was rather
uncommon for a mother to go to a hospital for maternity service, but today thousands of
babies are born in hospitals and among educated and progressive people hospital maternity
service is the usual thing and it is uncommon for such service to be rendered in the homes of
these people.” In 1927 the Webber Hospital opened in West Duluth, and an article stated that
“within 24 hours, 3 babies were born there. “ (DPL Clipping file, unknown, 3/16/1927)
Annual reports from the hospitals offer some fascinating glimpses into the process of birth in
the hospitals during that era. In 1922, St. Luke’s reported that they had had only one case of
“Puerperal Sepsis (delivered at home). There were no maternal deaths there that year. From
1926-1934, St. Mary’s Hospital offered an impressive one-page “Analysis of Hospital Service”
which lists the method of delivery. In 1926, there were 436 normal births, 191 instrument
births, 24 versions, 14 breech and 5 Caesarian Sections. From 1929 to 1933, there are detailed
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narrative reports from each department, listing highlights or concerns of the year. The 1929
report discusses the recurring cases of impetigo in the nursery. In 1933, Dr. WA Coventry, Chief
of Obstetrical Department, said there was a decreased birth rate of 21% in 1933 over 1931.
“One may readily see that the decrease in hospitalization of obstetrical cases has been
markedly affected by the depression.” (St. Mary’s Hospital, 1933, etc)
Indeed, total hospital births in Duluth peaked in 1930 with 1,506 births, and went down to
1,385 births in 1931. Homebirths show a similar pattern, however. 1930 saw 388 births at home
with a physician and 33 with “other attendant.” 1931 saw 349 births at home with a doctor,
and 20 births with “other attendant” in the city. Birth rates seem to rebound after about 1936
for hospital births, but there were only three home births with “other attendant” for that year.
(WPA, 1938)
Labor and Birth
What was it like to give birth in the hospitals in those years? The “versions” mentioned in the
1920’s statistics are variations of the “Potter Version,” where a woman is anesthetized and the
baby is turned inside the womb to come out feet first, as a way to try to prevent the tearing
that tended to occur with “instrument births.” Dr. W.A Coventry, prominent local obstetrician
and later Head of the St. Mary’s Obstetrics Department, wrote an article for the June 1922
Minnesota Medicine Journal advocating for this method, because he felt that “the delivery of
the normal obstetrical patient is becoming more and more a pathological process instead of a
perfectly normal, physiological one.” He felt that the “version” might help alleviate the
suffering of women, a consequence of their increasingly frail state. It is interesting to note that
other another Duluth doctor dismisses the process as a “fad” in the discussion section and
points out that it is only considered painless because the woman is anesthetized (Coventry,
1922). The 1935 St. Mary’s report mentions that “Now all obstetrical patients are given
ethylene anesthesia during delivery.”
1940’s and 50’s Baby Boom
By the 1940’s, the baby boom was in full force in Duluth. St. Luke’s Hospital issued a fundraising
report that listed the number of births in 1937 (780) compared to 1946 (1599). They were
forced to build a Quonset hut on the sidewalk in front of the hospital to take overflow cases
(but not necessarily maternity cases). A 1954 article from the Catholic Diocese Register
described the busy atmosphere of the St. Mary’s Maternity ward, with Sister Ernestine
supervising. “When you study the history of obstetrics, she said, you realize how privileged are
the mothers of today. It used to be that women in labor were attended only by women
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relatives or friends, and many times these were very ignorant.” (Noemi, 1954). The article
mentions the beginning of an education tour for prospective parents and baby care classes
about feeding and bathing that would be offered, and how the average stay after a birth was
only 4 or 5 days instead of the previous 10-day stay of earlier decades.
A few other newspaper articles of this era proudly show plastic bassinettes in individual
compartments in the nursery, or shining new delivery equipment. There was definitely an
emphasis on cleanliness and sterile practices, right down to the husband not being able to hold
the baby, but rather attending “showing” times for the babies through the nursery window
twice a day. Husbands were also requested to avoid scheduled feeding times. (St. Luke’s
Hospital Rules, 1957).
A 1962 Annual Report from St. Luke’s Hospital offers a surprising look into the work of birthing
in the early 60’s. The cover features a color photo of a birth and the phrase “Life’s first
momentous breath begins here…” The photo shows the mother’s draped legs and the masked
doctor holding the baby upside down between them. The inside of the report shows photos of
a nurse preparing formula, an expectant father waiting patiently and being served coffee, and a
doctor treating a baby in an “isolette.”
Changes Again
Women interviewed who gave birth in Duluth in this era (Temple-Rhodes, 2011) mention not
knowing what to expect when they got to the hospital to deliver a baby; the process was
apparently not often discussed with doctors or even friends. One remembered being told to
hold her legs together to prevent birth until the doctor arrived. Many remembered being
awake during much of the birth, but being given “gas” just before delivery. More than one
expressed frustration with the enforced 10-day stay with the baby far away in the nursery, and
the fact that their bodies did not seem to make enough milk for their babies.
This was just about the time that women across the country were starting to question the
practices that had resulted from the earlier fears of germs and the enthusiasm for “modern
science.” In May 1958 the Ladies Home Journal printed an exposé “Journal Mothers Report on
Cruelty in Maternity Wards” with pages of letters written in by readers, including some from
Minnesota. The editors emphasized that “Until a generation ago, a normal childbirth was a
natural, essentially happy event, attended by a husband and a kindly neighbor or two. Even in
hospitals, friends might cheer the mother in the labor room; her husband or some other person
close to her, could stay with her until the baby was born. Now, childbirth has been turned into a
medical mystery, conducted in secret.” (Shultz, 1958). Women wrote in with horror stories
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about being left alone for hours in the delivery room, being strapped down with metal clamps
so they couldn’t breathe, having their legs forced together to prevent birth until the doctor
could arrive, and having their husbands excluded from the delivery room. The magazine called
for investigations and changes; it was a groundbreaking article in a national publication. It is not
known what effect it had on Duluth’s birthing culture, but there is still a copy of that issue of
the Ladies Home Journal in the Duluth Public Library collection.
Conclusion
The evolution of birth in Duluth continued along similar paths to that of many communities
around the country. In the beginning, women had babies (and sometimes died) alone or with
husbands, but were later assisted by midwives or doctors in their own homes or in the homes
and small maternity hospitals owned by midwives. Starting in the 1910’s, women began giving
birth more readily in Duluth’s hospitals until nearly all births were conducted in hospitals. By
1970, there were just four licensed midwives in the state of Minnesota, with Hilda Eckstrom of
Duluth as one of those four (MN Families for Midwifery, 2013). She was born in 1886 in
Sweden, had 11 children (10 of whom survived to adulthood) and passed away in 1970; it is not
yet known how actively she was assisting mothers in giving birth in the years before her death.
By the 1980s, renewed interest in giving birth at home found its way to Duluth, and some
women gave birth at home with the help of a midwife from Shell Lake, Wisconsin. At least one
other midwife offered homebirth options until 2000. In 2003, Katie Sandell became the first
Certified Nurse Midwife in Duluth, encouraged by a local mother to begin offering a home birth
option. She is still practicing today. (personal conversations, 2013). In the early 2000’s, Certified
Nurse Midwives from Fond du Lac Tribal Human Services gained the first hospital delivery
privileges in Duluth, serving Native patients only in local Hospitals. More details on “modern”
midwives could likely be found and would offer a fascinating glimpse of the resurgence of
midwifery and more natural birthing in Duluth.
In 2013, Duluth’s “first and only freestanding birth center,” Morning Star Women’s Health and
Birth Center will soon open to provide women with a non-hospital setting where they may have
their babies with the help of a midwife. It may be a first for the modern era, but it is really
returning to a long tradition in the spirit of Mrs. Haldora Olson’s Private Hospital “for women
expecting to be confined.” In 1907 that location offered “all the comforts and pleasures of a
home” and enjoyed “marvelous success and popularity.” Remembering the evolution of birth in
Duluth is essential to both avoid harmful practices and renew traditions that were helpful while
we welcome the next generation of babies.
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Annotated Bibliography of relevant documents to Birthing in Duluth
Compiled by Gina Temple-Rhodes, 9/2013.
Annual Reports
St. Luke’s Hospital. (1922-present day). Annual Reports. Accessed at St. Luke’s Hospital Library, Doreen
Roberts, Librarian.
These reports offer a fascinating glimpse into the world of the hospital and some vital statistics.
Formats and information contained varies quite a bit by year. In the 1922 report, for instance, it
lists diagnosis for each hospital patient that year, as well as cause of death. That year, there 343
babies delivered, and only one case of “Puerpural Sepsis (delivered at home). A 1947 fundraising publication shows a mother and baby in a bed, with the statistic that in 1937 there were
only 780 births, and in 1947 there were 1599.
In the 1950’s and 60’s the reports were often full-color and always listed number of births. The
1962 report features a color photo of a birth on the cover and the phrase “Life’s first
momentous breath begins here…” The photo shows the mother’s draped legs and the doctor
holding the baby upside down. The inside of the report shows photos of a nurse preparing
formula, an expectant father waiting patiently and being served coffee, and a doctor treating a
baby in an “isolette.” This is the report year that shows the most detail of giving birth in that era,
but a few other reports show a photo of a mother being handed a baby by a nurse, etc.
St. Mary’s Hospital. (1904, 1920, 1930’s, 1960’s). Annual Reports. Accessed at Duluth Public Library.
1904 is the earliest report found, and only at the Duluth Public Library. It includes a few photos
of the inside of the hospital such as wards and the operating room, and a listing of all patients
and their diagnosis. There were “96 normal obstetrical cases” that year.
The 1920 report also includes detailed information about “pregnancy and associated conditions”
and listed 538 labors, 518 newborns, 12 stillborns, 21 newborn deaths and no maternal deaths.
In also includes a photo of the nursery, wire baskets hanging on a metal frame for each baby in a
row. “The Obstetrical Department is a complete unit by itself and aims in every way to meet the
requirements of modern mid-wifery. Due to overcrowded conditions it has been necessary to
refuse many patients during the past year.”
St. Mary’s Hospital (1920, 1926-1960) Annual Reports. Accessed at the St. Scholastica Monastery
Archives.
This collection begins in 1920, but skips to 1926, when the “Statistical and Departmental
Reports” began. From 1926-1934, there is a wonderful one-page “Analysis of Hospital Service”
which lists the method of delivery. In 1926, there were 436 normal births, 191 instrument births,
24 versions, 14 breech and 5 Caesarian Sections. From 1929 to 1933, there are detailed
narrative reports from each department, listing highlights or concerns of the year. The 1929
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report discusses the recurring cases of impetigo in the nursery. In 1933, Dr. WA Coventry, Chief
of Obstetrical Department, said there was a decreased birth rate of 21% in 1933 over 1931.
“One may readily see that the decrease in hospitalization of obstetrical cases has been markedly
affected by the depression.” St. Scholastica Monastery Archives are the only known location for
these late 20’s era of annual reports; there is apparently nothing still held at the old St. Mary’s
Hospital, now Essentia Health.
The 1934-39 or so annual reports switch to a different style, this time including hand drawings
or babies or cutesy walk-through descriptions of the hospital, and even bad poetry “In Hospitals
Poems are born.” Includes hand-drawn charts and graphs showing birth rates, etc. “Now all
obstetrical patients are given ethylene anesthesia during delivery.” -1935. This era of reports is
available both at the Duluth Public Library and NEMHC as well.
Annual Report of the Health Department, Duluth, Minn. (1926, 1936.) Accessed at NEMHC.
These reports of the now –defunct Duluth City Health Department, include a variety of topics,
but there is a page of similar format for 1926 and for 1936 listing births “In the Hospital” and
“Not in Hospital” for each month of the year. In 1926, 2497 babies were born, 1007 at home and
1490 in the hospital. By 1936, the total births were 1777, with 1602 born in the hospital and 175
born “Not in Hospital”.
Other Reports
Walsh, William, MD. (1930). Report of a Survey of the Hospital Situation in Duluth, MN. Accessed in
Duluth Collection at the Duluth Public Library 9/2013.
This report does not speak much about birthing, but does list birth rates and infant mortality in
the 1920’s and 30’s and states that “it compares favorably with other cities of the same
population class.”
