Download Marine Biodiversity in Sub-Saharan Africa

Marine Biodiversity in Sub-Saharan
Africa: The Known and the Unknown
Proceedings of the Marine Biodiversity in Sub-Saharan
Africa: The Known and the Unknown
Cape Town, South Africa
23-26 September 2003
Edited by
Cynthia Decker, Charles Griffiths, Kim Prochazka,
Carmen Ras & Alan Whitfield
Table of contents
Page
3-5
Introduction
National reports
: Country – Liberia & Cote d’Ivoire
: Country – Ghana, Togo & Benin
: Country – Nigeria
: Country – Cameroon, Sao Tome & Principe
: Country – Gabon
: Country – Angola
: Country – Namibia
: Country – South Africa
: Country – Moçambique
: Country – Tanzania
: Country – Kenya
: Country – Mauritius & Reunion
: Country – Seychelles
6-25
26-45
46-63
64-74
75-85
86-98
99-123
124-137
138-155
156-168
169-187
188-205
206-227
Thematic reports
: Macroalgae
: Biogeography of estuarine fishes in Africa
: Western Indian Ocean Project on marine biodiversity
: Coastal and seabirds
229-241
242-245
246-252
253-262
Related initiatives
: Census of Marine Life (CoML) Indian Ocean
: Ocean Biogeographical Information Systems (OBIS)
: Global Invasive Species Programme (GISP)
: World Wide Fund For Nature in South Africa
(WWF-SA)
: Marine Species Database for Eastern Africa
(MASDEA) and Ocean Data and Information Network
for Africa (ODINAfrica)
: How to achieve a national biodiversity review and
inventory
: SeaweedAfrica Database
: Seawaste Network
264-265
266
267-270
Workshop reports
Appendix
271-272
273-276
277
278-280
281-282
: Summary of the first two days
: Introduction to the workshop sessions
: Working Session A – Exploration of mechanisms for
information dissemination and communication
: Working Session B – Identifying and addressing key
gaps in marine biodiversity knowledge in Africa
: Working Session C – Developing appropriate capacity
for furthering knowledge of Africa’s marine
biodiversity
: The Way Forward
: Resolution
295-297
298-299
300
: Programme
: List of delegates
302-303
304-310
2
284-285
286
287-289
290-294
PROCEEDINGS OF SUB-SAHARAN AFRICAN MARINE
BIODIVERSITY WORKSHOP
The following document records the proceedings of a workshop entitled “Marine Biodiversity
in sub-Saharan Africa: the Known and the Unknown”, which was held in Cape Town, South
Africa, from 24-26 September 2003. The workshop was an initiative of the Census of Marine
Life (CoML) Programme, which has sponsored a series of other similar regional workshops,
aimed at documenting the state of knowledge of marine biodiversity and at establishing
regional networks of researchers to promote and co-ordinate future research in the discipline.
Previous workshops have been held in Southeast Asia (Phuket, October 2001) and in South
America (Conception, October 2002), and another is proposed for India in December 2003.
The sub-Saharan African workshop was convened jointly by the Zoology Department at the
University of Cape Town, the International Ocean Institute in Southern Africa (University of
the Western Cape), and the South African Institute for Aquatic Biodiversity, and was
supported financially by the Alfred P Sloan Foundation.
This workshop brought together African experts in the field of marine and coastal biological
diversity from 14 coastal countries in sub-Saharan Africa, as well as relevant decisionmakers, representatives of their governments, and representatives of related regional and
global initiatives. Their mandate was to explore the state of knowledge of marine biodiversity
in sub-Saharan Africa, and to evaluate the current status, and threats to, marine biological
diversity in the region. The workshop also considered what actions could be taken to address
shortcomings in the state of knowledge surrounding marine biological diversity in subSaharan Africa, and to mitigate current threats to this diversity.
It is our hope that these discussions will ultimately result in the establishment of a broader
Action Programme to address these vital issues, and a committee was appointed at the
conclusion of the meeting to take these matters forward. The proposed Action Programme
could focus on a number of key areas, including:
•
•
•
•
•
The formation of a network of biodiversity researchers and professionals in subSaharan Africa.
Addressing key gaps in current knowledge of marine and coastal biological diversity
in sub-Saharan Africa through, for example, mobilization of research funding.
