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ANSC 2401 Lab Manual
Medical Terminology
Anatomy: The study of the structures of the body (the tissues and organs) and their relationships.
Physiology: The study of how the body structures function.
Planes of Reference
Median Plane: A single plane that passes through the center of the long axis of the body (head to tail)
and divides it into equal left and right halves.
Sagittal Plane: Any plane parallel to the median plane.
Transverse Plane: Any plane that is located at a right angle to the median plane and passes through the
long axis of the body. Divides the body into cranial and caudal segments.
Frontal Plane: Any plane that lies at right angles to both the medial and transverse planes. Divides the
body into dorsal (back) and ventral (belly) segments.
Descriptive Terminology
Anterior: In front of or towards the head. (Anterior and Cranial are often interchanged.)
Cranial: Pertaining to or toward the head. (Superior is often used in human anatomy.)
Rostral: The anterior portion of the head, towards the nose.
Posterior: Behind or towards the rear or tail. (Posterior and Caudal are often
interchanged.)
Medial: Pertaining to the midline, towards the middle or inside.
Lateral: Lying away from the midline, towards the outside (sides).
Dorsal: Upwards, towards the back.
Ventral: Downward, towards the belly.
Proximal: Closer to the center of the body.
Distal: Farther from the center of the body.
Superficial: Pertaining to or closer to the surface.
Deep: Farther from the surface.
Intermediate: In between.
Flexion: A folding movement that decreases the angle between two bones.
Extension: A movement that increases the angle between two bones. It restores the
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body part to its anatomical position after flexion.
Abduct: To move away from the median plane.
Adduct: To move toward the median plane.
Circumduction: A movement in a cone-shape accomplished by a combination of
abduction, adduction, flexion and extension.
Common Prefixes and Suffixes
Hypo-: Prefix meaning below, underneath, or lower than normal. Ex. Hypodermic =
below the dermis (skin)
Hyper-: Prefix meaning above or higher than normal. Ex: Hypertrophy = too much
grow
Sub-: Prefix meaning below or under. Ex: Subcutaneous = below the skin
Ad-: Prefix meaning above. Ex: Adrenal = above the kidney
Intra-: Prefix meaning within. Ex: Intravenous = within the vein
Endo-: Prefix meaning inner or inside. Ex: Endometrium = the inner lining of the
uterus
Ecto-: Prefix meaning outer or outside. Ex: Ectoderm = the outer layer of the skin
Meso-: Prefix meaning middle Ex: Mesometrium = the middle layer of the uterus
Poly-: Prefix meaning many or too many. Ex: Polyuria = too much (excess) urine
-itis: Suffix meaning inflammation. Ex: Sinusitis = inflammation of the sinuses
-philic: Suffix meaning loving or liking. Ex: Hydrophilic = water loving
-phobic: Suffix meaning hating or fearing. Ex: Hydrophobic = water hating
-ectomy: Suffix meaning to cut out. Ex: Tonsillectomy = removal of the tonsils
-otomy: Suffix meaning to cut into. Ex: Tracheotomy = cutting into the trachea
-ostomy: Suffix meaning to form an opening. Ex: Gastroduodenostomy = forming a
new opening between the stomach and duodenum
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-osis: Suffix that means condition (usually a diseased condition). Ex: Endometriosis =
a condition of the inner lining of the uterus
Notes
Cell and Tissue Biology
Organization of the Body
Cell: The smallest structural unit of organisms that can be considered living.
Tissue: A group of similar cells organized into a structural and functional unit.
Organ: A body structure composed of several tissues grouped together in a structural,
functional unit.
Organ System: A group of organs organized into a structural, functional unit.
Organism: Any individual living creature. It can be either unicellular or multicellular.
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Cellular Structures
Cell (Plasma) Membrane: A semi-permeable membrane that encloses the
cytoplasm and all the cellular organelles. It separates the cell contents from the extra-cellular fluid and
external environment. It is composed of a phosolipid bilayer that contains integral and peripheral proteins that help
to transport nutrients and waste into and out of the cell.
Cytoplasm (Protoplasm): The aqueous, gel-like substance that surrounds a cell’s
organelles and is located within the cell membrane, but external to the nucleus.
Organelles: Specialized parts of a cell, each with a specific function(s).
They are analogous to the organs in multi-cellular animals.
Nucleus: A spherical or oval organelle that contains chromosomes (the
hereditary information). It’s contents are enclosed in the nuclear membrane.
Nucleoplasm (Karyolymph): A gel-like fluid contained
within the nucleus.
Nucleolus: A non-membranous spherical body within the
nucleus composed of protein, DNA, and RNA that functions in the synthesis and storage of ribosomal RNA.
Chromosomes: Structures composed of genes made of DNA
that are the hereditary information of the cell. The number of chromosomes varies between species. Ex:
Humans have 46 (diploid) in each non-gamete cell. Human gametes (sperm and oocytes) have 23 (haploid).
Endoplasmic Reticulum: A network of channels running through
the cytoplasm of a cell that serves in intracellular transportation, support, storage, synthesis, and packaging
of molecules.
Rough: Endoplasmic Reticulum that has ribosomes attached.
Ribosomes: Organelle made of tiny granules that are
composed of an RNA called ribosomal RNA (rRNA). They serve as the site of protein
synthesis.
Smooth: Endoplasmic Reticulum that does not have any
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ribosomes attached to it.
Golgi Complex: An organelle in the cytoplasm of cells consisting of
four to eight flattened membranous sacs, stacked upon one another, with expanded areas at their ends.
It functions in packaging secreted proteins, lipid secretion, and carbohydrate synthesis.
Mitochondria: A double-membraned organelle that plays a central
role in the production of ATP. Known as the "powerhouse" of the cell.
Lysosome: An organelle in the cytoplasm of a cell, enclosed by a single
membrane and containing powerful digestive enzymes.
Vacuoles: Membrane-bound organelle that, in animal cells, frequently
functions in temporary storage or transportation.
Centrosomes: A rather dense area of cytoplasm, near the nucleus of
the cell, containing centrioles.
Centrioles: Paired, cylindrical structures within a centrosome,
each consisting of microtubules. They are arranged at right angles to each other and function in cell division.
Cilia: Numerous, short, hair-like projections on the surface of some
cells. They are sometimes used for movement of foreign particles over a surface.
Flagellum: A hair-like, motile process on the surface of some cells
used for locomotion. The only cell in higher animals bodies that have flagella are sperm.
Tissue Types
Epithelial Tissue: The tissue that forms glands or the outer part of the skin
and lines blood vessels, hollow organs, and passages that lead externally from the body.
Simple Epithelium: Single layer of epithelial tissue.
Simple Squamous Epithelium
Description: Single layer of flat, scale-like cells with
centrally located nuclei.
Location: Lines the air sacs of lungs, glomerular
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(Bowman’s) capsule of kidneys, and inner surfaces of the membranous labyrinth and
tympanic membrane of the ear. It is called endothelium when it lines heart, blood and
lymph vessels and forms capillaries. It is called mesothelium when it lines the ventral body
cavity and covers the viscera as part of the serous membrane.
Function: Filtration, absorption, exchange, and secretion
in serous membranes.
Simple Cuboidal Epithelium
Description: Single layer of cube-shaped cells that have
centrally located nuclei.
Location: Covers the surface of ovary, lines anterior
surface of capsule of the lens of eyes, forms pigmented epithelium of the retina of eye, and
lines kidney tubules and smaller ducts of many glands.
Function: Secretion and absorption.
Simple Columnar Epithelium
Description: Single layer of rectangular, columnar cells
that contain goblet cells in some locations and have nuclei at the bases of cells. Can be
either ciliated or non-ciliated.
Location: Non-ciliated – Lines the gastrointestinal tract
from the cardia of the stomach to the anus, excretory ducts of many gland and gallbladder.
Ciliated – Lines a few portions of the upper respiratory tract, uterine (Fallopian) tubes,
uterus, some paranasal sinuses, and central canal of spinal cord.
Function: Non-ciliated – Secretion and absorption.
Ciliated - Moves mucus by ciliary action.
Stratified Epithelium: Epithelial tissue that consists of at least two
layers of cells.
Stratified Squamous Epithelium
Description: Several layers of cells that are cuboidal to
columnar shaped in the deep layers and squamous in the superficial layers. The basal cells
replace the surface cells as they are lost.
Location: The non-keratinized variety lines wet surfaces
such as the lining of the mouth tongue, esophagus, and parts of the epiglottis and vagina.
The keratinized variety forms the outer layer of the skin.
Function: Protection.
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Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium
Description: Two or more layers of cells in
which the surface cells are cube-shaped.
Location: Ducts of adult sweat glands, fornix of the
conjunctiva of the eye, cavernous urethra of the male urogenital system, pharynx, and
epiglottis.
Function: Protection.
Stratified Columnar Epithelium
Description: Several layers of cells with only the
superficial layer being collumnar.
Location: Lines part of the male urethra, large excretory
ducts of some glands, and small areas in the anal mucous membrane.
Function: Protection and secretion.
Transitional Epithelium
Description: Resembles non-kaeratinized stratified
squamous tissue, except that the surface cells are larger and have a rounded free surface.
Location: Lines the urinary bladder and portions of the
ureters and urethra.
Function: Permits distention.
Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium
Description: Not a true stratified tissue. The nuclei are at
different levels and all cells are attached to the basement membrane, but not all reach the surface.
Location: Line larger excretory ducts of many large glands,
epididymis, male urethra, and auditory (Eustachian) tubes. The ciliated variety with goblet cells line most of
the upper respiratory tract and some ducts of the male reproductive system.
Function: Secretion and movement of mucus and sperm cells by
ciliary action.
Glandular Epithelium
Exocrine Gland
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Description: Secretes products into ducts.
Location: Sweat, oil, wax, and mammary glands of the
skin; digestive glands such as the salivary glands that secrete into the mouth cavity and the
pancreas that secretes into the small intestine.
Function: Produces mucus, perspiration, oil, wax, milk, or
digestive enzymes.
Types:
Unicellular: Single-celled glands that secrete
mucus. Ex: goblet cells of the digestive and respiratory tract
Multi-cellular: Many-celled glands.
Simple: Single non-branched duct.
Simple Tubular: Ex: intestinal
glands.
Simple Branched: Ex: gastric and
uterine glands.
Simple Coiled Tubular: Ex: sweat
glands.
Simple Acinar: The secretory
portion is flasklike. Ex:
seminal vesicle
glands.
Simple Branched Acinar: Ex: oil
glands.
Compound: Branched ducts.
Compound Tubular: Ex:
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bulbourethral
(Cower’s)
glands, testes,
and liver.
Compound Acinar: Ex: salivary
Glands
(sublingual and
submandibular).