WPA and Stone, Sarah (1938). An Analysis of Vital Statistics in Duluth, Minnesota for the period 19001937. City of Duluth: City Health Department and Works Progress Administration. Accessed at NEMHC.
Contains amazing table on page 98 “Number and Proportion of Various Attendants at
Confinements; Duluth, Minnesota, 1918-1937.” This shows the number of births at the hospital
with a physician versus the number of births at home with a physician attending and with
“Other Person in Attendance”. In 1918, 26.1 percent of births were in the hospital. 60.9 percent
were at home with a physician, and 13 percent were at home with “other person in attendance”
(one can assume midwives?). By 1937, 91.6 percent of births were at the hospital with a
physician, 8.2 percent were at home with a physician, and 0.2 percent (a total of 4 births) were
at home with “other person in attendance.”
Polk City Directories, Duluth. (1888-1948). Listings for Hospitals and Midwives. Accessed online and also
available at NEMHC. See analysis and listing excerpts in digital archive at NEMHC.
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Books on Birth, accessed in Duluth, 2013
Beck, Bill. (1988). We Remember the Dream, St. Mary’s Medical Center 1888-1988. Duluth, St. Mary’s
Hospital. Available at Duluth Public Library, NEMHC and St. Scholastica Monastery Archives (annotated
copy).
This is a well-done book with many historic images gleaned from St. Mary’s history. Includes
mention of births in certain years and an article from the 1954 Dioceses Publication “The
Register” about “St. Mary’s Hospital Baby Boom Keeps Maternity Department Busy” with quotes
from supervisor Sister Ernestine about midwives and earlier days of obstetrics. “Midwives were
not a scholarly class.”
Block, Jennifer. (2007) Pushed: The painful trust about childbirth and modern maternity care. Cambridge,
Ma: Da Capo Press.
Mostly modern exploration of the current rates of C-sections and why this might be happening.
Consequences, causes, the efforts of woman to “go underground” to have VBACs, etc. Extensive
bibliography of medical journals, etc in the back. No images. Available at the Duluth Public
Library as of 8/2013.
Davis-Floyd, Robbie E. (1992). Birth as an American Rite of Passage. Berkeley; University of California
Press.
Exploration of the rituals and cultural beliefs surrounding childbirth in the mid-21st century.
Includes quotes from many interviews with mothers about their birth experiences. Also explores
the training process of obstetricians and how that extends and influences the current “birth
culture” in the United States. Includes a chapter of “Birth Messages,” a symbolic analysis of
standard obstetrical procedures and their “ritual purposes” from shaving to the hospital gown
to the bassinet. For example, “The routine separation of mothers and babies at birth, and the
placement of the baby in a bassinet in another room, mirror and perhaps work to reinforce the
patterns of separation that characterize both our society and our social treatment of children.
Includes long, non-annotated reference list in the back, as well as questions asked of women
and doctors in interviews. No images. Collection of the researcher.
De Lee, Sol T, M.D. (1949,1969). Safeguarding Motherhood, Sixth Edition. Philadelphia and Toronto; J.B.
Lippincott Company.
Written by a prominent Obstetrician for the “layman” (mothers) about pregnancy,
“Superstitions and Mental Attitude” and the process of labor. Includes a nice acknowledgement
page that lists other “works for the layman,” books written over the past 50 years by various
doctors and nurses about babies and childbirth. Discusses anesthesia and forceps, and being a
good patient. “The patient must always keep in mind that her wishes must remain secondary to
her doctor’s judgment, which is based upon numerous sound, though not always obvious,
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reasons.” Some images of anatomy, fetal x-rays and a good “maternity corset.” Collection of the
researcher as of 9/2013.
Dick-Read, Grantly, M.D. (1944, 1953). Childbirth Without Fear, New Fourth Edition. New York; Harper
and Row.
Classic book that began to introduce the idea of “natural childbirth” to a new generation of
American women. Includes descriptions of natural childbirth and an examination of historic
birth cultural ideas around the world. Includes chapters on breathing and relaxation for women
wanting to explore this method, as well as photos of women sitting up or walking after
delivering a baby, or of ways to modify the delivery table to enable a woman to be able to push
better. Includes a later section on “The pioneer of Natural Childbirth” an autobiography of Dr.
Dick-Read. Photos. Collection of the researcher as of 9/2013.
Eastman, Nicholson J, M.D. (1940, 1957). Expectant Motherhood, Third Edition. Boston; Little, Brown
and Company.
Small book for mothers by Eastman, Professor of Obstetrics in John Hopkins University and
Obstetrician in Chief to the John Hopkins Hospital. Includes chapters on “Weight Control in
Pregnancy” and others about pregnancy, with quite a few images of the uterus, fetus, etc. The
“Birth of the Baby” chapter begins by saying that “More than 93 percent of the births in the
United States now take place in hospitals, hence the problem of hospital versus home delivery is
no longer much of a question.” “The modern trend toward hospitalization for childbirth, a trend
that is gaining ground every year, is a development of the past three decades. In the early years
of this century it was well-high impossible to persuade a respectable woman to enter a hospital
for normal delivery, since only the derelicts of womankind and the destitute sought
hospitalization for such a purpose.” Includes a packing list for the hospital that includes
manicure set and fountain pen. Collection of the researcher as of 9/2013.
Epstein, Randi Hutter, M.D. (2010). Get Me Out: A history of Childbirth from the Garden of Eden to the
Sperm Bank. New York: W.W. Norton and Company, Inc.
Very readable book with chapters such as “Leaving Home: New York’s Lying-In and the Growth
of Maternity Wards” including a photo of the maternity ward ca. 1897 and discussions of the
slow embracing of the use of such hospitals by the majority of women in the early part of the
20th century. Includes detailed story of Twilight Sleep and the American woman who travelled to
Germany to have it, then went on speaking tours promoting it, and later died giving birth while
using it. Also includes chapters on the use of the hormone DES and implications for modern
women and pregnancy care and more modern topics. Includes short list of primary sources at
the end. A few images. Available in Duluth public library as of 8/2013.
Gaskin, Ina May. (1975, 2002). Spiritual Midwifery. Summertown, TN. Book Publishing Company.
Early, groundbreaking book describing how Ina May and colleagues began delivering babies on
busses in the Caravan on the way to buying The Farm, a commune or intentional community in
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Tennessee in the 1970’s. Descriptions of rediscovering the art of midwifery by learning on the
job, and then offering a natural, peaceful birth experience to generations of women. Includes
individual birth stories and information about how to assist with births or prenatal care. Images.
Collection of the researcher, 9/2013.
Giglio, Ann-Marie, Editor. (1999). Labor Day; Shared Experiences from the Delivery Room. New York;
Workman Publishing Company, Inc.
Small book with 35 personal accounts of labor and birth, including a description written of a
1959 birth and others at home or in hospitals. Mostly modern births, but showing a wide variety
of styles and reactions to birth. Collection of the researcher as of 9/2013.
Gillespie, MG, MD. (1964). History of Medicine in Northeast Minnesota, 4 volumes. Duluth: Self
published? Accessed copied version at NEMHC.
This publication is quirky, (no page numbers, varied content in various volumes, etc) but
contains some interesting snippets. Contains a biography of Dr. W.A. Coventry, prominent
obstetrician in Duluth. Discusses beginning of the Duluth Clinic, which Dr. Coventry was involved
with. Volume 1 contains a photo of an OB waiting room (turn of the century?). Volume 4
contains a “History of Anesthesia” and states that the first obstetrical case was seen at St.
Mary’s Hospital in August of 1888. “Anesthesia was by chloroform or ether mask.” NEMHC.
Hearst Corporation. (1966) Good Housekeeping’s Guide for Young Homemakers. New York, Harper and
Row Publishers.
Homemaking “dictionary” with an entry for “Childbirth, Emergency,” between “Chests of
Drawers” and “Children’s Parties.” Includes fairly detailed description of a natural childbirth and
what one should do to assist the woman, such as washing with soap and water and “the cord
does not have to be cut immediately” and instructions for placing the baby on the mother’s
abdomen. Seems in sharp contrast to the “modern” birth experiences the women were having
in hospitals at that time. No images. Collection of the researcher as of 9/2013.
Huch, Ronald K. (1983). From Blacksmith Shop to Modern Hospital: The Story of St. Luke’s in Duluth,
1881-1981. Duluth: BAH Books. Accessed in Duluth Collection at Duluth Public Library.
History book about St. Luke’s hospital, with many details about early buildings and expansions. A
few details or quotes about local attitudes toward birthing in the hospital and other facilities
that were available at the turn of the century for women in poverty. Good bibliography of local
sources. Very limited photos.
Kitzinger, Sheila. (1980). The Complete Book of Pregnancy and Childbirth. New York. Alfred A. Knopf.
Early edition of Kitzinger’s work that includes some photos of natural and hospital-based
childbirth in the 1970’s. Discussion of the rise of interest in home births again in the 1970’s and
80s. “There is a small but steady increase in the number of women who decide to have their
babies at home.” “Often a woman would like to insure that her baby has a “gentle birth” and is
welcomed into the world tenderly, without the machinery and bright lights that are almost
15
inevitable in hospitals.” Includes standard chapters on care of self and baby during pregnancy
and after birth. Discussion of “new” technology such as ultrasounds. Photos and sketches from
1970’s. Collection of the researcher as of 9/2013.
Kitzinger, Sheila. (2000). Rediscovering Birth. New York: Picket Books.
Visually rich book that explores the history of many different aspects of birth, from Birth and
Spirit to Midwives to Sanctuary and Renewal. History included in each chapter, with the focus on
learning from past strengths OR negative events. Includes historic images from many cultures
on these topics. Includes footnotes/bibliography in the back, but not much detail on sources.
Image-rich. Available at the Duluth Public Library as of 8/2013.
Litoff, Judy Barrett. (1978). American Midwives, 1860 to the Present. Westport Connecticut: Greenwood
Press.
Chapters on the beginnings of Obstetric Specialization and 2 chapters on “The Early Twentieth
Century Midwife Debate: Opponents and Proponents.” Includes annotated, explained
notes/references at the end of each chapter. Good short summary “Conclusion” chapter with
statistics about how many women were using midwives and infant mortality rates, etc. Slightly
drier narrative style. No images. Available in Duluth public library as of 8/2013.
Lowry,E.B, M.D. (1915). Your Baby; A Guide for Young Mothers. Chicago: Forbes and Company.
Fascinating historical look at a doctor’s advice from 1915. Includes chapters on “The Wellborn
Child” and “Painless Childbirth” (with a detailed discussion of anesthesia available at hospitals),
as well as discussions of how to prepare for a home birth and the reasons why a hospital is more
likely the better location to deliver the baby. “It is becoming customary for an expectant mother
to go to a hospital instead of being confined at home.” “It would seem, then, that painless
childbirth were a possibility only for those so situated that they were able to go to a first class
hospital which is prepared for this class of cases. Such is not absolutely the truth, for physicians
have not neglected the needs of the women not so fortunately blessed.” Additional chapters on
“The Discipline of Children”: “the less the baby is handled, the better for its health.” No images.
Collection of the researcher as of 9/2013.
Mitford, Jessica. (1992). The American Way of Birth. New York: Dutton, the Penguin Group.
Written by a woman originally from England who has written other books such as The American
Way of Death it includes a nice concise chapter called “In the Beginning” which includes
references as far back as the middle ages and healers and midwives being burned at the stake as
witches, up to the discovery of the causes (and controversy) surrounding childbed fever.
Includes also a section on Midwives, with descriptions of the Federal Trade Commission’s
support of Midwives and other issues of the 1980’s, including a visit to the Farm. Engaging read.
No images. Available at Duluth public library as of 8/2013.
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Mongan, Marie F. (1992, 2005). Hypnobirthing, The Mongan Method.Deerfield Beach, FL, Health
Communications, Inc.
A description and how-to manual of the Hypnobirthing method of “safer, easier, more
comfortable birthing”, developed by Marie Mongan in the 1980’s, based on her experiences
birthing her own children in the 1950’s and her struggle to have more natural, awake births. She
describes the typical 1950’s birth with the forced anesthesia and long separations from the
baby. Includes a chapter called “From Celebration to Fear: A History of Women and Birthing”
that goes back to the “curse of Eve” and biblical and earlier references, up to the burning of
midwives and healers at the stake as witches to the move from home to hospital partly due to
the fear of pain. Limited images. Collection of the researcher as of 9/2013.