Information dissemination and communication, including the establishment and
consolidation of the network of biodiversity researchers and professionals, and an
electronic database of biodiversity and taxonomic resources (including species
inventories, catalogues of museum holdings, lists of taxonomists working on different
groups, etc.).
Developing human, institutional and infrastructural capacity for furthering knowledge
of marine and coastal biological diversity in the region through, for example,
development of an MSc course in taxonomic and biodiversity studies, partnering with
other institutions in exchange programmes, etc.
Facilitating management of marine and coastal biological diversity in the region
through, for example, provision of information through the database (including GISbased information), provision of advisory services, etc.
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Our thanks to the Sloan Foundation for their generous support, without which this workshop
could not have taken place, to the workshop participants for the considerable effort they put
into their presentations and written reports and to our host institutions for allowing us to
become involved in this important exercise.
We trust you, the reader, will find these proceedings of interest
The ORGANISING COMMITTEE
Prof Charles Griffiths (Chair)
Director: Marine Biology Research Institute
University of Cape Town
Rondebosch 7700
e-mail: [email protected]
Ms Carmen Ras (Secretariat)
Co-ordinator: Biodiversity, Conservation and Environmental Assessment Programme
International Ocean Institute, Southern Africa (IOI-SA)
C/o Department of Biodiversity and Conservation Biology
University of the Western Cape
Bellville 7535
e-mail: [email protected]
Dr Kim Prochazka
Director: International Ocean Institute, Southern Africa (IOI-SA)
C/o Department of Biodiversity and Conservation Biology
University of the Western Cape
Bellville 7535
e-mail: [email protected]
4
Dr Alan Whitfield
Deputy Director: South African Institute for Aquatic Biodiversity
Private Bag 1015
Grahamstown 6140
e-mail: [email protected]
Dr Cynthia J. Decker
Liaison Branch
Oceanographer of the Navy (N096)
U.S. Naval Observatory Bldg 1
3450 Massachusetts Ave., NW
Washington, DC 20392-5421
email: [email protected]
5
National Report
Marine biodiversity in Côte d’Ivoire – the known and the unknown
Sankaré Yacouba & N’Goran Ya Nestor
29 Rue des Pêcheurs, Centre de Recherches Océanologiques,
BPV 18 Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire
1. Introduction
Located in the Gulf of Guinea, with an area of 322 465 km², Cote d’Ivoire (4°30’ and
10°30’N and 2°30’ and 8°30’W) is bounded by the Atlantic Ocean in the south, Liberia in the
south east, Guinea in the northwest, Burkina Faso in the north and Ghana in the east. The
coast between Liberia and Ghana is about 540 km length.
The country is influenced by the Monsoon (humid) and Harmattan (dry) tropical air masses.
These two air masses are separated by the intertropical front that influences the local climate.
The climate in southern part, including the coast, is humid tropical and characterized by a
climate with four seasons: two dry seasons from November to March and from July to August
and two rainy seasons from April to June and from September to October.
Forests occupy more than half part of the southern part of the country. Littoral savanna
vegetation is found south of the lagoons between Port-Bouet and Grand-Bassam. Pre-lagoon
savanna is located north of the lagoons in the dense forest of the south. The littoral zone
contains different natural habitats, including five lagoon systems, closed lagoons, swamp
forests, mangrove forests (mainly by Rhizophora racemosa and Avicennia africana)
The continental shelf, with an area of 12 000 km², has two types of bottom sediments, sandy
bottoms in the eastern part and rocky bottoms in the western part. The continental shelf is
narrow, with a width that varies between 9 and 18 miles, with a mean of 13 miles.
Different types of human activities are conducted in the region, notably agriculture, power
generation, timber exploitation, sand extraction, and various industries (e.g. petrol and gas).
Several ports are located in this region, including the political capital Abidjan.
2. The Known
2.1. Marine algae
Microphytes belong to two major groups: the phytobenthos (mainly Cyanophyceae and
Bacillariophyta) and phytoplankton (mainly Cyanophyceae, Diatomophyceae, Pyrrhophyceae,
Chlorophyceae and Euglenophyceae). A total of 1241 microphyte species have been recorded
including 113 species of Cyanophycaeae. Algae are dominated by green algae (Gamophyta
and Chlorophyta) with 436 species, followed by diatoms (Bacillariophyta) with 331 species.
Marine macroscopic algae are less abundant when compared to microscopic algae.