Compound Tubuloacinar: Ex:
salivary glands and pancreas.
Endocrine Gland
Description: Secretes hormones into the blood.
Location: Pituitary, thyroid and parathyroids, adrenals,
ovaries, testes, pineal, and thymus.
Function: Produces hormones that regulate various body
activities.
Types
Holocrine: Glands that accumulate a secretory
product in their cytoplasm.
Merocrine (eccrine): Glands that simply form the
secretory product and discharge it from the cell.
Apocrine: Glands that accumulate their secretory
product at the apical (outer) margin of the secretory cell.
Connective Tissue
Embryonic Connective Tissue
Mesenchyme
Description: Consists of highly branched mesenchymal
cells embedded in a fluid substance.
Location: Under the skin and along developing bones of
embryo; some mesenchymal cell are found in adult tissue, especially along blood vessels.
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Function: Forms all other kinds of connective tissue.
Mucous Connective Tissue
Description: Consists of flattened or spindle-shaped cells
embedded in a mucus-like substance containing fine collagenous fibers.
Location: Umbilical cord of fetus.
Function: Support.
Adult Connective Tissue
Connective Tissue Proper
Loose (Areolar) Connective Tissue
Description: Consists of fibers (collagenous,
elastic, and reticular) and several kinds of cells (fibroblasts,
macrophages, plasma cells, adipocytes, and mast cells) embedded
in a semi-fluid ground substance.
Location: Subcutaneous layer of skin, mucous
membranes, blood vessels, nerves, and body organs.
Function: Strength, elasticity, and support.
Adipose Tissue
Description: Consists of adipocytes, "signet ring"
-shaped cells with peripheral nuclei. They are specialized for fat
storage.
Location: Subcutaneous layer of skin, around the
heart and kidneys, marrow of long bones,
and padding around joints.
Function: Reduces heat loss through skin, serves
as an energy reserve, supports, and protects.
Dense Collagenous Connective Tissue
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Description: Consists of predominately
collagenous fibers arranged in bundles; fibroblasts are present in
rows between bundles.
Location: Forms tendons, ligaments, aponeuroses,
membranes around various organs, and
fasciae.
Function: Provides strong attachments between
various structures.
Elastic Connective Tissue
Description: Consists of predominately freely
branching elastic fibers; fibroblasts are present in spaces between
the fibers.
Location: Lung tissue, wall of arteries, trachea,
bronchial tubes, true vocal cords, and ligamenta flava of vertebrae.
Function: Allows stretching of various organs.
Reticular Connective Tissue
Description: Consists of a network of interlacing
reticular fibers with thin, flat cells wrapped around the fibers.
Location: Liver, spleen, lymph nodes, and the
basal lamina underlying epithelia.
Function: Forms stroma of organs; binds together
smooth muscle tissue cells.
Cartilage
Hyaline Cartilage
Description: Also called gristle; appears as a
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bluish white, glossy mass; contains numerous chondrocytes and is
the most abundant type of cartilage.
Location: Ends of long bones, ends of ribs, nose,
parts of larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchial tubes, and embryonic
skeleton.
Function: Provides movement at joints, flexibility,
and support.
Fibrocartilage
Description: Consists of chondrocytes scattered
among bundles of collegenous fibers.
Location: Symphysis of pubis, intervertebral discs,
and menisci of knee.
Function: Support and fusion.
Elastic Cartilage
Description: Consists of chondrocytes located in a
threadlike network of elastic fibers.
Location: Epiglottis of larynx, external ear, and
auditory (Eustachian) tubes.
Function: Gives support and maintains shape.
Osseous (Bone) Tissue
Description: Compact bone consists of osteons (Haversian
systems) that contain lamellae, lacunae, osteocytes, canaliculi, and central (Haversian)
canals.
Location: Both compact and spongy bone comprise the
various bones of the body.
Function: Support, protection, storage, houses blood
forming tissue, and serves as levers that act in conjunction with muscle tissue to provide
movement.
Vascular (Blood) Tissue
Description: Consists of plasma (intercellular substance)
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and formed elements (erythocytes, leucocytes, and thrombocytes).
Location: Within blood vessels (arteries, arterioles,
capillaries, venules, and veins).
Function: Erythocytes transport oxygen and carbon
dioxide, leucocytes carry on phagocytosis and are involved in allergic reactions and
immunity, and thrombocytes are essential to the clotting of blood.
Muscular Tissue
Skeletal Muscle Tissue
Description: Cylindrical, striated fibers with several peripheral
nuclei; voluntary.
Location: Usually attached to bones.
Function: Motion, posture, heat production.
Smooth Muscle Tissue
Description: Spindle-shaped, non-striated fibers with one
centrally located nucleus; usually involuntary.
Location: Walls of hollow internal structures such as blood
vessels, stomach, intestines, and urinary bladder.
Function: Motion (constriction of blood vessels, propulsion of
foods through the gastrointestinal tract; constriction of the gallbladder).
Cardiac Muscle Tissue
Description: Quadrangular, branching, striated fibers with one
centrally located nucleus; contains intercalated discs; usually involuntary.
Location: Heart wall.
Function: Motion (contraction of the heart).
Nervous Tissue
Description: Neurons (nerve cells) consist of a cell body and processes
extending from the cell body called dendrites (usually conduct impulses toward cell body) or axons
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(usually conduct impulses away from cell body).
Location: Nervous system.
Function: Exhibits sensitivity to various types of stimuli, converts stimuli
to nerve impulses, and conducts nerve impulses to other neurons, muscle fibers, or glands.
Organs and Organ Systems: The individual organ systems and their
respective organs will be covered in their own sections.
Notes
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Nervous System
Nervous Tissue
Neuron: Nerve Cells. They are the largest and most numerous cells in the
body. No two neurons are identical.
Cell Body: Contains the typical cellular organelles with the exception
of the centrioles. The rough endoplasmic reticulum is concentrated into structures known ad Nissl Bodies.
Nucleus: After four years of age, the nucleus is unable to undergo mitosis
and is therefore unable to increase or replace neurons.
Dendrite: Multiple processes that are the receptor portion of the neuron
and carry nerve impulses towards the cell body.
Axon: A long cylindrical process that carries nerve impulses away from
the cell body of the neuron.
Synaptic Knobs: The buttons of the ends of the terminal branches
of axon that contain synaptic vesicles (stores chemical that will be releases into the synapse).
Classification of Neurons
Sensory: Brings information from receptors in the periphery to
the CNS. Their cell bodies are located outside the CNS.
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Motor: Carry information from the CNS to the peripheral
muscles, glands, or other neurons. Their cell bodies are located within the CNS, but their axons are in the periphery
Interneuron: Carry information from sensory neurons to motor
neurons. The entire neuron is located within the CNS.
Neuroglia Cells: Cells that support, nourish, and insulate nerve cells. They
replace the connective tissue that is missing in the CNS.
Astrocytes: Star-shaped support cells that form membranes around the
capillaries of the CNS and bring nutrients from the capillaries to
the neurons.
Oligodendrocyte: Wrap around the axons of nerve cells in the CNS to
form myelin. These cells are smaller than astrocytes.
Microglia: The smallest of the neuroglial cells of the CNS. They can
migrate and act as phagocytes to remove waste products in nervous
tissue.
Schwann Cells: The neuroglial cells of the peripheral nervous system.
They form the myelin sheath by winding around the nerve
processes.
Myelin: A lipoprotein sheath that increases the speed of impulse
conduction and insulates the nerve from this process.
Nodes of Ranvier: The unmyelinated gaps between segments of
myelin sheath.
Central Nervous System (CNS): The control center of the body.
Brain: Contained within the skull.
Telencephalon: The largest part of the brain composed of the
cerebrum.
Cerebrum: Divided into a right and left hemispheres that are
connected by the Corpus Collosum. Carries out higher
brain function.
Right Hemisphere: Controls the skeletal muscles
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on the left side of the body.
Left Hemisphere: Control the skeletal muscles on
the right side of the body.
Cerebral Cortex: A thin layer of Gray matter composed
of nerve cell bodies.
Gyri (Convolutions): Numerous folds on the
surface of the cerebral hemispheres.
Increase the surface area of the cerebral
cortex.
Grooves: Depressions between the gyri.
Fissures: Deep grooves.
Longitudinal Fissure: Separates
the cerebrum
into right and
left
hemispheres.
Transverse Fissure: Separates the
cerebellum
from the
cerebral
hemispheres.
Sulci: Shallow grooves.
White Matter: Myelinated nerve axons that connect the
cortex to other parts of the cortex, brain, and spinal cord.
Basal Ganglia (Basal Nuclei): Masses of nerve cell
bodies located deep within the white matter of the cerebrum.
Lobes: The functional areas of the cerebral hemisphere,
named for the overlying bones.
Frontal: Houses the motor area of the brain.
Olfactory Bulb: A mass of gray matter on
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the ventral side of the frontal lobe that
houses the center for smelling.
Occipital: Houses of the vision centers of the
brain.
Temporal: Houses the hearing centers of the brain.
Parietal: Houses the areas associated with
temperature, pressure, tough, and pain sensations.
Lateral Ventricles: Two spaces, each surrounded by a
cerebral hemisphere, that are filled with cerebrospinal fluid.
Diencephalon: The portion of the brain stem between the cerebrum
and mesencephalon and surrounding the third ventricle.
Thalmus: Two oval masses consisting of mostly gray matter and
connected by the interthalamic adhesion that function as the central relay center for sensory impulses to
the cerebral cortex and some motor fibers from the cortex to other brain centers. All senses except smell
come through the thalamus. It also interprets an awareness of pain, touch, and temperature.
Hypothalamus: Located beneath the thalamus. It communicates
with the thalamus, cortex, pituitary, and other parts of the brain. Through the pituitary it is the main link
between the nervous and endocrine systems.
Infundibulum: The stalk attaching the pituitary gland to the
hypothalamus.
Pituitary: Secretes hormones necessary for growth, maturation,
and reproduction. It is divided into the anterior and posterior pituitary. It is also nicknamed the "master gland"
Third Ventricle: A cerebrospinal fluid filled space enclosed by
the diencephalon and encircling the interthalamic adhesion.
Optic Chiasm: A crossover link between the two optic nerves
lying anterior to the pituitary.
Mammillary Bodies: Two small rounded bodies that are involved
in reflexes related to the sense of smell.
Mesencephalon: The midbrain. It is located between the
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diencephalon and the pons.
Rostral Colliculi: Two rounded prominences that house the
visual reflex centers.
Caudal Colliculi: Two rounded prominences that house the
auditory reflex centers.
Cerebral Aqueduct: The ventricular tube running through the
midbrain that connects the third and fourth ventricles.