Rich, Adrienne. (1976, 1986). Of Woman Born; Motherhood as an Experience and Institution, Tenth
Anniversary Edition. New York; W.W. Norton and Company.
Detailed, academic feminist exploration of the process of birth and motherhood. Includes a
chapter “Alienated Labor” that discusses the current conditions of birth for women, and quotes
from many relevant publications of that time and decades earlier. “Women are now asking
what psychic effect a state of semihelplessness has on a healthy mother, awake during the birth,
yet prevented from participating actively in delivery. No more devastating image could be
invented for the bondage of woman; sheeted, supine, drugged, her wrists strapped down and
her legs in stirrups, at the very moment when she is bringing new life into the world.” And “The
loneliness, the sense of abandonment, of being imprisoned, powerless, and depersonalized is
the chief collective memory of women who have given birth in American hospitals.” No images.
Collection of the researcher as of 9/2013.
Rossiter, Amy. (1988). From Public to Private: A Feminist Exploration of Early Mothering. Toronto,
Ontario; The Women’s Press.
Feminist theory book following the life stories of three women who were extensively
interviewed. Includes a chapter on Birth that compares and contrasts the women’s experiences
of birth and how that fit into and affected their larger lives. Discusses how terminology such as
“being delivered” by a doctor rather than “delivering the baby” reflects and continues the
dominant culture’s view of women as helpless, etc. No images. Collection of the researcher.
Sisters of St. Benedict. (1929). A Trip through St. Mary’s Hospital. Duluth, MN; St. Mary’s Hospital.
This slim volume has descriptions of each section of the hospital, but no mention of delivery per
se. There is a description of the Nursery, “A right start in life is half the battle.” Lists 560
newborns for 1929. Few images. Available in the Duluth Collection of the Duluth Public Library,
9/2013.
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Sloan, Mark, M.D. (2009). Birth Day: A Pediatrician Explores the Science, the History, and the Wonder of
Childbirth. New York: Ballantine Books.
A more first-person account of working as a Pediatrician on many births, with related
complications and stories about newborns and current technology and knowledge about them.
One chapter titled “B.E: Before Epidurals” with discussion of the use of chloroform and the
history of anesthesia. Also “The Gang’s All Here: A History of Birth Attendance” with a
somewhat cynical view of too much filming, etc of births by excited fathers. Includes long
general bibliography. No images. Available at the Duluth Public Library as of 8/2013.
Steingraber, Sandra. (2001). Having Faith; An Ecologists Journey to Motherhood. New York; Berkeley
Publishing Group.
Mostly modern exploration of pregnancy and the effects of toxins on developing fetus. Detailed
birth story and discussion of modern breastfeeding. Detailed source notes in the back. No
images. Collection of the researcher.
Temple-Rhodes, Gina. (2011). Duluth Birth Oral History Project. Duluth, Birthing Ways- Doula Connection
Minnesota Historical Society Legacy Grant Funded project. Available at the NEMHC.
Ten oral history interviews with 12 narrators ages 89-101 about the subject of birth and early
baby care in the Duluth area in the 1930s and 1940s. 124 pages of transcripts from interviews.
Most women described not knowing what to expect when they first got to the hospital, being
told to wait for doctors to birth their babies and staying in the hospital for up to 10 days after a
birth and being afraid to even unwrap the baby brought to them by the stern nurses for
feedings. Many of the women interviewed had been born at home, but none of them gave birth
at home in Duluth or had even heard of anyone using a midwife. Photos of narrators.
Van Brunt, Walter (1922). “The Pioneer Effort and Reminiscences of the Actual Pioneers” Duluth and St.
Louis County, Minnesota Vols. 1 – 3. Chicago: The American Historical Society. Available at the Duluth
Public Library and online at Zenith City History website, 9/2013.
Vintage history book that includes references to the “first birth and death at the Head of the
Lakes”, a 17 year old mother who died shortly after giving birth. Also mentions some early fur
trade history and the birth of the “first white child” to a fur trade agent and his Native wife in
1839.
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Wertz, Richard W and Dorothy C. (1977). Lying-in: A History of Childbirth in America. New York: The Free
Press.
A discussion of historic practices with extensive notes/bibliography of sources at the end of each
chapter. Chapters on colonial “Social childbirth”, and the “new midwifery” including male
midwives and the rise of “secret” forceps. Quotes 1700’s and early 1800’s efforts by doctors to
“attack” the use of midwives. Chapter on Government involvement, including an example of a
Mississippi Board of Healthy “granny” midwife record card that includes check boxes for
“willingness to follow instructions given by nurse” and ratings of intelligence and cleanliness.
Extensive lists of primary sources from early 1900’s. A few photos and illustrations. Engaging
read. Available at Duluth public library as of 8/2013.
Articles
Coventry, W.A, MD. (1922, January) Potter Version. Minnesota Medicine, Journal of the Minnesota State
Medical Association. 18-24. Accessed online at Google Books, 9/2013.
Detailed article discussing the Potter Version, a method of delivering babies by anesthetizing the
woman and turning the baby inside the womb to be delivered feet first as a way to prevent the
tearing, etc sometimes seen during “instrument” or forceps births. Written by Dr. WA Coventry,
prominent Duluth obstetrician and later Head of the St. Mary’s Obstetrical Department and
Chief of Staff. Includes a discussion section at the end, including another Duluth doctor
dismissing the process as a fad.
Hartley, EC and Boynton, RE. (1924, June). A Survey of the Midwife Situation in Minnesota. Minnesota
Medicine. 439-446. Available at the MN State Historical Society archives.
Article metioned in some other references, looks interesting, was not able to access it for this
project at this time.
Lay, Mary M. (2001). Fighting for Access to Midwifery Care and Home Birth; A Minnesota Story. Center
for Women and Public Policy, Humphrey Institute of Public Affairs, University of Minnesota. Accessed
online 9/2013 at
www.hhh.umn.edu/centers/wpp/pdf/case_studies/midwiferycare_homebirth/midwifery_homebirth.pd
f
Article that explores some personal stories and the process of legislation that made midwifery
legal in Minnesota, mostly focused on the modern era. But some interesting quotes from the
article “The Elimination of the Midwife” in a 1913 issue of the Journal of the American Medical
Association.
Minnesota Families for Midwifery (accessed 2013). History of Midwifery in Minnesota. Website
http://www.mfmidwifery.org/#!history/c12fp.
Detailed listing of legislation and other significant events regulating midwives in Minnesota from
the 1890’s to the current day.
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Noemi, Sister. (1954, August 1). St. Mary’s Hospital Baby Boom Keeps Maternity Department Busy.
Duluth Diocese “The Register” publication. Clipping; pages unknown.
This article, shown as a photo in the 1988 St. Mary’s “We Remember the Dream” book,
describes the running of the maternity ward by the supervisor Sister Ernestine and some
discussion of the history of birthing at that time. “Not so many years ago, for example, a mother
lay flat in bed for 10 to 12 days after her baby was born, and was taken out of the hospital in a
wheelchair. Today she gets up the day after delivery and goes home four to five days later,
carrying her own baby.” Article includes a photo of Sister Ernestine (in full habit) signing a birth
certificate for a new mother. Original photo was found separately in Sister Ernestine’s file at the
Monastery archives. The original clipping is found in the 1948-1956 St. Mary’s scrapbook at the
Monastery archives, but is in very delicate condition. Accessed 9/2013.
Shultz, Gladys Denny. (1958, May). Journal Mothers Report on Cruelty in Maternity Wards. Ladies’ Home
Journal, 44-45, 152-155.
Lengthy article composed of women’s and medical personnel’s letters in response to a
November 1957 letter from a nurse asking for an “investigation of the tortures that go on in
modern delivery rooms.” The introduction states, “Few full-length articles have elicited such a
flood of letters from Journal readers. Many related childbirth experiences which are so shocking
that Journal editors feel, after consulting leading obstetricians, that national attention should be
focused on such conditions wherever they exist in order that they may be ended.” Women
wrote in with stories related to being left alone in delivery rooms for hours at a time, strapped
down or in the lithotomy position. One woman says, “The practice of obstetrics is the most
modern and medieval, the kindest to mothers and the cruelest. Women are herded like sheep
through an obstetrical assembly line, are drugged and strapped on tables while their babies are
forceps-delivered.” This article is oft-quoted in later publications about the history of birth in
America, and represented the first time the “modern” childbirth was discussed in a national
publication. No images. Copy accessed at Duluth Public Library, 9/2013.
Ephemera, accessed at Duluth Public Library Hospital Clipping File or Duluth Industry/St. Mary’s and
St. Luke’s binders.
“Hospital News”, published by St. Mary’s Hospital, 1929.
8-page publication for the general public, with a whole-page spread about “the Hospital Baby”
“Thousands of Babies Born in Hospitals, Number Increasing” with a photo of a healthy baby,
describing how hospitals are the preferred way to have a baby. “The hospital throws about the
mother and her babe every safeguard and precaution, and maternity service is particularly
valuable to the young woman who is going through this experience for the first time.” Later on
in the publication, there is a snippet about how 610 babies were born at St. Mary’s last year.
“Not many years ago it was rather uncommon for a mother to go to a hospital for maternity
service, but today thousands of babies are born in hospitals and among educated and
progressive people hospital maternity service is the usual thing and it is uncommon for such
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service to be rendered in the homes of these people.” It seems that this publication did not
become a regular thing for St. Mary’s; only one other copy is known to exist, from 1927.
“Information for Patients”, St. Luke’s Hospital, July 1956.
Lists visiting regulations, including this: Maternity: Husbands Only. “Please avoid visiting
maternity cases during infant feeding time at 9:00 am, 1:00 pm and 5:00 pm. This takes
approximately 40 minutes. ” Babies will be shown at 3-3:30 pm and 7-7:30 pm. “
“Open Door”, publication of the Duluth Community Fund, 1937.
Contains stories of people helped to pay for hospital services by the Fund. Includes a story about
Peter, a premature baby. “The family was frugal and had saved enough to pay the doctor at the
time Peter was born. Peter was born at home. The doctor ordered that he be taken to the
hospital immediately. The family did not know how they could pay hospital expenses…”
Miscellaneous articles from the Duluth News Tribune, clippings from the “New St. Luke’s Hospital
Progress Edition on 11/12/1950 describing “Nursery Niceties”. “Now each baby will have his own
“infanette,” an individualized compartment where he or she will stay except for visits with Mom.” With
photo.
Photo from the Duluth News Tribune “War and the Hospital” spread, 1/9/1944, showing a photo of
“occupied cribs” at St. Luke’s hospital. Babies are in metal trays set in metal pipe stands.
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Duluth Birth History Interpretive Product Potential
This research phase has offered some good lessons about where to look for information about birth in
Duluth. Archivists will sometimes say that they have very little or “nothing related to birth” in their
archives, but upon further digging, usually can find some clippings, annual reports or census data in their
files that contain statistics or other interesting tidbits about the practices related to birth over Duluth’s
history. This project has brought many of those resources together at the Northeast Minnesota
Historical Center at UMD and into one large bibliography to make a future interpretive project (such as a
video or book) easier to complete.
Duluth’s birthing history follows that of the nation-wide trends towards birthing in hospitals by the mid1900’s, but there are some particular cases that illustrate that change well, if one knows where to dig in
the archives. Two well-known midwives were arrested in Duluth in the 1910s, while a local obstetrician
with “modern” ideas (Dr. W. A. Coventry) rose to positions of leadership in Duluth’s business community
and hospitals in the 1920s. As a pregnant woman, it might be hard to argue with your doctor about
birthing styles when he is also president of the local Chamber of Commerce and the Kiwanis.
More information about the “lost” past of maternity hospitals and midwives might still exist in family
attics and memories; this project has just glimpsed a few possibilities. A hospital with a “historic look” is
also preserved in one place in Duluth. The Webber Hospital was built in West Duluth in 1927. It still
exists in much the same form as the Wesley Residence, with the original closets for the 6 bed ward
described in a 1927 article preserved in the Library room. One narrator of the 2011 Duluth Birth Oral
History project, then a resident of the Wesley Residence, remembered giving birth to some of her
children in that very building.