Inventoried green algae correspond to 1.4% of the number of species described in the world,
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brown algae (Phaeophyta) 1.2% and red algae (Rhodophyta) 1.5%.
The main threat to algae is the pollution of marine and brackish waters in Cote d’Ivoire.
However, some species of algae can be linked to water pollution, e.g. Oscillatoria formosa;
Oscillatoria princeps; Oscillatoria tenuis; Chlorella vulgaris; Chlorella pyrenoidosa;
Scenedesmus quadricauda; Tetraedron muticum; Hantzschia amphioxus; Melosira varians;
Navicula cryptocephala; Nitzschia acicularis; Nitzschia palea; Euglena oxyuris; Euglena
polymorpha; Euglena viridis; Lepocinclis ovum; Lepocinclis texta; Pandorina morum. Other
species are indicative of oligotrophic waters, e.g. Ankistrosdesmus falcatus var. acicularis;
Batrachospermum vagum; Amphora subcapitata; Synedra acus var. angustissima; Euglena
spirogyra; Phacotus lenticularis; Phacus longicauda; Chrysococcus ovalis; Chrysococcus
rufescens.
The relatively low number of species found to date shows that there is a lot of work to done.
In addition, the partitioning of algae in the marine and brackish waters of Cote d’Ivoire needs
to be understood.
2.2. Aquatic macrophytes
There are 327 species of aquatic and semi-aquatic macrophytes belonging to 74 families in
Cote d’Ivoire. Among the main floating plants are R. fluitans, A. africana, S. nymphellula, S.
molesta, C. cornuta, P. Striatiotes, E. crassipes, Lemna sp., Spirodela sp., Wolfia sp., et
Wolffiella sp. Floating plants are also found in high energy zones near beaches and
embayments. There are fixed floating hydrophyta (E. pyramidales), fixed floating submerged
hydrophyta (Nymphea lotus), submerged floating hydrophyta (C. demersun) and free floating
hydrophyta (Pistia stratiotes, Salvinia molesta, Eichhornia crassipes).
According to Traoré (1985), most of the rooted aquatic plants found in Cote d’Ivoire can live
in fresh or saline water. Rooted plant associations around the lagoonal systems are arranged
in parallel zones with regard to bathymetry. Their structure and specific composition is
dependant on the type of substratum and salinity of the water.
Swamp forests are found in poorly drained soils that are periodically inundated by fresh
water. These zones often include ferns such as Nephrolepsis biserrata and Caratopteris
cornula. Mangroves in Cote d’Ivoire comprise three species (Rhizophora racemosa,
Avicennia germinans, Conocarpus erectus). Mangroves are being overexploited in certain
areas and the wood is used for a variety of purposes, e.g. building, charcoal etc. Sand
extraction for building houses also contributes to the destruction of mangroves.
Only floating plants and mangroves have been studied in Côte d’Ivoire. Thus, nothing has
been done on the other aquatic plants and it is necessary to conduct research on them.
2.3 Bacteria
Eight phyla of eubacteria have been recorded in Ebrie lagoon, including Thiopneutes,
Micrococcus and Pseudomonadaceae. In the sea, cyanobacteria have been recorded. Anoxyphototrophic and sulfur-reducing bacteria are present in the anoxic zone of sediments or in
deep stratified waters. In lagoons, these bacteria facilitate mineralisation processes and the
utilization of organic matter in the anoxic zone. Besides this above role, anoxy-phototrophic
bacteria can fixed molecular nitrogen in waters lacking this element (Vignais et al., 1985),
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e.g. Rhodopseudomonas palustris in the Ebrie lagoon is able to fix molecular nitrogen
(Caumette, 1985).
According to Margulis and Schwartz (1988), the known number of bacteria in the world is
about 10.000 species. In Côte d’Ivoire bacterial studies have only just started and inventories
are incomplete. Only 140 species have been described from Côte d’Ivoire lagoon and fresh
waters, representing 1.38% of the total number of known species. In Côte d’Ivoire, taxonomic
studies have been conducted on certain species belonging to the Gracilicutes and Firmicutes.
Since there is not a lot of information on the topic for Côte d’Ivoire, it seems important to
start the study of aquatic bacteria and to develop a survey plan since they can cause many
diseases and are good indicator for water quality.