Metencephalon: The portion of the brain that consists of the pons and
cerebellum.
Pons: The bulge between the midbrain and the medulla oblongata
that functions as the bridge between the brain and spinal cord and different parts of the brain. The nuclei
within the pons and medulla oblongata work together to regulate breathing.
Cerebellum: The 2nd largest subdivision of the brain and it
functions as the motor reflex center in coordinating subconscious and conscious skeletal muscle
movements. Proprioceptors in muscles, tendons, and joints, vestibular receptors in the inner ear, and
visual receptors in the eyes relay sensory information to the cerebellum. The cerebellum then evaluates
the information and sends out motor impulses to adjust muscle actions to maintain posture and balance
and coordinate muscle movements.
Vermis: The central portion of the cerebellum.
Lateral Masses: The indented parts of the cerebellum on
either side of the vermis that form parallel ridges.
Cerebellar Cortex: The thin outer layer of gray matter of
the cerebellum.
Abor Vitae: The white matter tracts branching into the
cerebellum.
Cerebellar Peduncles: Bundles of fibers that connect the
cerebellum to the brain stem.
Caudal Peduncles: Connect the medulla, spinal
cord, and cerebellum.
Middle Peduncles: Connect the cerebellum and
pons.
Rostral Peduncles: Connect the midbrain and
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cerebellum.
Myencephalon: The caudal portion of the brain.
Medulla Oblongata (Medulla): The caudal portion of the brain
stem that continues on to become the spinal cord. The cardiac reflex center controls the rate and strength of
heart contractions. The vasomotor center regulates blood pressure by controlling the diameter of blood
vessels. The respiratory center controls breathing rhythm. Other "non-vital" reflex centers control
coughing, sneezing, swallowing, and vomiting.
Pyramids: Motor tracts coming from the cerebral cortex on the
ventral surface of the medulla.
Fourth Ventricle: A cerebrospinal fluid filled space located
between the medulla and cerebellum.
Spinal Cord: The long column of nervous tissue located within the vertebral
canal. It is a direct continuation of the medulla oblongata.
Divisions
Cervical
Thoracic
Lumbar
Sacral
Coccygeal
Important Spinal Cord Parts
Cervical Enlargement: An enlargement of the caudal part of the
cervical and cranial part of the thoracic spinal cord. The
brachial plexus emerges form here.
Lumbar Enlargement: An enlargement near where the pelvic
limb attaches.
Conus Medularis: The tapered end of the spinal cord.
Filum Termiale: The fibrous cord derived from the pia matter,
which extends from the conus to the caudal vertebrae. It helps to anchor the spinal cord in the spinal canal.
Cauda Equina: The "horses tail" formed by the nerve roots
leaving the caudal portion of the spinal cord.
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Dorsal Median Fissure: The groove extending the length of the
dorsal side of the spinal cord dividing it into symmetrical lateral halves.
Ventral Median Fissure: The groove extending the length of the
ventral surface of the spinal cord.
Gray Matter: The nerve cell bodies and synapses that form the
central H-shaped pattern in the spinal cord.
White Matter: The axons that run up and down the spinal cord
and surrounds the H-shaped mass of gray matter. These
tracts connect the brain and the various segments of the spinal cord. It is the myelin around the nerve fibers
that gives it the white color.
Ascending Tracts: The axons that travel up the cord and
carry sensory impulses to the brain.
Descending Tracts: The axons of the neurons in the brain
that travel down the cord and carry motor impulses.
Notes
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Special Senses
(Eye and Ear)
Eye: The organ of sight that consists of the eyeball and its accessory structures.
Eyeball
Fibrous tunic: The outer coat of the eyeball.
Sclera: The fibrous tissue that gives the eyeball shape and
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protects the inner structures. The "white of the eye".
Cornea: The transparent fibrous coat that lets light into the
eyeball.
Vascular Tunic: The middle layer of the eyeball consisting mainly of
blood vessels and smooth muscle. It supplies nutrients to the
eyeball and controls the shape of the lens and size of the pupil.
Choroid: A thin, dark, highly vascular membrane inside the
sclera. It supplies the retina and serves to absorb light that is not reflected out of the eyeball.
Tapetum: A light-reflecting layer of cells of the inner
choroid. Its is only present in part of the choroid
and its size varies between species in which it is present (Ex: dogs, cats, horses, ruminants).
It allows for greater vision with minimal light. Its reflection of light is seen as the
characteristic greenish glow of the eyes at night when a light is shined on them.
Ciliary Body: The thickest portion of the vascular tunic between
the choroid and the iris.
Ciliary Muscle: The smooth muscle that alters the shape
of the lens.
Ciliary Processes: The folds on the inner surface of the
ciliary body that secrete the aqueous humor.
Suspensory Ligament: The ligament that attaches the lens
to the ciliary body, holds the lens in position, and allows the shape to be changed due to the
ciliary muscle.
Iris: The colored, doughnut-shaped part of the eye that surrounds
the pupil. The muscles within it react to light to increase or
decrease the size of the pupil to regulate the amount of light entering the eyeball.
Corpora Nigra (Granula Iridica): Several black masses
at the upper and lower edges of the iris. Found only in horses and ruminants.
Pupil: The central opening of the iris that allows light to enter the
eyeball.
Nervous Tunic (Retina): The inner coat of the eyeball that functions in
image formation. It lines the caudal part of the eyeball and ends at
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the edge of the ciliary body. This border is scalloped and is call the ora serrata. It consists of three layers
of neurons.
Photoreceptors: The light sensitive layer of the retina made.
Rods: The dendrites that are sensitive to dim light and
shapes (night vision).
Cones: The dendrites sensitive to color and sharpness of
vision. They are densely concentrated in the
central fovea located in the macula lutea (the yellow area in the caudal part of the
retina).
Bipolar Neurons: The intermediate layer of the retina that
receives impulses from the rods and cones and passes them
along to the neuronal ganglia.
Ganglion Neurons: The third layer of the retina that passes the
impulse from their axons to the optic nerve.
Optic Disc: The area on the retina where the axons from
the ganglion neurons leave the eyeball as the optic
nerve. It has no cones or rods in this area and is called the blind spot.
Lens: The transparent, biconvex structure located caudal to the iris. It is
arranged in layers of protein fibers (like the layers of an onion) and
is part of the refractory mechanism of the eye.
Interior of the Eye
Anterior Cavity: Lies anterior to the lens and is divided into two
chambers.
Anterior Chamber: The part of the anterior cavity
between the cornea and the lens.
Posterior Chamber: The part of the anterior cavity
between the iris, lens, and suspensory ligament.
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Aqueous Humor: The watery fluid, similar to
cerebrospinal fluid, that fills the anterior cavity. It
is secreted by the ciliary processes into the posterior chamber, flows through the pupil to the
anterior chamber and drains at the periphery of the anterior chamber into the blood. It
maintains intraocular pressure.
Posterior Cavity: The larger cavity that lies between the lens and
the retina.
Vitreous Humor: The jelly-like substance that fills the
posterior cavity, maintains the shape of the eyeball, and holds the retina in place.
Muscles of the Eye
Intrinsic Muscles: Muscles in the interior of the eye.
Pupillary Sphincter: Contracts the pupil.
Pupillary Dilator: Dilates the pupil.
Cilary Muscles: Control the shape of the lens.
Extrinsic Muscles: Muscles outside the eyeball that move the
eyeball.
Superior Rectus
Action: Eye looks up.
Innervation: Oculomotor (III)
Inferior Rectus
Action: Eye looks down.
Innervation: Oculomotor (III)
Lateral Rectus
Action: Eye rotates laterally.
Innervation: Abducens (VI)
Medial Rectus
Action: Eye rotates medially.
Innervation: Oculomotor (III)
Superior Oblique
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Action: Eye rolls, looks down, and to the side.
Innervation: Trochlear (IV)
Inferior Oblique
Action: Eye rolls, looks up, and to the side.
Innervation: Oculomotor (III)
Accessory Structures of the Eye
Eyelids: Also called palpebrae. Two moveable folds that protect the
rostral surface of the eyeball.
Lateral and Medial Angles: The angles made by the joining of
the upper and lower eyelids.
Lacrimal Caruncles: The triangular prominence in the medial angle.
Lacrimal Puncta: Openings into the lacrimal canals on the upper and
lower eyelids near the median angle.
Lacrimal Glands: Secrete "tears" to keep the eyeball moist, provide
lubrication, and keep the eye clean and free of foreign material.. Located dorsal to the eyeball.
Conjunctiva: The special mucous membrane lining the eyelid and
eyeball.
Palpebral Conjunctiva: Lines the inner surface of the eyelid.
Bulabar Conjunctiva: Reflection of the palpebral conjunctiva
onto the eyeball.
Third Eyelid (Palpebra Tertia): The fold of the conjunctiva,
reinforced by cartilage, located between the eyelid’s median angle and the eyeball. Retraction of the eyeball
causes the third eyelid to move across and protect the eyeball.
Ear: The organ of hearing and balance.
Outer Ear: Consists of the pinna and the external auditory meatus.
Pinna (Auricle): The fleshy appendage attached to the side of the skull
by muscles and ligaments. It is very mobile and functions to catch
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and direct sound towards the middle ear.
Auricular Cartilage: The elastic framework of the pinna and
external auditory meatus. Both sides are covered with skin.
External Auditory Meatus: The passage from the pinna to the ear drum.
Middle Ear (Tympanic Cavity): Consists of the tympanic membrane,
auditory ossicles and the opening to the auditory tube.
Tympanic Membrane (Ear Drum): The thin, semitransparent
membrane between the external auditory meatus and the middle
ear. Sound causes it to vibrate.
Auditory Ossicles: The three bones extending from the ear drum to the
oval window of the cochlea. They transmit and amplify vibrations of the ear drum to he oval window.
Malleus (Hammer): The small bone connecting the inner surface
of the tympanic membrane to the incus.
Incus (Anvil): The bone between the malleus and the stapes.
Stapes (Stirrup): The smallest bone in the body. It fits into the
oval window.
Auditory Tube (Eustachian Tube): The passageway between the
middle ear and the nasopharynx. It equalizes pressure on both sides of the tympanic membrane to protect it
from rupturing. Swallowing or yawning opens the auditory tube, allowing air into the middle ear.
Inner Ear: The osseous and membranous labyrinth.
Osseous (Bony) Labyrinth: A series of cavities in the temporal bone that
are lines with periosteum. Divided into the vestibule, cochlea, and semicircular canals.
Perilymph: The fluid within the bony labyrinth, surrounding the
membranous labyrinth.
Membranous Labyrinth: A series of tubes and sacs within the bony
labyrinth.