Most of the maternity hospitals or midwife homes listed in historic directories no longer exist, likely torn
down long ago. Two buildings that were definitely used for birthing were found, however, one in the
West End and one in the Endion neighborhood of Duluth. There are also existing buildings that were
used for “fallen women” and orphaned children; that would involve another project to fully investigate.
Another topic that could be further explored is the actual methods of birth and gynecological diagnosis
and treatments, or treatment of newborn babies in the past century in Duluth. There is a wealth of
information in hospital Annual Reports, etc. It would also be fascinating to explore more deeply the
exact causes of the rapid change of public and official opinions towards midwives in Duluth, from the
glowing account of Mrs. Olson’s hospital in 1907 to her arrest for paperwork issues in 1917, as described
in the Duluth News Tribune. Some of the transition may have had to do with Minnesota Legislation
regulating “maternity homes” and midwives.
A short video or digital story of the history of birthing would be a great way to share this wealth of
largely forgotten historical record with a new generation. The stories of ordinary women and the ways
they gave birth or helped other women give birth should not be forgotten. A filmmaker in Duluth, Dan
Fitzpatrick of Hibernia Productions, was consulted to discuss ways to use existing materials and any
other essential items to make a successful video. Some of those resources are listed below.
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Visual Resources
Interviews
The 2011 Duluth Birth Oral History project included interviews with 12 narrators ages 89-101 about the
subject of birth and early baby care in the Duluth area in the 1930’s through 1950s. All the interviews
were transcribed, with photos of each woman interviewed. .WAV audio files and in some cases HD video
are available for each interview. Some colorful mentions of the birth process, doctors, cost, etc. Stories
were supported by research found in archives. Filmmaker recommends re-shooting some interviews for
better lighting (or finding new subjects) for the video portion, but feels that the existing audio could be
used for snippets or highlights along with photos of the women.
Current Midwife and Birth Center Director Jana Studelska, interested in midwife history herself, could be
interviewed at the Morning Star Birth Center, opening 9/2013.
Printed material:
Books available at the Duluth Public Library on birth history topics, described. Historic birth-related
books held at NEMHC or in the private collection of Gina Temple-Rhodes and Jana Studelska; see
annotated bibliography.
Digital versions of MN Medical Journal articles from the 1890’s and 1920’s with mentions of local Duluth
Doctors, including Dr. Coventry’s advocacy of the “Potter Version.”
Newspaper clippings, PDF’s, mostly DNT. 1980’s- 1923. One photo of a midwife with story about her
maternity hospital in 1907. Includes ads for “Maternity Hospitals” and midwives, court cases, etc. Later
articles show nursery features in the 1940’s and 50’s.
City Directory clippings for Midwives and Maternity Hospitals, including one from 1915 with facing pages
“graduated midwife” and “obstetrician”
Annual Reports from Hospitals, especially the 1962 St. Luke’s Annual Report, showing a full color image
of a birth on the front cover. Many other annual reports include a photo of a nurse handing a baby to a
mother, etc.
Photos:
One modern photo of the home of a midwife that practiced in the early 1900s, another photo of a home
still standing that was likely used as the “Maternity Hospital” in the late 1890s.
Old photos of hospitals and Duluth neighborhoods, Duluth Public Library
Photo of Sister Ernestine, supervisor of the Maternity Department of St. Mary’s Hospital in 1954, in full
habit, signing a birth certificate for a new mother.
1 known historic photo of a midwife in a sleigh, in possession of Jana Studelska right now
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Many relevant photos found on Minnesota Reflections website of hospitals and even delivery rooms in
Minnesota hospitals in the 1890’s-1920, such as: St. Mary’s Hospital operating room, ca. 1898
http://reflections.mndigital.org/cdm/singleitem/collection/nemhc/id/3767/rec/10
Existing Buildings:
Current Webber Hospital, looking much as it did when women gave birth there in the hospital. One
woman, Mrs. Peterson, was living there as a retirement home; she also gave birth there in the 1940’s
and 50’s.
Mrs. Sophia Waroe’s home and private maternity hospital from 1910-1918, home still standing at 215 N.
26th Avenue West
Home used as a Maternity Hospital in 1893, 201-203 S. 17th Avenue East (see photo in Midwife file)
Dr. Magie’s office on 14th Ave E and Superior Street; name carved in brownstone on the front of the
house (responded to Dr. Coventry in the1922 MN Medical Journal about the Potter Version).
Other Interesting Items:
Morgan Park Hospital register from 1890’s, big old bound book, listing some “confinements” located at
NEMHC
Healthy Department annual reports showing number of births in hospital and at homes, located at
NEMHC
Annual Reports from St. Mary’s and St. Luke’s, 1920’s- 1960’s, located at the Duluth Public Library,
NEMCH, St. Luke’s Hospital and St. Scholastica Monastery Archives.
Haldora Olson’s 1900 Patent for an “obstetrical appliance” to assist with births, available in digital birth
history archives at NEMHC.
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2011 Duluth Birth Oral History Project
In 2010, Birthing Ways – Doula Connections received a Legacy Grant from the Minnesota State Historical
Society (founded through the Minnesota Arts and Cultural Heritage Fund) to conduct an oral history
project focusing on the history of giving birth and early baby care in Duluth before World War II. Gina
Temple-Rhodes, the proprietor of Cedar Story Services, an oral and family history recording service, was
selected as the contractor to complete the project. 12 people were identified who had given birth in the
Duluth area in the 1930’s and 40’s, or were somehow involved in the history of birth in Duluth.
Ten interviews were conducted with these 12 narrators (two interviews involved two narrators,
including one father). Narrators were asked about their own births, about prenatal care or education,
the process of labor and birth, and their method of feeding their babies. Interviews were recorded with
a high-quality digital recorder and in most cases, videotaped for backup and possible future use. The
seven total hours of interviews were transcribed verbatim into 124 pages of transcripts. Copies of the
.WAV audio files, HD Video files and transcripts of these interviews are housed in the Northeast
Minnesota Historical Center located at the University of Minnesota Duluth, where they will be available
to future researchers. Narrators all signed release forms granting copyright and ownership of the
interviews to the archives. A Powerpoint presentation with audio excerpts is also available in the files of
NEMHC (in Digital Birth History Archives).
The narrators for this project were quite elderly, ranging in age from 89 to 101. Memories were not
always crystal clear, but some impressive detail was gleaned about births that took place over 70 years
ago, or even stories of their own births. Narrators seemed to enjoy telling their stories, and it was an
honor to record and learn from their memories.
Most of the narrators had been born at home, but all (except for one of the births of a more rural
woman) gave birth at the hospital. They did not know anyone who had given birth at home or with a
midwife. This sample size was rather small and included
Caucasian women of mostly middle or working class
backgrounds.
Every woman with children has a story about their births, and
many are willing to share details. The potential exists to record
many more stories from women of all backgrounds. The
transcripts for this project are long, but reading is quick and
quite fascinating.
25
Common Themes/Topics:
 Birthing in Hospitals
 Not much formal support or education
 10-day hospital stay common
 In the Delivery Room, told to push OR wait for the doctor
 Interventions; not always, but often “gas” for the actual delivery
 Use of Forceps; Birth Injuries
 Breastfeeding on a strict schedule, often not having enough milk
 Babies kept in nursery during hospital stay; mothers sometimes intimidated by nurses/wrapping
 Fathers not allowed to hold baby in the hospital, but helping some later with diapers
Narrators/Stories
Jennie Bergal (b. 1914)
Mrs. Bergal was born in Duluth in 1914 and married in 1935. She had two babies
at St. Mary’s Hospital in Duluth in 1939 and 1944. She had long, hard labors with
both babies; both were delivered with “full instrument deliveries” i.e. forceps.
Both were injured somewhat by the process. She feels that she probably should
have had Cesareans, but didn’t know it was an option; they were not done often
in those days. She feels they are much easier on the baby than the way she gave
birth. She did not enjoy her mandatory ten-day hospital stays. She attempted to
nurse both babies, but only had milk for the second baby. She had an impressive
memory for detail. Interview Length: 54:20
Katharine Coventry (b. 1912)
Mrs. Coventry was born in Manhattan in 1912. She had four babies, the earliest
in 1934, none in Duluth. Her first baby was born in New York; he died from birth
injuries at 6 weeks old. She later had twins in Atlanta, GA and a son in Eau Claire,
WI. She married Dr. William Coventry (a second marriage for both) in 1957 and
moved to Duluth. Dr. Coventry was the son of WA Coventry, a prominent
OB/GYN in Duluth who began practicing in Duluth in 1901 and later founded the
Duluth Clinic. She never met the senior Dr. Coventry, but had heard many stories
about him. Mrs. Coventry is active in a memoir writing group and self-published
a book, Growing Seasons: A 20th Century Memoir in 2007. Mrs. Coventry is
active and in good health, and began the interview without much prompting from the interviewer.
Interview Length: 51:23
26
Enid Ehle (b. 1922)
Enid Ehle was born at home in Duluth in 1922 and married in 1942. Her
mother almost died of an infection after giving birth. Mrs. Ehle had five
children over 20 years in Duluth hospitals, the first in 1944. Her labors were
often long; with one baby she suffered a prolapsed cord, but the baby
survived just fine. She married during WWII and later lived in Japan during
the 1950’s with her husband, a military officer. She was eager to share her
story, and waited patiently in the hall for her turn for the interview; it gave
her a chance to remember details like having to spend the night in an alcove
at St. Mary’s after the birth of one baby due to overcrowding in the wards,
and being worried about unwrapping her baby too much during a visit from the nursery. Interview
length: 52:34
“Kay” (b. 1919)
“Kay” had three babies in Eau Claire and Chippewa Falls, WI in 1941, 1945
and 1947. She was initially curious about the Birth History project and agreed
to meet with the interviewer, but when she found out more details, declined
to use her full, real name or be recorded at first. She felt that her stories were
too unpleasant and would “scare young girls away” from having babies. The
early part of the interview focused on the difficult deliveries with her first two
children. She had regular pre-natal care, but did not know anything about
what to expect during birth and seemed unhappy with the medical care she
received. She almost died of Eclampsia, a full-blown case with seizures, while
having her first baby. She tried nursing that baby, but became very sore after a month and switched to
formula. Her second baby was over nine pounds and the labor was long, possibly an arm presentation.
She was “cut several places” and the baby had a broken collar bone after birth. She didn’t attempt to
nurse him, as there was “not enough strength” in her milk for such a large baby. She had a scheduled Csection for her third baby, which was relief to her after the difficult deliveries. She was the only woman
interviewed with this project who had a Cesarean section. Recorded Interview Length: 16:09
Mamie Peterson (b. 1920)
Mrs. Peterson was born in 1920 and married in 1938. She had 6 children
between 1940 and 1962. Only 5 lived to adulthood; her second-youngest died
at 6 months of a heart defect. She had her first two babies in West Duluth’s
Webber Hospital, which she described as the local hospital for those living in
Proctor, one perhaps affiliated with the Railroad, where her husband worked.
Her births were quick and fairly easy; one baby nearly fell on the floor as she
tried to get onto the delivery room table. She later gave birth at St. Luke’s
hospital, and enjoyed the social aspect of a ward with six other women in it.
Interview Length: 40:29
27
Ardith Pufall (b. 1919)
Mrs. Pufall is from Mellen, WI, where she was born at home in 1919.
She had six children between 1945 and 1960. She remembers the birth
of her sister at home in the 1920’s. She had fairly easy births herself,
always at St. Mary’s hospital. She attended nursing training before
having children, and when back to nursing when her youngest was five
years old. Her youngest daughter died of a blood clot 5 years ago. Mrs.
Pufall was at ease as a narrator and seemed to enjoy sharing her stories.