2.4 Zooplankton
Zooplankton in the marine environment of Côte d’Ivoire is composed primarily of rotifers,
cladocerans, calanoids, cyclopoids, harpacticoids, mysids, isopods, amphipods,
chaetognathes, and the larvae of crabs, bivalves, polychaetes and fish.
The variations in salinity and chlorophyll concentrations give rise to zooplankton
communities marked by a succession in space and time. Three main communities of
zooplankton can be recognised, namely lagoon, continental and marine. The lagoon
community occupies a central position that corresponds to a salinity range of 4 to 15g/l and a
concentration of chlorophyll between 10 and 50 µg/l. This community is relatively abundant
and less diverse than the others, and is dominated by A. clausi, P. hessei, mollusk larvae and
mysids. The marine community is associated to high salinity (>30 g/l) and low biomass of
algae (<5µg chl a). This community is less abundant but most diverse and dominated by the
following taxa: Penilia, Evadne, Paracalamus, Temora, chaethognathes, appendiculars,
dodioles, salpes, lucifer. The continental community is associated with low salinities and is
characterized by the presence of species of fresh waters such as Mesocyclops ogunnus, Moina
micrura, Diaphanosoma excisum and Bosmina longirostris. Pollution and habitat degradation
are the main threats to all three zooplankton communities.
2.5 Polychaete worms
Inventories of the benthic macrofauna in west Africa was started by Augener (1918) and was
continued in the sub-region with Fauvel (1958), Longhurst (1958), Fauvel et Rullier (1959).
The inventory of marine benthic macrofauna of Côte d’Ivoire was published by Guy (1964)
and Intès and Le Loeuff (1975, 1977), while the listing of lagoonal benthic macrofauna was
undertaken by Gomez (1978) and Zabi (1982).
The above inventories list 437 species of polychaetes. Of these 17 holotypes are deposited in
the Laboratoire de Zoologie du Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle de Paris. In Côte
d’Ivoire lagoons, only 44 species of polychaetes have been collected. Polychaetes have been
found in marine waters deeper than 20 m and in the muddy-silt zone of coastal lagoons.
Geographical studies are necessary to identify ecological characteristics of benthic
macrofaunal communities, including polychaetes. In addition, we need to complete the
identification and description of this faunal group, together with distribution maps.
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Polychaete species are not on the IUCN Red List but because of pollution these animals are
endangered.
2.6 Molluscs and Brachiopods
Altogether 581 species of molluscs and one brachiopod have been identified in the marine
waters of Côte d’Ivoire. The molluscs include gastropods, bivalves, scaphopods and
cephalopods, and are found in fresh, brackish and marine waters.
The distribution of marine molluscs in relation to environmental parameters has been
conducted by Le Loeuff and Intès (1981 and 1993), for lagoon mollusc by Binder (1957, 1958
and 1968), Gomez (1975), Leung and Pagès (1986), Longhurst (1958), Maslin (1983),
Oyenekan and Botlufawi (1986), Romanova et Diallo (1990), Wolf et al., (1987), Zabi
(1982a), Maslin and Levet (1992), Zabi and Le Loeuff (1992a et 1992b).
Table 1 shows number of brachiopod and molluscs found in Côte d’Ivoire. This number is
low compare to what have been found globally (one species of brachiopod out of 335 globally
and 581 molluscs out of 110 000 species globally). This result indicates that many more
molluscs are likely to be found. Common families found in Côte d’Ivoire include Littorinidae,
Muricidae, Thaididae, Melongeniidae, Nassariidae, Olividae, Volutidae, Conidae,
Dentaliidae, Mytilidae, Pectinidae, Ostreidae, Donacidae, Corbulidae, Teredinae, Sepiidae,
Octopodidae, Lymnaeidae and Bulinidae.
Major threats to molluscs include pollution and dam building that affects mollusc habitats.
Further work is needed to complete the mollusc inventory and to map the distribution of the
various species.
Table 1. Comparison between the number of molluscs and brachiopods in Côte d’Ivoire and
those found in the world).
Groups
Number of
species in the
world
Brachiopods
Molluscs
Gasteropods (marine)
Number of
species in Côte
d’Ivoire
335
1
110 000
581
226
20
20
19
147
21
18
110
Gasteropods (brackish)
Gasteropods (freshwater)
Scaphopods
Bivalves (marine)
Bivalves (brackish)
Bivalves (freshwater)
Cephalopods
9
Total
110.335
582
2.7 Crustacés
Les Crustacés ou Diantennates sont des Arthropodes répandus depuis le début du Primaire et
qui connaissent pourtant aujourd’hui encore beaucoup de succès avec leurs 350.000 espèces.