Endolymph: The fluid within the membranous labyrinth.
Cochlea: The snail shell-like part of the inner ear associated with hearing.
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Bony Labyrinth of the Cochlea: A spiral canal making a number
of turns around a central bony core (modiolus).
Scala Vestibuli: The bony canal that communicates with
the vestibule, the oval window of the middle ear, and the scala tympani at the apex of the
cochlea.
Scala Tympani: A continuation of the scala vestibuli
from the apex of the cochlea to the round window.
Membranous Labyrinth: Divides the bony labyrinth into two
channels – the scala vestibuli and the scala tympani and forms the cochlear duct.
Cochlear Duct (Scala Media): The spiral canal extending
from the base to the apex of the cochlea. It is filled with endolymph and contains the spiral
organ.
Spiral Organ (Organ of Corti): The organ of
hearing. It consists of a series of hair cells on the inner surface of
the membranous labyrinth. The bending of the free ends of the
hair cells by the vibrating of the endolymph generates a
mechanical signal transmitted by the cochlear branch of the
vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII) to the brain where it is received as
sound.
Vestibule: The central expanded portion of the bony labyrinth.
Membranous Labyrinth of the Vestibule: Consist of two sacs –
the saccule and the utricle.
Maculae: Static equilibrium receptors located
perpendicular to each other in the utricle and saccule.
Hair (Receptor) Cells: The receptor cells of the
maculae that carry impulses to the vestibular branch of the
vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII).
Otolithic Membrane: A gelatinous layer over the
hair cells in which they are embedded.
Otoliths: Calcium carbonate crystal forming a
layer over the otolithic membrane.
Semicircular Canals: Three bony canals arising from the vestibule and
arranged at approximately right angles to each other.
Ampulla: An enlarged swelling at the end of each semicircular
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canal.
Membranous Labyrinth of the Semicircular Canals: Forms the
semicircular ducts that communicate with the utricle.
Crista: The receptor organ found in the ampulla of each
semicircular duct. It is composed of hair cells and supporting cell.
Cupula: The gelatinous mass covering the crista.
Notes
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Skeletal System
Osteology: The study of bones.
Compact (Dense) Bone: Bone tissue with no apparent spaces in which the layers of
the lamellae are fitted tightly together.
Cancellous (Spongy) Bone: Porous bone tissue with a reticular of latticework
structure. Usually filled with bone marrow.
Parts of the Bone
Diaphysis: The shaft or long main portion of the bone. Located between the
epiphyses.
Epiphysis: The extremities or ends of the bone.
Metaphysis: The region in mature bone where the epiphyses join the diahysis.
Epiphyseal Plate: The region in growing bone between the diaphysis and the
epiphysis made of hyaline cartilage. It is eventually replaced with bone and becomes the metaphysis.
Articular cartilage: A thin layer of hyaline cartilage that covers the epiphysis where
the bone forms a joint with another bone.
Periosteum: A dense, white, fibrous covering around the surface of the bone. It does
not cover the area where the articular cartilage is located.
Medullary (Marrow) Cavity: The space within the diaphysis that contains the
fatty yellow marrow (functions in fat storage) in adults.
Endosteum: A layer of osteoprogenitor cells and osteoblasts that lines the medullary
cavity. It also contains some osteoclasts.
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Markings on Bone
Condyle: Large articular prominence.
Cotyloid: A deep articular depression.
Crest: A prominent border or ridge.
Epicondyle: A prominence just proximal to the to a condyle.
Facet: A smooth flat surface.
Fissure: A narrow cleft-like opening between adjacent bones.
Foramen: An opening through a bone.
Fossa: A small hollow.
Fovea: A shallow, non-articular depression.
Groove: A long narrow furrow accommodating a vessel, nerve, or tendon.
Head: A rounded articular process.
Meatus: A tube-like canal through a bone.
Notch: A depression at the edge of a bone.
Process: Any prominent, roughened projection from a bone.
Spine: A sharp, slender process.
Trochanter: A large, blunt process found only on the femur.
Trochlea: A pulley-shaped structure.
Tubercle: A small, rounded process.
Tuberosity (Tuber): A large, usually roughened process.
Bone Cells
Osteoprogenitor: Unspecialized precursor cells that are able to differentiate into
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osteoblasts.
Osteoblasts: Cells that participate in bone formation by secreting some organic
components and inorganic salts.
Osteocytes: A mature bone cell that maintains the daily activity of the bone tissue.
Osteoclast: A large multi-nuclear cell that develops from a monocyte and destroys or
reabsorbs bone tissue.
Classification of Bones
Long Bones: Bones with a greater length than width. Consist of a diaphysis and a
variable number of epiphyses. Metacarpals, metatarsals, and phalanges have one,
others have two and the femur has four.
Short Bones: Bones that are somewhat cube-shaped and nearly equal in length and
width.
Flat Bones: Bones that are generally thin and composed of two more or less parallel
plates of compact bone enclosing a layer of spongy bone.
Irregular Bones: Unpaired bones with complex shapes that do not fit into any of the
above categories. Ex: vertebra and some facial bones.
Sesamoid Bones: Small bones embedded within tendons where a great deal of
pressure develops. They help to reduce friction.
Pneumatic Bones: Bones that contain air spaces or sinuses. Ex: frontal and
maxillary bones.
Axial Skeleton
Skull: Comprised of the cranial and facial bones. (22 bones in humans)
Cranial Bones: Bones that enclose and protect the brain.
Frontal
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Parietal
Temporal
Zygomatic Process
External Acoustic (Auditory) Meatus
Occipital
Occipital Condyles
Jugular Process
Sphenoid
Ethmoid
Facial Bones
Nasal
Paranasal Sinuses: Air-filled cavities in some cranial and
facial bones that are lined by mucous membranes that are continuous with the lining of the
nasal cavity. Included are the frontal, maxillary, sphenoid, palatine, lacrimal, and conchal
sinuses.
Maxilla
Incisive: Bones that hold the upper incisors. Absent in humans.
Zygomatic
Temporal Process
Mandible
Lacrimal
Palatine
Inferior (Ventral) Nasal Concha
Vomer
Interparietal: Found only in the horse and cat.
Hyoid Bone
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Vertebral Column
Cervical
Atlas
Axis
Thoracic
Lumbar
Sacral
Lumbosacral: In birds the lumbar and sacral vertebra are fused together.
Coccygeal
Species
Cervical
Thoracic
Lumbar
Sacral
Caudal
Horse
7
18
6
5
15-20
Cattle
7
13
6
5
18-20
Sheep
7
13
6-7
4
16-18
Swine
7
14-15
6-7
4
20-23
Human
7
12
5
5
4
Cat/Dog
7
13
7
3
21-25
Parts of the Vertebrae
Intervertebral Foramen
Intervertebral Discs
Vertebral Foramen
Body
Spinous Process
Transverse Process
Wings
Articular Process
Thorax
Sternum
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Xiphoid Process
Ribs
Head
Tubercle
Intercostal Space
Costal Cartilage
Appendicular Skeleton: The bones of the limbs and their supporting girdles.
Pectoral (Shoulder) Girdle
Clavicle: Absent in the horse and cow.
Scapula
Spine
Acromion
Supraspinous Fossa
Infraspinous Fossa
Subscapular Fossa
Glenoid Cavity
Thoracic Limb
Humerus
Head
Intertubercle Groove
Greater Tubercle
Lesser Tubercle
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Body
Deltoid Tuberosity
Humeral Condyle
Lateral Epicondyle
Medial Epicondyle
Olecranon Fossa
Radial Fossa
Radius
Head
Carpal Articular Surface
Ulna
Olcranon
Tochlear Notch
Styloid Process
Interosseous space
Carpals
Radial
Intermediate
Ulnar
Accessory
C1
C2
C3
C4
Metacarpals
I: The most medial metacarpal. Absent in the horse, cow, and pig.
II: Missing in the cow. Known as the medial Splint bone in the
horse.
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III: Known as the Cannon bone in the horse. Fused with IV in
the cow.
IV: Known as the lateral Splint bone in the horse. Fused with III
in the cow.
Phalanges: There are generally five digits (corresponding to the fingers)
that are numbered from medial to lateral, each generally consisting of a proximal, middle, and distal
phalanx and a varying number of sesamoid bones.
Digit I: Known as the dew claw in carnivores and only having a
proximal and distal phalanx. Missing in the cow and horse. Thumb in humans.
Digit II: Medial dew claw in the cow. Absent in the horse.
Pointer finger in humans.
Digit III: Medial "toe" in the cow. The only digit present in the
horse. Index finger in humans.
Proximal Phalanx: Known as the Long Pastern in the
horse.
Middle Phalanx: Known as the Short Pastern in the
horse.
Distal Phalanx: Known as the Coffin bone in the horse.
Proximal Sesamoids: Located at the Fetlock joint.
Distal Sesamoid: Known as the Navicular bone in the
horse.
Digit IV: Lateral "toe" in the cow. Absent in the horse. Ring
finger in humans.
Digit V: Lateral dew claw in the cow. Pinky finger in humans.
Pelvic Girdle
Coxal (Hip) Bones
Ilium
Pubis
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Ischium
Acetabulum
Obturator Foramen
Pelvic Symphysis
Pelvic Limb
Femur
Greater Trochanter
Lesser Trochanter
Medial and Lateral Condyles
Femoral Trochlea
Patella
Trochlear Tubercle
Tibia
Medial and Lateral Condyles
Tibial Tuberosity
Fibula
Lateral Malleolus
Tarsals: Known as the Hock.
Tibial Tarsal (Talus)
Fibular Tarsal (Calcaneus)
Calcanean Tuberosity: Point of the hock.
Metatarsals: Same pattern as in the fore limb.
Phalanges: Same as in the fore limb.
Joints
Fibrous Joints: Generally allow little or no movement.
Sutures: Joints between the skull bones.
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Syndesmosis: Unites two bones with a sheet of connective tissue. Ex:
Attachment between the costal cartilage.
Gomphosis: The implantation of the teeth into the jaw bones. Not a
true joint because the teeth are not considered part of the skeleton.
Cartilaginous Joints: Can have slight or no movement.
Synchondrosis: A temporary joint of hyaline cartilage. Ex:
Epiphysisal plates.
Symphysis: A joint that occurs along the midline of the body. They
may or may not ossify with age. Ex: Pelvic symphysis.
Synovial Joint: A mobile joint characterized by its mobility, a joint cavity,
articular cartilage, synovial membrane, and fibrous capsule.
Joint Capsule
Fibrous Layer
Synovial Membrane
Synovial Fluid: A viscous fluid produced by the synovial membrane to
lubricate a joint, supply nutrients, and remove waste from the hyaline cartilage.