Interview Length: 32:23
Nathalie Sparling Sandness (b. 1914)
Nathalie Sparling Sandness was born at home in Duluth in 1914 and
married in 1936. She had six children between 1937 and 1957, five of
whom survived to adulthood. Her first baby was stillborn or a late
miscarriage in 1937. She had attended nurse’s training before her
marriage, and one of her daughters later became a nurse. All of her
babies were born at the hospital even though her immigrant mother-inlaw felt that hospitals were “dying places.” She remembered being
awake for some births but not for others, and was somewhat of a
medical oddity to have a baby at age 44. She has had some vision and
health issues and spoke slowly. She had assistance from her daughterin-law, Pat Maus, during the interview. Interview Length: 79:34
Eva Touminen (b. 1919)
Eva Touminen was born in 1918 and married in 1936. She lived and
had 7 children starting in 1937 in the rural Floodwood area. She lived
with her Finnish in-laws during the early years of marriage and knew
that her husband and his 9 siblings had all been born at home,
delivered by their father, an experienced veterinarian who had
delivered many cows. She had some of her babies at home, but her
memory was less clear and she couldn’t share those details. Her 6th
child, her son Tim Touminen, later confirmed that her 3rd and 4th
babies were delivered at home and that he had heard family stories
of his dad giving the chloroform anesthesia but not liking it because
it made him dizzy. She seemed to have the best success of the
women interviewed with nursing and knowing what to expect from birth, possibly due to her farm
background. Interview Length: 25:07
28
Dorothy Wotczak (b. 1911) and
Lillian Lund (b. 1909) (sisters)
Lillian Lund was born in Cheboygan, MI in 1909 and
married in Duluth in 1932. Her sister Dorothy Wotczak
was born in 1911, also in Cheboygan, and married in
Duluth in 1941. They both moved to Duluth when young
and attended school here until the 9th grade. They left
school at that time to help support the family financially,
and worked as butterwrappers and meat wrappers
before they were married, after which time they stayed
home with their children. Dorothy had two children and Lillian had three, all born in Duluth hospitals.
Lillian had at least one baby at Webber Hospital, a private hospital located in West Duluth on Grand
Avenue. Lillian Lund is the older of the two sisters and originally was the only one scheduled for the
interview. However, she has a hearing issue and called for her sister Dorothy to assist with the interview
when we had trouble communicating. Dorothy has much better hearing and eyesight and sat near Lillian
to prompt her.
Arthur (b. 1913) and
Helen Wright (b. 1910-2010)
The Wrights are long-time Duluth residents.
Arthur was born in 1913 at home in Duluth
and later worked for a telephone company.
Helen was born in 1910 in a farmhouse in
South Dakota and moved to Duluth as a
young woman. The Wrights had three
children in 1938, 1941 and 1944 at St. Luke’s
Hospital in Duluth. Arthur recalled details
such as how much the hospital cost and the
fact that very few people were having babies
at home by the 1930’s. He recalled things like not being able to hold the baby until they went home
from the hospital, and then later helping with diaper changes, etc. The Wrights had lived in their own
home until recently and were quite active. Helen’s hearing and memory were not quite as sharp as
Arthur’s, who had arranged the interview via email. Helen passed away on December 30, 2010, and
Arthur passed away in 2013. Interview Length: 45:09
29
A few quotes
Birth Preparation
GTR: Was there anything at the hospital or doctor’s office that would tell you…
Dorothy Wotczak: I didn’t know what was going to happen there!
GTR: So, it was a surprise?
DW: I remember telling my mother, “Why didn’t you tell me it was going to be this tough?! I wouldn’t
have had no babies!” {laughs}
Jennie Bergal: Mother never… with every child, it was just “having a baby” and that was it. They never
made too much of it. I think they make a lot of women having children today. Of course, we all have
different bodies, and some can have them normally, and some have to have… by the medical system,
which is all instruments. Unfortunately, I have a body like that. I could not deliver normally. I had to
have instruments, with both my children.
Delivery Room
Mamie Peterson: When Kathy was born, my second one, the nurse came in and I said, “I think you
better take a look! I think I’m having this baby now!” And she said, “Oh, you young girls. You don’t know
what you’re talking about.” But she took a look anyway, and she said, “You put your feet together, and
don’t you open them until we get to the delivery room!” So, we got in there, the delivery room, and I
went to get on the table, and I of course spread my legs apart, and the baby was born! {laughs}. The
doctor was there, in his pajamas! He said, “Now, how did this happen?!”
Jennie Bergal: Well, they finally put me to sleep and took her all the way. She was injured at birth,
because my pelvic is very sharp on one end. Her skull was scraped. And when she was born, they had to
put a bandage on her because they were afraid that she would get infected.
Babies in the Nursery
Jennie Bergal: You NEVER had your baby in your room; never overnight. Uh-uh. They’d bring her in so
you could feed her and play with her maybe a little while, but they never let you have her very long.
She was evidently a good baby, but they wouldn’t show her in the nursery. They wouldn’t pick her up.
They put her up against the window, because they were afraid of interfering, of picking her up and
showing her. They just let the people who wanted to see her come right to the nursery. You know, it
was all glass. They could see her that way. I was told she was absolutely a gorgeous child. Beautiful! No
marks on her body, or on her face, except for what was on her head. The scraping on her head. One
side, especially, was very bad. She was bandaged up for quite a while. Finally it healed well, and no
problem after that.
GTR: So, when did you first get to hold the baby when she was born?
Arthur Wright (father): Probably when she came home from the hospital.
30
GTR: Did you look at her through the glass of the nursery?
Helen Wright: Well, in the hospital there were all kinds of babies in a room where you could stand up
and look in the window and they were on the other side in multiple bassinets, or whatever you call
them.
AW: And I don’t think I was ever permitted in Helen’s room when she nursed. I don’t think that was
acceptable.
Enid Ehle (describing the baby right after the birth): They put them in a warmer, you know. Then they
clean them up and take them back to the nursery. They’ll show you the baby. Then in those days, the
baby was wrapped up like a mummy. All you could see was their head. If you did open up the blankets
and that to check and see if they had all their toes and everything, then they wouldn’t put them back in
the nursery; they had to go where the children are. Different from now, you know.
GTR: Did you open them up, then?
EE: No, I didn’t dare! I didn’t want him in with the older children; that wouldn’t be good, no.
Crowding at the hospital:
Enid Ehle: Then they were so busy; in the old St. Mary’s there were alcoves like for seating, where
people could sit. That’s where they put me when the baby was born, because they were so filled up. My
mother said, “Oh, after all you’ve been through, and look where they’re having you!” They had put up
screens, for privacy. I says, “Mama, I don’t care. They could hang me from a chandelier, I’m just so glad
it’s over!” {laughs}
10 Day Hospital Stay
GTR: How long did you stay at the hospital, then?
Jennie Bergal: Ten days!
GTR: Wow. How was that?
JB: God, it was horrid. There was NO reason for me to stay there that long. I found that you would get
weaker if you wouldn’t get up and move around.
Arthur Wright: St. Luke’s Hospital had a deal where, if you paid in advance of the birth, sixty dollars, that
took care of the delivery and all hospital costs, including ten full days of bed rest for the mother. I don’t
remember how, but we begged, borrowed, stole, scared up the sixty dollars, thinking it was a good deal,
and believing that ten days of rest was essential (approximately 1938).
GTR: Were you in a private room, or were you with lots of people?
Mamie Peterson: No! One of the babies, I can’t remember who, I was in a room where they had lots of
them; they had eight mothers in there. I had a ball!
GTR: How long were you there?
MP: They made us stay eight to ten days! Now they dry you off and send you home!
The rest of the transcripts are rich with detail and memories; it has significant potential to be edited
into a more easily-read book or used in a video project.
31
Birth History Digital Archive Summary
Compiled by Heidi Bakk-Hansen 9/2013
This is primarily a collection of newspaper articles regarding Duluth birthing culture and relevant
professionals in early Duluth. (Also included are some pieces in the NEMHC collection, annual reports
from hospitals, MN Legislation listings, 1938 WPA/census report etc.)
News articles are all from the Duluth News-Tribune unless otherwise specified. Dates range mostly from
1877-1922, with a few added from the later 20’s, 40’s and 60s.
File names are abbreviations for the newspaper (DNT for Duluth News-Tribune, DWT for Duluth Weekly
Tribune, DDN for Duluth Daily News and MINN for the Duluth Minnesotian) and the date of publication,
along with a brief descriptor.
(Example:
Filename: DNT1_22_1894MaternityHospDonations.pdf=
Duluth News-Tribune, January 22, 1894 article on maternity hospital donations.) All articles within their
section are organized by date published.
Each file contains a detailed summary of all articles contained in that file.
Files in this collection are categorized as follows:
1.
Advertisements:
Includes classifieds from midwives, private hospitals, and ads for patent medicines.
2. Articles Against Midwives:
Includes articles depicting the dangers of using midwives, meant to urge the public to abandon
the practice.
3. Cultural Reference Points and Conditions
Includes a sampling of articles about child abandonment, crime, immigration and the cultural
conditions around birthing in Duluth. Includes historic birth announcements.
4. Doctors, Nurses and Hospitals
Includes articles on St. Luke’s, St. Mary’s, Dr. Coventry, Dr. McCoy, the Poor Farm, and other
hospitals.
32
5. Infant Welfare Efforts/Birth Registration
Includes articles detailing various maternal and child welfare campaigns in Duluth; also several
articles on laws and restrictions.
6. Public Maternity Hospital Movement
Includes articles on the effort to open a public maternity hospital in Duluth.
7. Midwives and Private Hospitals
Includes articles regarding individual midwives and their private hospitals. Includes Polk City
Directory listing of midwives from 1888-1948 and 2013 information about their homes and
locations.
Advertisements:
This file contains ten advertisement related documents, ranging from 1892-1921, all of them from the
Duluth News-Tribune.
July 23, 1892:
On p. 4 of document, bottom corner, advertisement for remedy “Mother’s Friend”, which “makes
childbirth easy.”
August 12, 1896:
A lengthy news-like advertisement for Dr. Pierce’s Favorite Prescription for women.
March 4, 1902:
Example of an advertisement for Wine of Cardui, a popular “remedy” for women’s ills. Contained 19%
alcohol, along with other herbs. “Women who take Wine of Cardui have little discomfort during
pregnancy and little pain at childbirth.”
August 27, 1906:
Classified ads for Private Hospitals: L.C.J. Benson “graduate midwife and nurse” in Superior; Mrs. H.
Olson “graduated midwife” at N. 58th Ave W.; Mrs. Banks “midwife” at 1113 E. Fourth; and Mrs. Hanson
“graduate midwife” 413 Seventh Ave E. Also an ad under Midwife for Mrs. Shallman “graduate midwife
from Sweden” at 2225 W. First St.
December 10, 1909:
Personals Ads: For Ida Pearson M.D.’s “private home for ladies”; Mrs. Anna Ronge “graduate midwife”
at 2018 W. Superior St.; A private home for ladies in Anoka, MN; and M.F.J. Hansen “graduate midwife”
and “private home” at 413 Seventh Ave E.
33
November 14, 1910:
First column under Personals: Ad for Mrs. H. Olson’s private hospital at 58th Ave. W.; Mrs. Mary
Barrell’s London Rd. private maternity home with “physicians in attendance”; M.F.J. Hanson’s “private
home” at Seventh Ave. E.. Third Column under Private Hospital: Ad for Ida Pearson M.D.’s private home
for ladies in St. Paul; In last column under Personals and Midwife: Ad for Mrs. K Erickson “practical
midwife and hospital” at 1001 Seventh St. and an unnamed Wanted ad for a midwife.
April 21, 1911:
Full page of classifieds, third and fourth columns contain relevant advertisements: Under Medical:
“Monthly Remedy… safely relieves some of the longest, most obstinate abnormal cases.” Under
Personals: An ad for M.F. J. Hansen’s “’private home … graduate midwife” at 417 Seventh Avenue East.
Under Private Hospitals: ads for Mrs. Haldora Olson, “graduated midwife” at 329 North 58th Ave. W.; Ida
Pearson’s “private home for ladies before and during confinement” in St. Paul; a “private maternity
home” at 931 London Rd with “physicians in attendance”; and for S. Waroe, “graduate midwife and
nurse” at 215 26th Ave W.
July 28, 1912:
Full page of classifieds. First column, under Personals, ad for M.F.J. Hansen’s “private home” as
“graduate midwife” at 417 Seventh Ave E; an ad for a prescription tonic and regulator “Ladies
Attention”; an ad for Dr. Rogers’ French Wonder Pills, and Chicester’s Diamond Brand Pills.
July 5, 1916:
Full page of classifieds, relevant ads for “Private Hospitals” in last column. Ads for Mrs. K Thorstensen
“nurse and midwife, private home” in Superior, and Mrs. Olson’s hospital on N. 58th Ave W.
January 13, 1921:
Full page of classifieds, last column under Business and Professional Directory, two ads for Maternity
Hospitals: Wilson’s Maternity Home at 609 W. Third St. and Mrs. Colburn’s Superior Maternity Home
at 759 W. Seventh Street.
Articles Critical of Midwives
This file contains a sampling of the anti-midwifery articles printed in the Duluth News-Tribune between
1899-1921. There are eight articles.
Typically, these articles were the re-printing of national or international stories backing the idea that
midwifery was an archaic, dangerous practice, and should be abandoned in favor of doctors and
hospitals.
34
November 18, 1899:
Article syndicated from St. Louis, MO. Headline: “Destroyed Babies: St. Louis Woman Arrested in Five
Indictments” Henrietta Bamberger, midwife, arrested for the murder of at least three women and the
“destruction of scores of babies.” Grand Jury indicts for one murder in the first degree, three first
degree manslaughter, and one second degree manslaughter.
November 21, 1906:
Article syndicated from Milwaukee, WI. Headline: “Infants Burned in Cook Stove: Milwaukee Woman
Locked Up Without Bail—District Attorney Makes Allegations” German midwife Wilhelmina Ecknardt
arrested and held without bail on charge of malpractice. To be charged also with infanticide, with her
own daughters as witnesses. Evidence of 12 bodies of infants burned in cook stove.
December 25, 1906:
Article syndicated from Paris, France. Headline: “Systematic Murder of Infants is Charged” An unnamed
midwife has been charged with murder of infants. The midwife reported no deaths in her practice, and
so it was found that they were disposing of infant bodies by cutting them up and burning them in the
stove. The midwife and her servant were charged with murdering 126 babies.
February 7, 1909:
Article syndicated from Cleveland, OH. Headline: “Save Children from Blindness: Cleveland Doctors Say
Women Frequently Cause Suffering Among Little Ones” Article describes a statement made by the
Cleveland Academy of Medicine and the Ohio Board of Medical Registration that to save children and
mothers from death, midwives should be arrested and charged with practicing without certification. It
cites a statistic that 25 percent of births attended by midwives result in death of the child, and 25%
result in blindness. The article announces a campaign to drive midwives out of Cleveland. It also
mentions that Helen Keller had published an article in the Ladies Home Journal calling for the abolition
of midwifery, and quotes from it extensively.
September 17, 1915:
Small article syndicated from Pittsburgh. Headline: “Would Eliminate Midwife” American Society of
Obstetricians keynote speech by Dr. Charles E. Zeiger declaring that the midwife ought to be eliminated
and replaced by doctors and nurses. In the speech, Zeiger blames the public that this has not yet
occurred.
November 16, 1916:
Article syndicated from New York. “Wants Baby Boy Though Black: Woman’s Heart Years for Child She
Adopted, ‘No Matter How Dark He Is.’” Cautionary Tale about Ida M. Truda, who paid a midwife for a
child, and returned him when he was found to be African-American. This “fraud” resulted in the
midwife’s arrest.
35
July 19, 1916:
Syndicated article by Dr. Leonard Keene Hirshberg, of Johns Hopkins. “Secrets of Health and Happiness:
Tubucular Infection One of Baby’s Earliest Perils” Article cites tuberculosis statistics in an unnamed
children’s institution, blaming their infections on mother-child transmission, playful biting by elders,
promiscuous kissing, and infected midwives, among other things. The writer cites a village in an
unnamed place where a tubercular midwife infected ten infants by breathing into their mouths.
July 3, 1921:
Article by Carl D. Groat, of the United Press, dateline Berlin. Headline: “Socialists Plan Illegal Control of
Birth Rate” Article explains that German Socialists are promoting the nationalization of birth control
and legalized abortion, placing midwives under state employment, making their services free to
mothers. The writer clearly disapproves.
Summary of Cultural Reference Points/Conditions
This file contains six articles from the Duluth News-Tribune (unless otherwise specified) ranging from
1890-1911 which give an overview of some of the cultural conditions regarding birthing in Duluth,
including poverty, immigration, and illegitimacy.
June 1, 1890:
“Dead Baby’s Folks. Alfred Magnusson and Wife Are the Parents of the West End Baby.” Baby found
dead in a box on the bank of Miller Creek. Parents Swedish immigrants. Baby died after birth and father
took the corpse away in a box, which upset the neighbors. Article mocks the lack of English skills of the
accused father, who said he couldn’t afford a proper burial.
January 31, 1892 (from Duluth Daily News)
“A Woman’s Shame. Mary Redlock Gives Birth to a Child and Tells Peculiar Stories About its Paternity.
John Borgesser Arrested. And Will Have to Answer to a Charge of Bastardy—What He Says About It.”
Unmarried daughter of Polish immigrants denies pregnancy, then is confronted repeatedly to name the
father of her child. She accuses a doctor of sexual assault, then a married butcher, who defends himself
by alleging she’s a victim of incest.
March 31, 1902:
“Deserted Little Babe Was Born in Duluth. Was Found in the Commercial Hotel at Superior.” Mysterious
couple rents room, baby is born with a midwife. Couple leaves baby behind at hotel in Superior.
Authorities try to find them.
36
November 7, 1908:
“Accuse Mother of Murdering Child. Coroner’s Jury Makes Awful Charge Against Ella Makki. May Be
Tried Soon.” Newborn baby found hidden in trunk with skull crushed. Mother gave birth with no
assistance in women’s boarding house in the St. Croix neighborhood.
November 8, 1908:
Ella Maki is Now Free. No Indictment Returned. Grand Jury Takes Unexpected But Merciful Course in
Dealing with Girl Who Was Accused by the Coroner’s Jury of Having Slain Her Own Infant Child.” Dr.
Coventry testified. Details of girl’s situation given.
February 1, 1911:
“Abandoned Boy Baby Committed to Sparta” Five month old sent to state school in Sparta until age 16.
Child is confiscated from adoptive East End mother by authorities; she received child from midwife.
Parents unknown.
This section also contains birth announcements run in the newspaper between 1912 and 1920,
sometimes listing birth locations.
Doctors, Nurses and Hospitals
This file contains five articles generally relating to doctors, nurses and hospitals in Duluth, along with
four sub-files containing articles about Drs. Coventry and McCoy, the public hospital, St. Luke’s, and St.
Mary’s. All articles are from the Duluth News-Tribune:
General Articles:
October 27, 1897:
“Transform it To Hospital: Plan to Make Use of the Bennett Hotel” Dr. A.F. Huntoon leases the former
Bennett Hotel to make it into a hospital for West Duluth. Planned amenities are listed.
May 18, 1899:
“Duluth-Superior Doctors” Small notice of meeting of the Interurban Academy of Medicine’s quarterly
meeting. Dr. Goffe presented a paper on “Diseases of Pregnancy” Members present listed.
August 22, 1910:
“’Nightingales’ Are Tabulated: Directory of Duluth Nurses Issued. There Are 140 and Sphere of Activity
is Broad” Article references a city directory of nurses; around 90 are graduates from hospitals, and the
rest “practical” nurses. It cites the pay each grade of nurse receives. Last paragraph: “The old-fashioned
midwife is being swiftly put out of business.”
37
February 14, 1916:
“Birth Control Necessary? Duluth Doctors Say No! Unless It Can Be Regulated to Meet Demands of
Individuals Its Practice Would Lead to Immorality” Article polls Duluth physicians in reaction to the
arraignment of Margaret Sanger, who was charged with circulated birth control pamphlets. Doctors
interviewed were Dr. A.L. McDonald, Dr. H. E. Webster, Dr. Olef Oredson, and Dr. A.J. Braden.
October 10, 1916:
“Hospital at Morgan Park to Be Opened: Building Constructed at cost of $60,000 Will Accommodate
Twenty-eight Patients” Article about imminent opening of Morgan Park Hospital, citing list of amenities
and mentioning Dr. W.J. Ryan and Dr. W.H. Magie.
Articles About Dr. W. A. Coventry:
February 12, 1914:
“Diseases Are Not Hereditary, He Says” Short article about a talk given by Dr. Coventry regarding his
opinion that no diseases are inherited, only tendencies.
September 10, 1915:
“Brands Mystery Doctor A Slayer: Dr. W.A. Coventry Tells Medical Body Unlicensed Surgeon’s
Operation Caused Death. Says Many Physicians in County Unregistered. Association Defers Action,
Following Grand Jury Report. Silberstein Seeks Law” Coventry accuses unnamed unlicensed doctor of
killing a woman in surgery, and says that though there is a state law requiring physicians to be
registered, many in St. Louis county have not complied. Bernard Silberstein, Commissioner of Public
Safety, announces that City Attorney W.E. Greene is considering a city ordinance preventing the
practice of unlicensed doctors and midwives. Mention is made of a previous effort toward such an
ordinance in 1911.
Articles about Dr. Mary McCoy:
February 27, 1914:
“Sex Hygiene is Burning Topic: Dr. Mary McCoy Pleads With Women to Take Up Important Work.
Would Put Stop to Indiscriminate Kissing. Withholding Knowledge Little Less Than Crime Toward
Offsprings, She Says.” Includes PHOTO of McCoy. Article on talk given by Dr. McCoy at Irving social
center meeting, advocating sex education, especially calling on women to solve the problem. She says
“sexual immorality” is the cause of society’s ills, and advocates for legislation making “illegitimate”
childbearing a crime. McCoy touches on eugenics concerns.
November 11, 1920:
“Dr Mary McCoy To Spend May Months in Europe” Article discusses McCoy’s plans to study in Paris and
volunteer in Serbia, and her many accomplishments in regards to suffrage and politics. Article also
mentions McCoy and Dr. Stella Wilkinson’s effort to open free clinic for women and children in 1915.
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NEMHC PDF:
Contains documents owned by NEMHC, including Dr. McCoy’s obituary (DNT 9/15/1959), two
biographical articles on her (DNT 5/9/1954 and 7/29/1956), one noting her 90th birthday (DNT
11/12/1949) and the Chronicle yearbook entry from 1934-35. All articles include PHOTOS.
Articles on the Public Hospital and Poor Farm Hospital
March 18, 1906:
“Open Letter to Mayor On Hospital. Dr. S.H. Boyer Declares One of Duluth’s Greatest Needs Is a City
Hospital Where the Sick, Poor, Strangers, Emergency and Contagious Cases May Be Cared For.” An
opinion piece explaining the need for a public hospital in Duluth. One of his arguments is the high
number of low-income mothers who give birth at home.
September 2, 1910:
“Institute Home for Catholic Boys. Sacred Heart Building Will Become Dormitory—Old Orphanage For
Maternity Hospital.” Mentions a plan by the Sisters of the Sacred Heart to use the old St. James
orphanage at 20th Ave W and 3rd St. as a maternity hospital.
January 4, 1914:
“Social Welfare in Different Phases Topic of Women’s Council Meeting” Includes discussion of the
establishment of a city and county hospital for those unable to pay, and the means by which this effort
could be pursued. Statistics for what is provided in Minneapolis for maternity cases are also mentioned.
January 20, 1914:
“Deaths of Babies Not Dearth of Births Is Race Suicide Problem, According to U. of M. Expert” First
portion of article expresses ideas of Dr. Richard Oldring Beard, of the University of Minnesota, in a
speech on “The Functions of the Public Hospital” to the Woman’s Council in Duluth.
January 21, 1914:
“Grave Charge Flatly Denied. Dr. C.J. Woolway Takes Issue with Dr. R.O. Beard Relative to Poor Farm
Hospital. Declares Assertion Is Based on Misinformation. University Teacher Scored Treatment Given
Patients at the County Institution.” Superintendent of Poor Farm Hospital denies accusations of poor
conditions. The primary complaint was that there wasn’t a trained nurse to deal with maternity and
other cases, which the superintendent says isn’t necessary.
November 7, 1914:
“Protests Poor Farm ‘Hospital.’ Committee of Woman’s Council Quotes Dr. H.M. Bracken’s Report to
Poor Commission. Cites Need for General Hospital in this City. Points to Efforts for Improvement at
County Institution and Cites Needs.” Head of Minnesota Health Department objects to use of Poor Farm
facilities to house TB cases and maternity cases.