Ligaments: Strong bands of white, fibrous connective tissue connecting
bones to keep the joint in position.
Meniscus: A plate or disc of fibrocartilage that partially or completely
divides a joint cavity. Allows greater motion and less concussion.
Bursa: A sac-like structure between skin and bone, tendon and bone,
muscle and bone, or ligament and bone that reduces friction between the tissues.
Synovial Sheath: A structure similar to a bursa that is wrapped
completely around a tendon to reduce the friction between the tendon and the underlying bone.
Classification of Synovial Joints: A joint can be either simple (two
articular surfaces) or compound (more than two articular surfaces).
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Plane: Two flat articular surfaces allowing a simple gliding
motion.
Ball-and-Socket: A multi-axial joint allowing universal (all
types of movement).
Hinge: A joint that allows movement at right angles (flexion and
extension).
Pivot: A joint that allows rotation around a longitudinal axis of a
bone.
Ellipsoid (Condyloid): A joint formed by a oval-shaped
condyle of one bone fitting into an elliptical cavity of another. This allows for flexion, extension, abduction,
and adduction.
Notes
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Muscular System
Terminology
Muscle: The contractile organs that are responsible for movements, both
voluntary and involuntary, of the body parts of animals.
Origin: The less movable of the muscle attachments.
Insertion: The more mobile muscle attachment.
Tendon: A white, fibrous, dense connective tissue that attaches muscles to
bone.
Epimysium: The fibrous connective tissue around muscles.
Perimysium: The fibrous connective tissue that separate muscle bundles.
Endomysium: The fibrous connective tissue that separates each muscle fiber.
Sarcolemma: The cell membrane of a muscle fiber.
Muscle Attachments
Fleshy: The attachment of the muscle to the periosteum of the bone by very
short tendons. It appears that muscle is attached directly to the bone.
Tendinous: The attachment of spindle-shaped or pennate muscles to bones by
tendons.
Aponeurotic: The flat tendonous sheets associated with flat muscle (like those
of the abdominal wall).
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Muscle Movement: Can be flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, rotation or
circumduction.
Arrangement of Muscle Fibers
Parallel: The muscle bundles run parallel to each other the entire length of
muscle. This arrangement allows the greatest shortening, but less strength during a contraction.
Pennate: The muscle bundles are arranged to cover a tendon at an angle. This
allows for stronger contractions and less shortening.
Unipennate: A pennate muscle whose tendon runs along one side.
Bipennate: A pennate muscle whose muscle bundles cover a tendon in
two direction.
Multipennate: A pennate muscle whose tendons branch inside the
muscle.
Sphincter: A muscle whose fibers encircle an opening. Contraction of the
fibers closes the opening.
Muscle of the Thoracic Limb
Extrinsic Muscles of the Thoracic Limb (Shoulder): Muscles that
connect the thoracic limb to the head, neck, and trunk.
Superficial Muscles
Brachiocephalicus
Origin: Mastoid process and back of neck.
Insertion: Cleidocephalicus - the skull or the
neck and skull/mastoid process in carnivores. Cleidobrachialis - insertion is the humerus.
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Action: Pulls thoracic limb cranially (forward) or flexes
the neck and head laterally.
Innervation: Accessory and axillary.
Trapezius
Origin: Dorsal surface of neck and spines of vertebrae
from T3 to T9.
Insertion: Spine of scapula.
Action: Elevates thoracic limb (shoulder) and draws it
forward or backward.
Innervation: Accessory.
Omotransversarius
Origin: Distal scapular spine.
Insertion: Wing of atlas.
Action: Pulls the thoracic limb cranially (forward) and/or
depresses and pulls the head and neck laterally.
Innervation: Accessory and cervical.
Latissimus Dorsi
Origin: Thoracolumbar fascia.
Insertion: Teres major tubercle of the humerus.
Action: Flexes shoulder or draw thoracic limb caudally.
Innervation: Thoracodorsal
Superficial Pectoral
Origin: Sternum
Insertion: Humerus (lesser tubercle).
Action: Adduct and retract the thoracic limb.
Innervation: Pectoral.
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Deep Muscles
Rhomboideus
Origin: Cervical part – dorsal neck and thorax. Capital
part (in carnivores) – nuchal crest of skull.
Insertion: Dorsal border of scapula and scapular cartilage.
Action: Draws shoulder dorsocranially.
Innervation: Dorsal branch of spinal nerve.
Serratus Ventralis
Origin: Cervical part – Transverse process of vertebrae C3
– C7. Thoracic part – ribs 1 to 7or 8.
Insertion: Serrated face of scapula.
Action: Raise thorax, shift weight to contralateral limb and
support trunk.
Innervation: Long thoracic.
Deep Pectoral
Origin: Sternum.
Insertion: Lesser tubercle of humerus.
Action: Adduct and retract the thoracic limb (flex
shoulder).
Innervation: Pectoral and lateral thoracic.
Intrinsic Muscles of the Thoracic Limb: Muscles that have their origin
and insertion on the thoracic limb bones.
Intrinsic Muscles of the Shoulder and Thoracic Limb
Deltoid
Origin: Scapular part – spine of scapula. Acromial
part (absent in pigs and horses) – acromion process.
Insertion: Deltoid tuberosity.
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Action: Flex shoulder.
Innervation: Axillary
Supraspinatus
Origin: Supraspinous fossa of scapula.
Insertion: Greater and lesser tubercles of the
humerus.
Action: Stabilize and extend the shoulder.
Innervation: Suprascapular
Infraspinatus
Origin: Infraspinous fossa of scapula.
Insertion: Greater tubercle of humerus.
Action: Stabilize, flex, and extend the shoulder.
Innervation: Suprascapular
Subscapularis
Origin: Subscapular fossa.
Insertion: Lesser tubercle of humerus.
Action: Adduct and extend shoulder joint.
Innervation: Subscapular.
Teres Major
Origin: Caudal border of scapula.
Insertion: Teres major tuberosity of humerus.
Action: Flex shoulder.
Innervation: Axillary.
Teres Minor
Origin: Caudal border of scapula.
Insertion: Teres minor tuberosity of humerus.
Action: Flex shoulder.
Innervation: Axillary.
Coracobrachialis
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Origin: Coracoid process of scapula.
Insertion: Lesser tubercle of humerus.
Action: Flex shoulder.
Innervation: Musculocutaneous.
Biceps Brachii
Origin: Supraglenoid tubercle of scapula.
Insertion: Radial tuberosity.
Action: Flex elbow and extend shoulder.
Innervation: Musculocutaneous.
Brachialis
Origin: Brachial groove of humerus.
Insertion: Radius.
Action: Flex elbow.
Innervation: Musculocutaneous.
Triceps Brachii
Long Head
Lateral Head
Medial Head
Accessory Head: Absent in horses.
Origin: Long Head – caudal edge of scapula.
Lateral, medial, and accessory heads – humerus.
Insertion: All heads – Olecranon of ulna.
Action: Extend elbow.
Innervation: Radial.
Anconeus
Origin: Olecranon fossa of humerus.
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Insertion: Olecranon of ulna.
Action: Extend elbow.
Innervation: Radial.
Tensor Fasciae Antebrachii
Origin: Lattissimus dorsi.
Insertion: Olecranon of ulna and antibrachial
fascia.
Action: Extend elbow.
Innervation: Radial.
Dorsolateral Forearm (Antebrachial) Muscles
Extensor Carpi Radialis
Origin: Lateral epicondyle of humerus.
Insertion: Metacarpus.
Action: Extend carpal joint and flex elbow.
Innervation: Radial.
Common Digital Extensor
Origin: Lateral epicondyle of humerus.
Insertion: Dorsal portion of distal phalanges.
Action: Extend digits.
Innervation: Radial.
Lateral Digital Extensor
Origin: Lateral epicondyle of humerus.
Insertion: Middle phalanges.
Action: Extend digits.
Innervation: Radial.
Lateral Ulnar
Origin: Lateral epicondyle of humerus.
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Insertion: Proximal end of Metacarpal V.
Action: Flex carpal joint.
Innervation: Radial.
Pronator Teres
Origin: Medial epicondyle of humerus.
Insertion: Medial surface of radius.
Action: Pronates paw
Innervation: Median
Supinator
Origin: Lateral epicondyle of humerus.
Insertion: Radius.
Action: Supinates paw.
Innervation: Radial.
Oblique Carpal Extensor
Origin: Cranial surface of forearm.
Insertion: Proximal metacarpus.
Action: Extend carpus and abduct carnivore’s first
digit.
Innervation: Radial.
Caudal Antebrachial Muscles
Flexor Carpi Radialis
Origin: Medial epicondyle of humerus.
Insertion: Proximal metacarpus.
Action: Flex carpus.
Innervation: Median.
Flexor Carpi Ulnaris
Origin: Ulnar head – Olecranon of ulna. Humeral
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head – medial epicondyle of humerus.
Insertion: Accessory carpal bone.
Action: Flex carpus.
Innervation: Ulnar.
Superficial Digital Flexor
Origin: Medial epicondyle of humerus.
Insertion: Palmar surface of middle phalanges.
Action: Flex digits and carpus.
Innervation: Ulnar.
Deep Digital Flexor
Humeral Head
Radial Head
Ulnar Head
Origin: Humerus, radius, and ulna.
Insertion: Tuberosities of distal phalanges.
Action: Flexes digits and carpus.
Innervation: Median and ulnar.
Muscles of the Pelvic Limb
Sublumbar Muscles
Psoas Minor
Origin: Vertebrae T13 – L5.
Insertion: Body of ilium.
Action: Stabilize back.
Innervation: Ventral branches of thoracic and lumbar.
Psoas Major
Origin: Lumbar vertebrae.
Insertion: Lesser trochanter of femur.
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Action: Flex hip and outwardly rotate thigh.
Innervation: Ventral branches of thoracic and lumbar and
femoral.
Iliacus
Origin: Wing of ilium.
Insertion: Lesser trochanter of femur.
Action: Flex hip and outwardly rotate thigh.
Innervation: Ventral branches of lumbar and femoral.
Quadratus Lumborum
Origin: Transverse process of lumbar vertebrae.
Insertion: Wing of sacrum and ilium.
Action: Stabilizes lumbar vertebrae.
Innervation: Ventral branches of lumbar and femoral.
Pelvic Muscles
Internal Obturator
Origin: Interior of pelvis.
Insertion: Caudal surface of femur.
Action: Rotate femur laterally.
Innervation: Ischiatic.
Gemelli
Origin: Ischium.
Insertion: Caudal surface of femur.
Action: Rotate femur laterally.
Innervation: Ischiatic.
Quadratus Femoris
Origin: Ischium.
Insertion: Caudal surface of femur.
Action: Extend hip and adduct thigh.
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Innervation: Ischiatic.
External Obturator
Origin: Ventral surface of pubis and ischium.
Insertion: Caudal surface of femur.
Action: Adduct thigh.
Innervation: Obturator.
Muscles of the Hip and Thigh
Superficial Gluteal: (absent in ruminants)
Origin: Dorsal to hip joint.
Insertion: Third trochanter.
Action: Abduct limb of femur.
Insertion: Gluteal.
Middle Gluteal
Origin: Wing of ilium.
Insertion: Greater trochanter of femur.
Action: Extend and abduct pelvic limb.
Innervation: Gluteal.
Deep Gluteal
Origin: Body of ilium.
Insertion: Greater trochanter of femur.
Action: Extend and abduct pelvic limb.
Innervation: Gluteal.
Biceps Femoris
Origin: Ischiatic tuberosity.
Insertion: Patella, tibia, and calcanean tuberosity of the fibular
tarsal bone.
Action: Extend hip, stifle, and tarsus and flex stifle.
Innervation: Ischiatic.
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Tensor Fasciae Latae
Origin: Tuber coxae
Insertion: Lateral femoral fascia.
Action: Flex hip joint and extend stifle.
Innervation: Gluteal.
Semitendinosus
Origin: Ischiatic tuberosity.
Insertion: Tibia and calcanean tuberosity of the fibular tarsal
bone.
Action: Extend hip and tarsus and flex stifle.
Innervation: Ischiatic.
Sartorius
Origin: Ilium.
Insertion: Medial side of stifle.
Action: Flex hip and stifle.
Innervation: Femoral.
Gracilis
Origin: Pelvic symphysis.
Insertion: Medial side of stifle.
Action: Adduct pelvic limb.
Innervation: Obturator.
Pectineus
Origin: Pubis.
Insertion: Femur.
Action: Adduct pelvic limb and flex hip.
Innervation: Obturator.
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Quadriceps
Rectus Femoris
Vastus Lateralis
Vastus Medialis
Vastus Intermedius
Origin: Rectus femoris – iIlium. All vastus – proximal femur.
Insertion: Patella and tibial tuberosity.
Action: Rectus femoris – flex hip and extend stifle. All vastus –
extend stifle.
Innervation: Femoral.
Adductor
Origin: Ventral surface of hip bones.
Insertion: Femur.
Action: Adduct pelvic limb.
Innervation: Obturator.
Semimembranosus
Origin: Ischiatic tuberosity.
Insertion: Femur and tibia.
Action: Extend hip, flex or extend stifle.
Innervation: Ischiatic.
Muscle of the Crus (True Leg)
Cranial Tibial
Origin: Proximal tibia.
Insertion: Proximal metatarsus.
Action: Flex tarsus.
Innervation: Fibular.
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Long Digital Extensor
Origin: Extensor fossa of femur.
Insertion: Extensor processes of distal phalanges.
Action: Extend stifle and digits and flex tarsus.
Innervation: Fibular.
Long Fibular
Origin: Lateral collateral ligament of stifle.
Insertion: Tarsal and or metatarsal bones.
Action: Flex tarsus.
Innervation: Fibular.
Third Fibular
Origin: Extensor fossa of femur.
Insertion: Metatarsal bones.
Action: Extend stifle and flex tarsus.
Innervation: Fibular.
Lateral Digital Extensor
Origin: Fibula.
Insertion: Lateral digit.
Action: Extend digits and flex tarsus.
Innervation: Fibular.
Gastrocnemius
Origin: Distocaudal surface of femur.
Insertion: Calcanean tuberosity of the fibular tarsal bone.
Action: Extend tarsus and flex stifle.
Innervation: Tibial.
Deep Digital Flexor
Origin: Tibia and fibula.
Insertion: Distal phalanges.
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Action: Flex digits.
Innervation: Tibial.
Superficial Digital Flexor
Origin: Femur.
Insertion: Calcanean tuberosity of the fibular tarsal bone.
Action: Flex stifle and digits and extend tarsus.
Innervation: Tibial.
Stay Apparatus: The mechanism that allows a horse to rest while standing
without muscle fatigue. This allows a horse to instantly be able to flee.
Thoracic Limb: The body weight is suspended by tendons and ligaments
similar to a sling.
Pelvic Limb: The pelvic limb is stabilized by the locking of the patella and the
patellar ligament over the trochlear tubercle of the femur.
Muscles of the Abdomen
External Abdominal Oblique
Origin: Lower eight ribs and thoracolumbar fascia.
Insertion: Aponeurosis of the ventral midline (linea alba) and iliac crest.
Action: Contraction of both sides compresses the abdomen. Contraction
of one side bends the body laterally.
Innervation: Branches of the T7 to T12 thoracic nerves and the
iliohypogastric.
Internal Abdominal Oblique
Origin: Iliac crest, inguinal ligament, and thoracolumbar fascia.
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Insertion: Cartilage of last three or four ribs.
Action: Contraction of both sides compresses the abdomen. Contraction
of one side bends the body laterally.
Innervation: Branches of the T8 to T12 thoracic nerves, the
iliohypogastric, and iliolinguinal.
Transversus Abdominis
Origin: Iliac crest, inguinal ligament, lumbar fascia, and cartilage of last
six ribs.
Insertion: Xiphoid process, aponeurosis of ventral midline (linea alba),
and pubis.
Action: Compress abdomen.
Innervation: Branches of the T8 to T12 thoracic nerves, the
iliohypogastric, and iliolinguinal.
Rectus Abdominis
Origin: Pubic crest and pubic symphysis.
Insertion: Cartilage of ribs five through seven and xiphoid process.
Action: Compresses abdomen to aid in defecation, urination, forced
expiration, and childbirth and flexes the vertebral column.
Innervation: Branches of T7 to T12 thoracic nerves.
Muscles of the Thorax
External Intercostal
Origin: Inferior border of above rib.
Insertion: Superior border of below rib.
Action: Expand thorax during inspiration.
Innervation: Intercostals.
Internal Intercostals
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Origin: Superior border of below rib.
Insertion: Inferior border of above rib.
Action: Reduce diameter of thorax during expiration.
Innervation: Intercostals.
Diaphragm
Origin: Xiphoid process, costal cartilage of last six ribs, and lumbar
vertebrae.
Insertion: Central tendon.
Action: Forms floor of thoracic cavity and pull caudally during
inspiration to increase the length of the thoracic cavity.
Innervation: Phrenic.
Notes
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Cardiovascular System
Blood: A liquid connective tissue that has functions in transport, regulation, and
protection.
Transportation: transports oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients from
gastrointestinal tract, heat and waste from cells, and hormones
Regulation: regulates pH through buffers, body temperature, water cell content
Protection: protects against blood loss (clotting mechanism) and against
foreign microbes and toxins (phagocytic white blood cells, antibodies, interferon)
Components of Blood: composed of blood plasma and formed elements
(cells and cell fragments)
Blood Plasma: a straw-colored liquid that is ~ 91.5% water and ~ 8.5%
solutes (mostly proteins)
Formed Elements
Erythrocytes (red blood cells): 99% of formed elements
Contain hemoglobin, which carries oxygen and gives whole
blood its red color
Biconcave discs with no nuclei or other organelles
Cannot reproduce or carry on extensive metabolic activity
and can only live ~120 days
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5.4 million per mm3 of blood for males and 4.8 for females
Leukocytes (white blood cells): nucleated cells, some can live for
several months or years, but most only live a few days (during infection, some phagocytic WBC’s live only a
few hours)
Granular Leukocytes: have granules in the cytoplasm
that can be seen with a microscope
Neutrophils: have a nucleus with five lobes
connected by very thin chromatin strands and granules stain
"neutral" (a pale lilac color) with a combination of acidic and basic
dyes
Active in phagocytosis and ingest bacteria
and dispose of dead cell matter
Contain proteins that exhibit antibiotic
activity against bacteria, fungi, and
viruses
Eosinophils: have a nucleus with two lobes
connected by a strand and large, uniform granules that stain red
or orange with acidic dyes
Believed to release enzymes that combat
histamine and other mediators of
inflammation in allergic reactions
Basophils: have a bilobed or irregular nucleus that
is often S-shaped and the granules are round and variable in size
and stain blue-purple with basic dyes
Involved in hypersensitivity allergic and
inflammatory reactions
Agranular Leukocytes: do not have granules that can be
seen with a microscope
Lymphocytes: have a darkly-stained round or
slightly indented nucleus
T cells: attack viruses, fungi, and
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transplanted cells, cancer cells, and
some bacteria
B cells: destroy bacteria and inactivate their
toxins
Natural Killer cells: attack a wide variety
of infectious microbes and spontaneously
arising tumor cells
Monocytes: have a kidney-shaped or horseshoeshaped nucleus and the cytoplasm has a foamy appearance
Migrate into tissues and differentiate into
macrophages
Clean up cellular debris and microbes
following infection
Thrombocytes (Platelets): 250,000 to 400,000 in each
mm3 of blood
Disc-shaped cells with no nuclei and many granules
Help with blood clotting and live 5 to 9 days
Blood Types: four different blood types result from a combination of three
different alleles of the I
B antigen and i
A=I AI A
gene. I A codes for the A antigen, I B codes for the
codes for neither.
or I Ai
B = I B I B or I Bi
AB = I A I
B
O = ii
These blood types can be either Rh + or Rh -
AB+ blood types are often called Universal Recipients
O- blood types are often called Universal Donors
Circulation
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Systemic Circulation: pumped by the left side of the heart
Receives oxygenated blood from the right side of the heart.
Pulmonary Circulation: pumped by the right side of the heart
Receives deoxygenated blood from the systemic system.
Blood Flow Through the Body:
Left Atrium ⇒ Left Ventricle ⇒ Aorta ⇒ Systemic Arteries
Þ Arterioles ⇒ Capillaries (O2 unloaded and CO2 loaded)
Þ Venules ⇒ Veins ⇒ Superior Vena Cava ⇒ Right
Atrium ⇒ Right Ventricle ⇒ Pulmonary Trunk ⇒
Pulmonary Arteries (to right and left lungs) Þ Pulmonary
Capillaries (O2 loaded and CO2 unloaded) ⇒ Veins ⇒ Left
Atrium (where it starts over)
Parts of the Heart
Pericardium: A triple layer sac that that surrounds and protects the heart.