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April 21, 1918:
PHOTO and caption of the new Bethel Building, on Ninth Street and Thirteenth Avenue East. A
description of who it’s meant to serve includes an offer of a “thoroughly equipped maternity hospital.”
Articles on St. Luke’s Hospital
October 17, 1909:
“Rector Presents Hospital’s Needs. Donation Day for St. Luke’s October 18—Rev. A.W. Ryan Explains
Finances” An opinion piece by Ryan describing why people should donate to St. Luke’s, including debt
owed on maternity hospital. Specific costs for rooms and ward beds are listed, along with some
description of staffing.
July 18, 1910:
“Special Edition for St. Luke’s Hospital” Article discussing upcoming promotion of donations to St.
Luke’s. One paragraph describes the “maternity house” operated by St. Luke’s, and the fact that it’s
being underused.
October 7, 1910:
“Oldest Charity in Zenith City: St. Luke’s Hospital Started in 1882, as Result of Typhoid Fever Epidemic”
Article discussing history of St. Luke’s; describes free-standing maternity hospital as part of its historic
expansions.
March 7, 1920:
“St. Luke’s Hospital Plans to Build $1,000,000 Addition to Meet Needs of Duluth, Range. Nurse’s
Dormitory, Two Hospital Units Included in Proposed Plans; Finance Committee Assured of Support by
Business Men; Physicians Assert Present Facilities Inadequate.” Lists number of beds available, both
present and proposed, in all Duluth hospitals (City Contagious Hospital, Miller Hospital, Morgan Park,
St. Mary’s and St. Luke’s). Need for more maternity beds discussed, and limitations of current offering in
that regard. Discusses plans for new maternity ward.
March 27, 1921:
“Committee Inspects St. Luke’s Hospital; Needs Reviewed. All Wards Found Crowded to Capacity;
Kitchen and Laundry Equipment Lacking.” Discusses overcrowded facilities, including maternity ward.
Lists members of the advisory committees.
May 22, 1921:
“Facts You Want to Know About the New St. Luke’s Hospital” Full page advertisement promoting the
planned additions for St. Luke’s, including a new Obstetrical Department. Purpose is appeal for pledges.
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Articles on St. Mary’s Hospital
February 29, 1888:
St. Mary’s Hospital: Beginning with Today, St. Mary’s Hospital Will Receive Patients. West End’s Good
Luck. Short Description of the Building and its Splendid Appointments” Details of building listed. No
mention of accommodations for maternity needs.
February 22, 1919:
“First St. Mary’s Hospital Staff Has 35 Doctors. Dr. E.L. Tuohy is Chief—Institution Brought Up to
Standard Set by College of Surgeons” Entire staff listed with their departments, including W. A Coventry,
chief of obstetrics.
August 29, 1922:
“St. Mary’s Doors Open to Public for Inspection” Describes new wing, including maternity department.
This file also contains excerpts from Annual Reports from St. Mary’s and St. Luke’s Hospitals, as well as
scans from ephemera and other items found in the Duluth Public Library Clipping Files on “Hospitals”
and “Duluth Industry/Hospitals”.
Infant Welfare Efforts/Registration Reform Articles
This file contains 20 articles from the Duluth News-Tribune and one from the Duluth Daily News
reflecting infant welfare efforts and reform programs in Duluth between the years 1888-1922. There are
also two examples of nationally syndicated articles from Dr. Lulu Peters. An additional file pertains
specifically to restrictions and/or laws regarding maternity issues, especially midwives, including ten
articles from the Duluth News-Tribune from 1904-1922, and one from the Duluth Minnesotian from
1870. Five additional PDFs include examples of materials already held by the NEMHC regarding public
health and maternity.
Unless otherwise specified, articles are from the Duluth News-Tribune.
Articles on Infant and Maternal Welfare:
March 28, 1888 (From Duluth Daily News)
“Physiology and Hygiene: Are We a Nervous People? A Variety of Useful Suggestions” Article has section
of “Official Advice to Parents” from Germany, detailing how one must care for a newborn.
December 4, 1903:
“Mother Clings to Her Child. Ida Hill Says She Would Rather See Babe Dead Than to Lose It” Article on
case of a police effort to deprive an “incompetent” mother of custody of her newborn, who was born
in the home of midwife Mrs. Banks.
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March 3, 1907:
“Timberlake Stirs Up Hornets’ Nest. Compulsory Nursing Bill Offered by the Minneapolis House Member
Gives Promise of Creating Considerable Discussion—Petitions For and Against Measure Are Being Filed”
Proposed law to make nursing babies compulsory, as a right of the baby, in order to reduce infant
mortality. Effort aimed at employers specifically—no one may interfere with mother’s effort to nurse in
first month. Women doctors in particular objected to the proposed law.
March 2, 1913:
“Children Healthier and Prettier” Dr. Coventry says better quality milk is making Duluth babies
healthier.
February 1, 1914:
“Care of Babies Cuts Mortality. Infant Welfare Work by City Reduces Death Rate 27 per 1,000.
Educational Value of Equal Worth, Says Nurse. Finds Facilities Hampered and Wants Women’s and
Children’s Hospital.” Article details how infant welfare has been conducted. First “How to Keep Baby
Well” circular sent out in 1911 and other efforts were instituted. Gives specific statistics of infant
mortality between 1909-1914. Describes mailings to new mothers. Describes decline of midwifery, as a
positive; gives statistics.
December 12, 1914:
“Webster Flayed in Birth Clash. Women Indignant at Health Director’s Charge of Incorrect Procedure in
Registration Canvass. Declare Effort Was to Present ‘Good’ Side. Deny Assertion That 1,000 Births
Investigated—Webster Says He’ll Prosecute in Future.” Controversy over investigation of baby
registration. Webster says the committee tried to make things look as bad as possible.
December 13, 1914:
“Physicians Find Many Births Not Recorded; Webster Errs. Eight Doctors Blamed—Webster Retracts
Statement Records Not to Be Checked. Women are ‘Amused’ at Director’s Attitude. State Board Takes
Hand in Controversy—Many Births are Registered in Day.” Controversy over baby registration numbers
continued from the day before.
February 7, 1915:
“And Now Uncle Sam Specializes in Rearing Future Citizens. At Least He Tells just How to Rear Children
to Make Them Worthy of the High Title of American. Gives Tips to Fond Parents.” Articles discusses
government issued pamphlets on infant and maternal welfare. Details on their contents included.
February 6, 1916:
“Pictures, Lecture to Illustrate Benefits From ‘Twilight Sleep’” Announcement of public lecture and film
on the benefits of “Twilight Sleep,” a drug which made women unconscious during childbirth.
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February 10, 1916:
“Last Opportunity to View Twilight Sleep Picture Today” Follow up article on Twilight Sleep lecture.
Includes detail that Mrs. Wenonah Stevens Abbott was the one to give the lecture.
February 27, 1916:
“Lectures for Baby Week Planned” Lists all lecturers and their topics, and schedule. A nurse was
stationed at each door to examine each child; only healthy babies admitted.
January 1, 1918:
“Child Welfare Laws In Effect Starting Today. Board to Handle Juvenile Matters in St. Louis County Soon
to be Named” The new code includes a law making the father of an “illegitimate” child responsible. Also
requires that maternity hospitals be licensed by the state.
June 14, 1918:
“’Baby Welfare’ Holds Sway at Morgan Park” Announcement for Baby Welfare Week; includes speakers
from Morgan Park Hospital. Children to be weighed and measured.
July 14, 1918:
“Registering of Baby Essential, Says Orchard. Baby Worth Having Is Worth Registering, Declares Health
Department Secretary.” Public effort to make people comply with baby registration requirement.
August 26, 1918:
“Infant Welfare Clinic at Neighborhood House” Clinic announcement for Morgan Park. Mothers urged
to bring their children in for examination; names of infants who have not been examined will be
turned over to infant welfare chairman.
October 6, 1918:
“Child Welfare Committee Will Have Statistics of Every Child In Duluth. Splendid Co-operation of
Doctors Made First Campaign Huge Success. Two Thousand Children Already Examined; 10,000
Remain.” Article details effort to have all Duluth children under age six examined by medical authorities.
July 14, 1919:
“Child Welfare Boards to Get State’s Assistance” Notice of effort to organize county and state
cooperation in welfare boards. Previous law that allowed the children’s bureau to regulate and license
private and public maternity hospitals and midwives declared unconstitutional.
December 5, 1920:
“Casualties of Motherhood Equal War’s. Children’s Bureau Attempting to Provide Sufficient Care.”
Reprinted from Good Housekeeping. Discusses efforts of child welfare bureau to get federal money for
care of women and infants at childbirth.
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December 11, 1921:
“Minnesota Health Board to Interpret Methods for Administering New Law. Small Amount Available
for State During Next Two Years Will Cause Many Restrictions.” Discusses provisions of new SheppardTowner maternity law.
April 5, 1922:
“Nursing Class Learns Hygiene, Baby Technique. Course Offered at St. Luke’s Hospital Nurses’ Home by
Health Group” Details purposes and objectives of a course in home nursing offered to the public.
Examples of Syndicated Articles by Lulu Peters, M.D.
May 4, 1922:
“I, I, I: I, Myself, I. The History of Me, By Me. Chapter III.” Essay from the point of view of an infant,
explaining proper infant care, and advocating breastfeeding.
May 19, 1922:
“I, I, I: I, Myself, I. The History of Me, By Me. Chapter VIII” Column creatively written from point of view
of infant, advocating baby registration, and reasons for doing so.
Articles on Restrictions and Laws
November 12, 1870 (From the Duluth Minnesotian)
“Registration of Births and Deaths: Notice to Heads of Families and Others”
Notice of new law that requires parents to give notice of births or deaths of children.
January 3, 1904:
“Physicians May Be Called to Account. Failure to Report Births to the Health Department to Be the
Subject of Searching Investigation—Penalty is Severe in Such Cases.” Law says registration must be
done within ten days. Punishment for failure to comply is detailed.
January 11, 1913:
“Legal Bureau For the State. One is Provided for in a Bill Drafted by Duluth Board of Public Welfare.
…Board Also Believes Practice of Midwives Should Be Under Supervision of Health Officer.” Bill
proposes to amend midwife law to provide for supervision by local health officers as a requirement for
renewal of licenses.
January 15, 1913:
“Iron Ranges to Have Two Men in Next Senate” Under section titled “Dinwiddle Appears” there’s a bit
on Senator Cheadle’s midwife bill, which would apply to Duluth only. Would prevent the licensing of
any midwife by the state without approval of city health authorities. One purpose stated is to stop
midwives from providing abortions.
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February 15, 1913:
“Legislative Notes” Senate passes Senator Cheadle’s midwife bill, giving Duluth health department
authority to regulate and decide licensing of midwives within city limits.
March 30, 1913:
“Borgen Bills Advanced by Lower House” Cheadle midwife bill hits a snag when House member Dr.
Stone of Hubbard County objects. He argues it would make the poor have to pay for professional
nurses they couldn’t afford, and that the bill was being passed to favor physicians.
Aril 1, 1913:
“Warner Puts Six Measures On Calendar” Cheadle Midwife Bill tabled by House.
December 25, 1914:
“Ordinance to Stop Lax Registration. Council Will Hear Measure to Bring Private Maternity Institutions
to Light” Dr. H.E. Webster proposes ordinance that would require the registration and regulation of all
midwives.
April 12, 1918:
“Would Compel Maternity Hospitals to Take Licenses” Head of maternity hospitals and infant homes
department of the state board of control campaigns to make Duluth hospitals comply with law. Arrests
to be made. Mrs. M. Wilson of West Duluth fined $25 for operating maternity home without a license.
July 28, 1919:
“County to Help State Bureau in ‘Baby Farm’ Task. Proper Supervision of Maternity Hospitals Possible
Only By Cooperation, Says Head.” Details confusion after the withdrawal of state control over maternity
hospitals, which resulted from the trial and conviction of Ida Pearson, who operated her maternity
hospital in St. Paul without a license. Efforts at creating a licensing law still ongoing.
August 13, 1922:
“States Start Work with Mothers’ Bill. Forty-two Legislatures Signify Willingness to Use Bill” Details
beginning of figuring out how to implement Sheppard-Towner maternity bill. Efforts include accurate
birth registration and training of midwives.