Fibrous Pericardium: tough, inelastic, dense, irregular, connective tissue
Rests on and is attached to the diaphragm
Protects the heart, prevents overstretching and anchors the heart
Serous Pericardium: thinner, delicate, double layer
Parietal Layer: fused to the fibrous pericardium
Visceral Layer (Epicardium): adheres tightly to the heart
Pericardial Fluid: between the parietal and the visceral layers
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Coronary Sulcus: external groove that separates the atria and ventricles
Anterior and Posterior Sulcus: external groove that separate the right and left
ventricles
Interatrial Septum: internal wall that separates the atria
Fossa Ovalis: an oval depression that is the remnant of the foramen ovale
(opening in the fetal septum that closes soon after birth)
Interventrical Septum: internal wall that separates the ventricles
Trabeculae Carneae: irregular folds of the myocardium in the ventricles
Atrioventricular (AV) Valves: valves between the atria and ventricles
Tricuspid Valve: lies between the right atrium and ventricle (has three
flaps)
Bicuspid (Mitral) Valve: lies between the left atrium and ventricle (has
two flaps)
Chordae Tendineae: tendon-like cords that attach to the papillary muscles on
the inner surfaces of the ventricles
Semilunar (SL) Valves: lie between the ventricles and the vessels leaving the
heart
Pulmonary Semilunar Valve: lies between the pulmonary trunk and the
right ventricle
Aortic Semilunar Valve: lies between the left ventricle and the aorta
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Respiratory System
Nose: the internal structures function to
warm, moisten, and filter incoming air
receive olfactory stimuli
modify speech sounds
External Nares or Nostrils: openings
Internal Nares: openings into the pharynx
Nasal Septum: vertical partition diving the nasal cavity into right and left
halves
Pharynx (Throat): a funnel-shaped tube that starts at the internal nares and
extends to the to the larynx
Common passageway for food and air
Resonance chamber for speech sounds
Houses tonsils, which helps eliminate foreign invaders through immune reactions
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Nasopharynx: lies posterior to the nasal cavity and extends to the soft palate
Two internal nare openings, two Eustachian tube openings, and the
oropharynx opening
Oropharynx: lies posterior to the oral cavity and extends from the soft palate
to the level of the hyoid bone
Has only one opening, the one from the mouth
Laryngopharynx: begins at the level of the hyoid bone and connects the
esophagus and the larynx
Larynx (Voice Box): a short passage that connect the larnygopharynx and the
trachea
Lies anterior to C4 – C6
Composed of nine pieces of cartilage (thyroid, epiglottis, cricoid, arytenoid,
cuneiform, and corniculate cartilages)
Thyroid Cartilage is termed the Adam’s Apple
Voice Production: occurs when air passes over the vocal cords (folds of
mucous membranes)
If air is directed over the vocal cords, they will vibrate and send sound
waves through the column of air in the pharynx, nose and mouth.
The greater the air pressure, the louder the sound. The pitch is controlled
by the tension on the vocal cords.
Trachea (Windpipe): A tubular passage that extends from the larynx to the fifth
thoracic vertebrae where it divides into the primary bronchi.
Has 16 – 20 C-shaped incomplete rings of hyaline cartilage
Carina: an internal ridge where the trachea divides into the right and left
primary bronchi
Bronchi: the right primary bronchus goes to the right lung and the left primary
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bronchus goes to the left lung
Also contain incomplete rings of hyaline cartilage
Each primary bronchi divides into secondary bronchi, then to tertiary bronchi
Lungs: a pair of cone shaped organs in the thoracic cavity
Mediastinum: along with the heart, it separates the thoracic cavity into two
distinct chambers
Pleural Membrane: two layers of serous membrane that encloses and
protects each lung
Parietal Pleura: superficial layer of that lines the wall of the thoracic
cavity
Visceral Pleura: deep layer that covers the lungs themselves
Right lung has three lobes, while the left has two
Lobules: many small compartments associated with each
bronchopumonary segment (a segment of lung supplied by each tertiary bronchi)
Each lobule is wrapped in elastic connective tissue and contains a
lymphatic vessel, an arteriole, a venule, and a branch from a terminal bronchi
Terminal bronchioles subdivide in to microscopic branches called
respiratory bronchioles
Respiratory bronchioles subdivide into several alveolar
ducts
Numerous alveoli and alveolar sacs surround the
alveolar ducts
Alveoli: where the exchange of O2 and CO2
occurs
Inspiration: breathing in
Caused by lowering the pressure in the lungs, this is done by increasing the
volume of the lungs
Lung volume is increased by the contraction of the diaphragm and external
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intercostals
Expiration: breathing out
Passive process that results in the elastic recoil of the chest wall and lungs (they
have a natural tendency to spring back after being stretched
Starts when the inspiratory muscles relax
During labored breathing expiration becomes active and involves the internal
intercostals and abdominal muscles
Urinary System
Kidneys: the smooth bean-shaped organs of the urinary system that filter the blood
resulting in the production of urine. (Cattle have lobular (not smooth) kidneys and the right kidney of the horse
is heart-shaped.)
Located in the lumbar region of the abdomen around the last thoracic / first
lumbar vertebrae.
They lie behind the peritoneum in non-ruminants and hang down into the
abdominal cavity in ruminants. The rumen also pushes the left kidney to the right of the median plane.
The right kidney lies slightly more cranially than the left kidney with the
exception of the pig, where they lie at the same level.
Perirenal Fat: mass of fat surrounding the kidney that protects it and holds it
in place
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Fibrous capsule: a layer of connective tissue that is loosely attached to the
kidney, except at the hilus
Hilus: the area where the vessels and ureters leave the kidneys
Cortex: outer layer of kidney, beneath the capsule
Contains the renal corpuscles and the renal tubules
Medulla: inner layer of the kidney
Contain ducts and nephric loops
Lobes: the units of the kidney (are only visible in the cow)
Renal Papilla: the apex of a kidney lobe that drips urine into the ureter
Renal Pelvis: the expanded proximal end of the ureter
Calyx: cup-shaped structure in pigs and cows that receives urine from the renal
papilla
Renal Sinus: the potential space occupied by the ureter, branches of the renal
artery and vein, the lymphatic vessels, and the nerves entering the kidney
Note: We will not cover the micro-anatomy of the kidney since that was
covered in detail in lecture.
Adrenal Glands: endocrine glands that lie cranial to the kidneys. Except in
the horse they lie medial to the kidney.
Ureter: the fibro-muscular tubes that carry urine from the kidneys to the urinary
bladder
The ureters enter the bladder at an acute (sharp) angle to allow for emptying into a
full bladder and to prevent back flow.
Urinary Bladder: a very distensible pouch that receives and stores urine from the
kidneys
When distended the bladder lies not only within the pelvic cavity but also extends
into the abdominal cavity
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Urethra: the fibro-muscular tube that carries urine from the bladder for release
outside the body.
In males it also carries semen for ejaculation. Urine and semen are expelled
separately.
Notes:
Digestive System
Oral Cavity: the space extending from the lips to the pharynx
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Philtrum: the median cleft in the upper lip of carnivores and small ruminants
Teeth: used for primarily for mastication, but also for food prehension
(gathering)
Gomphosis: the implantation of the teeth into the alveoli (bony sockets)
of the mandible, maxilla, and incisive bones - not a true joint because the teeth are not part of the skeleton
Incisors (I): the most rostral teeth embedded in the incisive (maxillary
bone in humans) and the mandible bones
Dental Pad: replaces the upper incisors and canines in ruminants
Canines (C): the large tooth (one on each side) between the incisive and
cheek teeth (premolars and molars)
Premolars (P): the rostral cheek teeth
Molars (M): the caudal cheek teeth
Carnassial (Sectorial) Teeth: the 4th upper premolar and the 1st lower
molar in dogs and cats that is used for shearing
Tusks: the canine teeth of the pig
Wolf Teeth: a term used to describe the rudimentary upper 1st premolar
which is usually absent in horses
Needle Teeth: the pigs deciduous 3rd incisors and canines that are usually
"nipped" off in newborn pigs
Deciduous Dentition: the "baby teeth" – they are usually smaller and
fewer of them than the permanent teeth
Permanent Dentition: the teeth that replace the "baby teeth" which must
last throughout the animal’s life
Tongue: the muscular organ in the oral cavity that aids in swallowing, food
movement during mastication, vocalization, taste, temperature control (panting in dogs), and prehension of
food (in species such as the cow)
Contains taste-buds for gustatory function (taste)
Contain papillae that serve a gustatory function and or a mechanical
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function to direct food caudally (there are several types of papillae)
Apex: the rostral free end of the tongue
Root: the caudal end of the tongue that is attached to the hyoid apparatus
Salivary Glands: glands that secrete saliva into the oral cavity to wet and
lubricate food for swallowing
Saliva: a fluid consisting mainly of water, some protein, electrolytes, and
IgA antibodies
Pharynx: the common passage of the digestive and respiratory systems
Connects the oral cavity and the esophagus and moves food toward the esophagus
through undulating muscle contractions
Oropharynx: extends from the oral cavity to the epiglottis
Laryngopharynx: passage for food and water from the oropharynx to the
esophagus – extends from the epiglottis to the entrance of the esophagus
Soft Palate: divides the naso- and oro- pharnyx
Esophagus: the muscular tube that is the passage of food from the pharynx to the
stomach
First part of the alimentary canal
Lined with cornified epithelium to protect it
Lies dorsal to the trachea and ventral to the vertebrae
Passes through the hiatus of the diaphragm and terminates at the cardia of the
stomach
Non- Ruminant (Simple or Monogastric) Stomach: single
compartment stomach found in carnivores, horses, pigs, and humans
Receives food (ingesta) from esophagus and stores it temporarily
Secretes digestive enzymes such as pepsin and hydrochloric acid
Its muscular movements mix the ingesta and enzymes and move them slowly on
to the duodenum
Parts of the Simple Stomach
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Greater Curvature: the long convex surface of the stomach that leads
from cardia to the pylorus
Lesser Curvature: the short concave surface of the stomach that extends
from the cardia to the pylorus
Parietal Surface: the side of the stomach in contact with the liver
Visceral Surface: the side of the stomach in contact with the rest of the
abdominal viscera
Cardia: the part of the stomach around the esophagus – the "fixed"
point of the stomach
Cardiac Opening: the esophageal opening into the stomach
Fundus: The blind, expanded portion of the left side of the stomach
adjacent to the esophagus
Body: the largest part of the stomach that extends from the cardia to the
pylorus
Pylorus: the distal part of the stomach that opens into the duodenum at
the pyloric valve (a sphincter muscle)
Ruminant Stomach: a four compartment stomach found in cows, sheep,
goats, ect.
Forestomach (Proventriculus): the three proximal, non-glandular compartments
that consist of the rumen, reticulum, and omasum
Rumen: the largest of the four compartments, filling most of the left
side of the abdomen
A fermentation vat for microorganisms that break down the
unusable cellulose into metabolizable components
Papillae: numerous mucosal projections on the interior surface a
"pile rug" appearance
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Cardiac Opening: the esophageal entrance into the rumen
Reticulum: the most cranial compartment located on the median plane
against the diaphragm
Interior has a honeycomb appearance
Omasum: the spherical compartment caudal to the reticulum
Is sometimes termed the "Bible" or "Book" due to the page like
appearance of its muscular laminae
Omasal Laminae: parallel leaf-like structures projecting into the
interior from the wall
Abomasum: the elongated "true stomach" that is lined with glandular tissue
Pylorus: the part of the abomasum that opens into the duodenum
Gastric Groove: a channel through the stomach that follows the lesser
curvature of the stomach, found in all domestic species, but is of greatest importance to the suckling ruminant
Suckling with the head tilted up causes the lips of the gastric groove to
close, forming a tube from the cardiac opening to the abomasum. This causes milk to bypass the rumen,
reticulum, and omasum and empty directly into the abomasum.
This reflex disappears in adults, except in response to some liquid salts.
Small Intestine: the principle site of digestion and absorption which extends from
the pylorus to the large intestine
Duodenum: receives ingesta from the stomach
Bile and pancreatic secretions empty into the descending duodenum
Jejunum: the longest part of the small intestine which extends from the
duodenum to the ileum
Ileum: the short terminal portion of the small intestine that empties into the
large intestine
Large Intestine: the portion of the digestive tract that functions to dehydrate the
fecal contents by absorbing water – it includes the cecum, colon and rectum
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The size, shape, and structures vary widely between species.
Cecum: the blind diverticulum off the beginning of the colon which is the site
of fermentative digestion
Horse: the horses cecum is a huge comma-shaped structure occupying
most of the right abdominal cavity
Colon: the portion of the digestive tract that carries ingesta from the small
intestine to the rectum
Divided into the ascending, transverse, and descending colon
Horse: has a long double horseshoe shaped loop of the ascending colon
Rectum: the portion of the large intestine that lies within the pelvic cavity and
extends from the colon to the anus
Anal Canal: the short terminal portion of the alimentary canal that opens to
the exterior as the anus
Accessory Organs
Liver: the largest gland in the body
Secrete bile into the duodenum via the bile duct
Serves to metabolize carbohydrates and fats, detoxifies the body (drugs
and toxins), produces plasma proteins, inactivates polypeptide hormones, ect.
Gall Bladder: a sac-like structure that stores and concentrates bile to be
discharged into the duodenum
Absent in the horse
Pancreas: a v-shaped gland that has both an endocrine and an exocrine
function
Endocrine: secretes insulin and glucagon into the blood to keep sugar at
a constant level
Exocrine: secretes enzymes that aid in the digestion of carbohydrates,
fats, and proteins
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Notes:
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Male Anatomy
Scrotum: the sac-like structure that supports, protects, and regulates the temperature
of the testes
Made of two lobes
Homologous to the Labia majora in the female
The skin portion has a large number of sweat and sebaceous (oil) glands
The Tunica dartos is the smooth muscle portion
Testes: paired structures that are the primary sex organ of the male
Produces the male gametes (spermatozoa)
Produces hormones
Housed within the scrotum
Tunica vaginalis: an extension of the peritoneum that covers the testes
Tunica albuginea testis: the outer connective tissue layer
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Parenchyma: the functional layer of the testes
Contains the Seminiferous tubules
Site of Spermatogenesis
Makes up 80% of testis weight
Germ cells (Spermatogonia): become sperm
Seritoi cells (Nurse cells): form the blood-testis barrier
Leydig cells (Interstitial cells):
Located between the seminiferous tubules
Produce testosterone
Epididymis: paired convoluted tubules that transport sperm from the testes to the
ductus deferens
Concentrates, stores, and matures sperm
Spermatic Cord: paired structures that connect the testes to the urethra
Carry the nerve and blood supply to the testes
Carry sperm to the urethra through the ductus derferens (vas deferens)
Support the testes
Temperature regulation through the creamaster muscles
Ductus Deferens: paired structures that transport sperm during ejaculation and
connect the epididymis to the pelvic urethra
Surrounded by a thick layer of smooth muscle
Ampulla: the enlarged end near the urethra
Absent in the boar
Urethra: single duct that transports both urine and sperm
Divided into two parts
Pelvic urethra
Penile urethra
Accessory Sex Glands:
glands located along the pelvic urethra
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Contribute to fluid volume of semen
Provide nutrients, buffers, and other substances necessary for sperm motility and
fertility
Secrete seminal plasma
Vesicular Glands (Seminal Vessicles): paired, lobular gland, that looks
like a "cluster of grapes"
Contribute to over one-half of the total semen volume
Secretes fluids to protect against shifts in pH
Secretes the gelatinous material in stallion semen
Prostate Gland: single gland that secretes Na, Cl, Ca, Mg
Secretions cleans the urethra in the stallion
Bulbourethral Glands (Cowper’s Gland): paired glands
Secretions cleans the urethra in the bulls
Secretes the gelatinous material in boar semen
Penis: the organ of copulation in the male
Used by both the reproductive and urinary systems
Contains the penile urethra
Sigmoid Flexure: an s-shaped bend in the penis of bulls, rams, and boars
Allows the penis to be retracted completely into the body
Absent in the stallion
Glans Penis: the free end of the penis
Shape varies depending on species
Homologous to the clitoris in the female
Most species have a fibroelastic penis with some erectile tissue
Horse, however, has a great deal more erectile tissue which engorges with
blood during sexual excitement causing the penis to extend (erection)
Prepuce (Sheath): encloses the free end of the penis
Homologous to the labia minora in the female
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Sperm Pathway Out of the Body:
Seminiferous tubules
Epididymis
Ductus Deferens
Pelvic Urethra
Penile Urethra
Temperature Control of the Testes: the testes need to be maintained 4 to
10 0F lower than normal body temperature (91-97 0F)
Scrotum and Spermatic Cord
Tunica dartos muscles (controls the scrotum’s surface area)
Creamaster muscles (controls proximity to the body)
Cold weather causes these muscles to contract decreasing the surface area
and drawing the testes closer to the body
Hot weather cause these muscles to relax increasing the surface area and allow
the testes to swing down away from the body
Sebaceous and Sweat Glands
Cold weather these glands are not as active
Hot weather causes these glands to become more active allowing evaporation
to cool the scrotum
Pampiniform Plexus
The arteries that supply blood to the testes are very convoluted and pass
through a pampiniform plexus of testicular veins. This allows the arterial
blood entering the testes to be cooled by the venous blood leaving the
testes. As the spermatic cord lengthens during hot weather, more surface area is provided for the heat exchange.
Notes:
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Female Anatomy
Vulva: the outermost portion of the female reproductive tract
Made of two portions
Labia majora – outer lips
Labia minora – inner lips
Vestibule: the common pathway of the reproductive and urinary tract
Terminal portion of the vagina
Site of the urethral opening
Clitoris: erectile tissue located just inside the vulva
Homologous to the glans penis in the male
Contains numerous sensory nerves and increases sexual excitement in the female
during copulation
Vagina: copulatory organ and birth canal
Site of sperm deposition in most species
Contains many mucosal glands
Made of highly elastic muscle and connective tissue
Cervix: thick-walled, inelastic "tube" that separates the vagina the uterus
Usually a single structure except in species with duplex or didelphic uteruses
Prevents contamination of the uterus
Serves as a sperm reservoir
Shape is species specific
Annular rings in cow and ewe
Corkscrew in pigs
Mucosal folds in mares
Uterus: organ that contains the fetus during pregnancy
Produces hormones
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Site of placental attachment
There are several types of uteri
Bicornuate: two horns, no body, one cervix, one vagina
Swine and dogs
Biparite: two horns, one body, one cervix, one vagina
Horses, cattle, and sheep
Duplex: two uteri, two cervix, one vagina
Rabbits and small rodents
Simplex: no horns, one body, one cervix, one vagina
Humans and primates
Didelphic: two uteri (each with one body and one horn), two vagina, two
vulva openings (Males of these species have a forked penis.)
Kangaroos, opossums, and other marsupials
Oviducts (Fallopian or Uterine Tube): paired structures that connect the
ovaries and uterus
Transports ova and sperm
Made up of several segments
Fimbria: finger-like projections that surround the ovary to "catch" the
oocyte when released during ovulation
Infundibulum: funnel-shaped portion of the tube connected to the fimbria
Ampulla-Isthmus Junction: site of fertilization
Uterotubal Junction: connection site of the oviduct and uterus
Ovaries: paired structures that are the primary sex organs in the female
Produces the female gametes (oocytes)
Produces hormones
Follicles: structure that contains the oocyte
Corpus luteum: the structure formed after the follicle ruptures at
ovulation and produces progesterone
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Embryo/Fetal Development
Terminology:
Zygote: As soon as the diploid number of chromosomes is returned at
fertilization, what was once and ovum and sperm are now a zygote.
Embryo: From the two-cell stage until differentiation is complete the
conceptus is known as an embryo. This is usually not pat day 40 in the horse or day 60 in humans.
Morula: When the embryo has undergone three or four cell divisions and is at
the 16 to 32 cell stage it is known as a morula. The individual cells of the
morula are known as blastomeres.
Blastocyst: After fluid begins to collect in the innercellular spaces and forms a
cavity (called a blastocele) the embryo is known as a blastocyst.
Embryoblast: The cells of the inner cell mass which are located at one pole
are now called the embryoblast.
Trophoblast: The outer cell mass that becomes the epithelial wall of the
blastocyst is called the trophoblast. The trophoblast will eventually become part of the placenta.
During the blastocyst stage the embryo hatches out of the Zona Pellucida
Fetus: After differentiation has been complete and until parturition the
conceptus is known as a fetus.
1st Trimester: during the first 1/3rd of pregnancy in any species is the period of
when there is the largest increases in cell numbers
This is time from fertilization to organogenisis
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Organogenisis: the differentiation and formation of the organs
Nervous system is the first to begin to form but the last to complete
Heart is the first organ to complete formation
Heartbeat can be detected at ~ Day 25 after conception
This period is when the embryo is most susceptible to problems with development
Most congenital malformation have their origins during this period
2nd Trimester: this is the period of growth and maturation of the organ systems
During this trimester, the germ cells are migrating into the gonads
Therefore, the female has the highest number of oocytes she will ever have at this
time
3rd Trimester: this is the period of largest growth and weight gain in the fetus
The fetus is putting on weight and preparing for birth
Hair coat is put on the fetus
Gestation Lengths (Averages)
Swine 114 Days
Sheep 148 Days
Humans 266 Days (280 Days after last menstration)
Cattle 280 Days
Horses 340 Days
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