Maternity Hospital Movement
This section does not include articles on private hospitals run by midwives, but rather focuses on larger,
possibly charity-run “Maternity Hospitals”.
The Maternity Hospital in Duluth opened its doors December 1, 1893. The city gave $30 a month for
running it initially.
The county maternity hospital cost 790.64 to run in 1895. The rent was $45 a month.
45
St. Lukes and St. Marys also added maternity wards, but women were reluctant to go to the hospital
(people die there), and so they opened free-standing facilities for a time. See file for “Doctors, Nurses
and Hospitals” for more details.
This file contains six articles on the effort toward a public maternity hospital, all from the Duluth NewsTribune, running between 1894-1921. There is a subfile of four articles detailing specific problems with
maternity hospitals.
November 21, 1893:
“Aids the Maternity Hospital” Small notice that the city has granted the request of the board of the
Women’s and Children’s home to pay $30 a month for six months for the maternity hospital.
November 26, 1893:
“Work of Charity. Decision to Establish the Maternity Hospital. Ladies Make One More Appeal. Relief
Society Bespeaks Aid Through Charity Ball—Associated Charities Elects a Secretary.” No definite
location, though Jefferson and Seventeenth Ave. E is mentioned. To be ready by December 1. Needed
because Women’s and Children’s home overtaxed by confinement cases, and mentions the current
hospitals’ inadequacy. Superintendent to be Miss Stockdale.
December 10, 1893:
“Its Location Established. Maternity Hospital to be on Seventeenth Avenue East.” Article specifies that
it’s “in a house.” Includes an itemized list of needs for donations.
January 22, 1894:
“Hospital Donations: Gifts to the Maternity Hospital During December” Article announcing the
maternity hospital’s needs for donations. Dates its opening as December 1, 1894 [sic], located “at the
corner of Jefferson St and 17th Ave E.” Lists items donated and the person who donated them.
October 7, 1910:
“The Maternity House” This appears to be an article extolling the virtues of a freestanding maternity
hospital owned by one of the hospitals, but it’s unclear which one. It mentions that it is underutilized.
October 24, 1915:
“Physician Tells Why Maternity Hospital Should find Favor” Syndicated article from the Detroit Free
Press. Article extols the virtues of the maternity hospital over the home, saying the cost is less than a
private nurse and it would be more comfortable for the mother. The unnamed doctor addresses the
concern that women have for baby mix-ups in the new wards.
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Problems with Maternity Hospitals
April 19, 1913:
“All Trace Lost of Foundlings From Chicago. Inhuman Conditions at ‘Baby Farms’ Revealed in Illinois
House Committee’s Investigation of Maternity Homes and Other Children’s Institutions. Mother
Contract for Disposal of Their Infants, Signing Agreement to Release and Abandon Them Forever—
Dastardly Business is Shown to be Profitable.” Illinois politicians examine the problems with recordkeeping at so-called baby farms, where infants are removed to adoptive families within hours of their
births, with no records kept of where they’re taken. These institutions are often for single mothers from
out of town, needing to hide the fact that they were pregnant.
April 21, 1913:
“Bill Abolishes Baby Farms Run for Profit” Illinois politicians’ response to the above problem. For-profit
maternity homes made illegal, law making childbirth a causing a common-law marriage between mother
and father automatic, making the offspring legitimate, and father responsible. Such automatic commonlaw marriage requires a divorce. Law provides for public supervision of homes operated by charities.
April 22, 1913:
“Revelations by Three Witnesses. One Admits Babies Are Taken From Mothers in Payment for Board.”
Superintendents of maternity hospitals are found to require mothers to perform housework to work off
debt, and some took their babies as payment.
June 12, 1921:
“Using a Necklace of Colored Beads in Order to Prevent Mixups in Babies” Article details how a New
York maternity hospital dealt with the problem of mixed up babies with an ID necklace, and other
methods previously used that proved unsatisfactory. The article is meant to reassure mothers that
maternity hospitals are secure places to have their babies.
Summary of Midwives and Private Hospitals
This file contains eight miscellaneous articles regarding individual midwives and private hospitals in
Duluth. In addition, there are three sub-files regarding specific well-known midwives: Haldora Olson,
Magda Hansen, and Emma Breinholm. All articles are from the Duluth News-Tribune unless otherwise
designated.
Miscellaneous Articles on Midwives/Private Hospitals
November 10, 1877: (Duluth Minnesotian)
First mention of midwife found: “Old Mrs. Hanson, the midwife…” She is granted $5 for being assaulted
by Anton Arronson.
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March 5, 1893:
Untitled Letter from Mrs. E. Gaard announcing the first meeting of the Midwife Progressive Society,
organized December 6, 1892. Object of organization is “to work against all unlawful women who
practice midwifery in Duluth and West Duluth.” Also attempted to set prices for services. Lists
membership.
August 6, 1893:
Short social announcement regarding midwife L. Baldwin and her return from Berlin Germany to
resume practice at her newly refitted maternity hospital.
September 22, 1893:
“News of the Courts. Mrs. Gaard Gets No Returns From Her Action.” Midwife sues for slander and
defamation and gets nothing.
June 26, 1897 (From the Duluth Weekly News Tribune)
“No Proof of Crime. In Spite of Jennie McCarter’s Suspicious Death. Evidence that Blood Poisoning Was
Caused by Premature Birth, But Efforts to Substantiate That an Abortion Had Been Performed in
Duluth Prove Futile—Verdict Rendered Accordingly. Death of woman at “the woman’s hospital,”
circumstances “suspicious.” Midwife Banks accused of performing abortion that caused woman’s
death.
October 18, 1898:
“Funeral of Mrs. Fisher” Woman dies after a midwife was called to attend to her, but she was “unequal
to the emergency.” A physician is called “too late.” Physician “exonerated.”
July 25, 1901:
“Grave Charge Against Zalk” Details a case of marital abandonment in which the wife took temporary
shelter with Julia Hanson, a midwife.
March 14, 1921:
Under Business Opportunities, 4th column. For Sale: Completely furnished maternity hospital.
Haldora Olson
Graduate midwife with a private hospital; her hospital was first to get permit from health dept. (She was
a fairly big deal in society in West Duluth: Ladies Aid, WCTU); her house was enlarged to make it into a
hospital circa 1905. She had a patent for an “obstetrical appliance” issued 1901 in Canada. For image
and description of patent see Canadian Patent Office Record Volume 29, p. 618 (description is of a
ribbon meant to go around the jaw of the infant, with loops for the midwife to pull the baby out.)
Her hospital was located at 329 N. 58th Ave W..
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November 24, 1907:
“Private Hospital for Women Enjoying Marvelous Success and Popularity. Mrs. Haldora Olson,
Midwife, Has Founded an Institution Filling Long Felt Want. Great Demand for Hospital
Accommodations Leads to Planning Upon Extensive Enlargement. Has Established Most Enviable
Professional Record. Reports 1100 Births in 14 years; 112 Births During 10 Months of 1907. Article is
extensive and detailed. Includes PHOTOS. Has operated since 1904. Graduated from Iceland School of
Midwifery. Gained license for midwifery from Minnesota board of medical examiners after learning
English.
March 5, 1911:
“Serious Need of Another Hospital. Mrs. Olson of West Duluth Would Interest Charitable People in
Worthy Cause. Article mentions she’s been practicing in West Duluth for 21 years. She proposes to run
the place if philanthropists give her assistance, so she can help needy mothers. Currently her hospital
can bed only 12, and she proposes a new building to house three times as many.
August 5, 1911:
“West Duluth Woman Is First to Apply New Law” Olson first to apply for permit to have hospital.
Complying with “new law” passed in 1905. She gets permit #1. The reason for the delay has been lack of
enforcement and ignorance of the law.
June 29, 1917:
“Midwife Arrested by Health Department. Charge that Haldora Olson Neglected to File Birth Certificate
Within Required Time. She is the second to be arrested for this crime in 1917; the other was a doctor.
This is considered a concern of “public health.”
November 2, 1921:
“Olson Funeral Held” Funeral notice for Haldora Olson.
Magda Hansen
November 21, 1912:
“Nationwide Raid Against Misuse of Mails. Approximately 175 Persons Are Arrested Simultaneously in
Principal Cities of Country on Charges Preferrred by Post Office Officials. Specific Charges Are Use of
Mails to Solicit Criminal Medical Practice or to Dispose of Medicine and Instruments Connected with
Such Practice.”
Describes arrests in places across the country. Unnamed Duluth midwife charged with “sending a letter
through the mails giving unlawful advice.” [This usually pertains to birth control or abortion
information.]
July 10, 1913:
“Midwife Pleads Guilty to Misuse of Mails” Magda Hansen pleads guilty as charged.
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July 16, 1913:
“Given 8 Months More in Jail” Included in article reporting court proceedings, Magda Hansen’s
sentencing for “misuse of the mails.” She is given clemency as recommended by local physicians,
because of having a good reputation for 22 years. Gets fine of $250, which she paid.
May 20, 1920:
“Duluth Woman is Charged with Manslaughter. Mrs. MFJ Hansen, Midwife, Denies Knowledge of
Alleged Criminal Operation. Midwife accused of performing abortion that resulted in death of Carrie
Wissel. Accused by two physicians who cared for woman. Hansen pleads not guilty, denies ever seeing
woman. Indicted.
July 27, 1920:
“Midwife Placed on Trial, Accused of Manslaughter Small announcement of the beginning of Magda
Hansen’s trial in the death of Mrs. Carrie Wissel.
July 28, 1920:/
“Duluth Midwife Found Guilty of Manslaughter” Hansen convicted. Stay of sentence so she could
appeal. In her testimony she grants that she treated Wissel, but that the child was born without an
abortion. Includes detail that she has been midwife 35 years in Duluth, and assisted in birth of 4,000
babies.
November 14, 1922:
“Duluth Woman Sentenced on Manslaughter Charge” Magda Hansen, age 58, denied new trial,
sentenced to serve an “indeterminate sentence, not to exceed 20 years, at Shakopee.”
Dr. Emma Breinholm
Comments: Dr. Emma Breinholm advertised in Personals and Medical or Female Confinement in 19011904: “obstetrics, electricity, magnetic and suggestive therapeutic. Private Hospital on 19 th Ave W. (In
1902 she moved herself and the “private hospital” to 1613 Piedmont.)
She shows up in the city directory in 1895 as a midwife. (no mention of “doctor”) until 1903. (She may
not have been an actual trained doctor.)
She was Danish, as was her husband. She was married to Hans P. Breinholm in 1894. She was 26 and he
was 21 when they married. They had a bitter divorce. He claimed bad treatment.
Moved to Spokane Washington in 1905. By 1913 she had moved on to Bellingham Washington. And was
involved in the Suffragist movement there.
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Also in May 1913, she was fined $250 and costs in the US District 7 court (Spokane, Wash.) after she
was found guilty by a jury on a charge of having sent “obscene matter through the mails” She was
arrested in a nation-wide raid. (See San Francisco Call 5/7/1913)
File includes a PDF of the 1900 census data on Emma Breinholm, and two classified advertisements.
This file also contains excerpts from Polk City Directories showing all midwives listed between 18881948.
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Acknowledgements
From Gina Temple-Rhodes
This document was made possible through the support of Anne Pilli, founding mother of
Birthing Ways – Doula Connections, grantee for the 2011 Duluth Birth Oral History Project and
this research effort, and the inspiration of Jana Studelska, midwife and birth history buff who
first suggested interviewing elder women about their birth stories. I was honored to hear and
record those stories, and gained so much insight and inspiration from their experiences. Special
thanks goes to local NEMHC archivists Pat Maus and Mags David for their continued support
and interest, and to Maryanne Norton, Duluth Public Library; Doreen Roberts, Librarian at St.
Luke’s Hospital and Sister Margaret Clarke, Archivist at the St. Scholastica Monastery for
providing access to materials, and to Heidi Bakk-Hansen for her persistence, research skills and
enthusiasm for obscure historical dramas. Grateful thanks goes to the Minnesota State
Historical Society for supporting this work through a Legacy Grant made possible by the Arts
and Cultural Heritage Fund. I am also grateful to Duluth’s birth culture and community, past
and present, for persevering through challenging conditions to be there to support me in the
recent births of my own children.
GTR with baby Kira, 2010
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