Ils tirent leur origine de la mer et lui sont restés fidèles dans leur majorité. Cependant, un
grand nombre de Crustacés peuplent les eaux douces et même quelques espèces moins
nombreuses, il est vrai, vivent sur la terre ferme. Ainsi les Crustacés de Côte d’Ivoire ont été
subdivisés en 4 sous-classes, 13 ordres pour les 302 espèces recensées, et regroupées au sein
de 61 familles.
Les crustacés se rencontrent dans tous les milieux littoraux et margino-littoraux ivoiriens.
Toutefois, dans les milieux margino-littoraux, il a été inventorié une trentaine d’espèces dont
celles vivants dans les milieux aquatiques et les amphibies. Dans les eaux marines, on note
plusieurs groupes de crustacés en fonction de la répartition. Ainsi on observe des crustacés
associés aux rochers, sédiment sableux ou vaseux et des crustacés des eaux profondes.
Les milieux littoraux et margino-littoraux ivoiriens sont relativement pauvres en crustacés
comparativement aux autres milieux de la région. Cette situation est liée à l’étroitesse du
plateau continental et la faible marnage des eaux lagunaires. Les espèces signalées se
retrouvent dans toute la sous région.
Quelques études de détail ont été conduites sur les crustacés. Celles-ci ont concerné les
crevettes roses, les crabes des eaux profondes comme le Geryon, les crabes lagunaires et enfin
le suivi des captures des espèces d’intérêt commercial comme les langoustes et les portunides
du Genre Portunus. Très peu de travaux ont porté sur les crustacés, par conséquent et cela
compte tenu de l’importance de ce groupe taxonomique, des études sont nécessaires pour
inventorier les espèces, pour comprendre leur répartition etc.
Plusieurs menaces pèsent sur les crustacés dont les plus importantes sont la surexploitation
(exemple: Certaines espèces telles que les crevettes et les crabes sont surexploitées à tel point
que les individus capturés depuis quelque temps sont de petite taille ou simplement le volume
de capture a beaucoup baissé), la destruction des habitats (exemple: extraction de sable en
lagune et en mer, exploitation des mangroves etc) et enfin la pollution.
2.8 Poissons
Les informations disponibles font état des espèces nominales signalées non seulement dans
les eaux douces et saumâtres, mais aussi dans les eaux intérieures marines de la Côte d’Ivoire.
L’analyse montre 1.014 synonymes et/ou citations dont 496 espèces sont reconnues valides.
Ces espèces valides se répartissent entre 276 genres et 130 familles. Ces dernières sont ellesmêmes rangées dans 33 ordres et 3 classes d’importance inégale. La première classe, celle des
Chondrichthyes, compte 5 ordres pour 13 familles, 16 genres et 29 espèces, toutes locales. La
seconde classe concernée, celle des Sarcopterygii, possède un seul ordre, une seule famille et
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un seul genre monospécifique en Côte d’Ivoire. Il s’agit de l'espèce locale, Protopterus
annectens. Quant à la troisième classe à savoir celle des Actinopterygii, elle regroupe
l’ensemble des autres taxons valides répartis entre 27 ordres, 116 familles et 259 genres
comportant 466 espèces.
Par ailleurs, il existe 166 espèces exclusivement marines contre 152 en eaux douces et 19 en
eaux saumâtres. Soixante-seize espèces vivent à la fois dans ces deux derniers milieux. Dix
huit autres espèces sont capables de vivre dans les trois milieux à la fois (mer, eaux douces et
saumâtres).
Sur le plan ichtyologique, les lagunes ivoiriennes sont caractérisées par une grande diversité
spécifique. Cette richesse spécifique est due au fait que ces lagunes sont les lieux d’échanges
entre fleuves et mer si bien qu’on y rencontre toutes les formes d’espèces (marines, saumâtres
et continentales). L’inventaire de la lagune Ebrié donne 153 espèces reparties dans 71
familles. Une soixantaine de ces espèces se rencontrent dans les deux autres lagunes (Aby et
Grand Lahou). Les 71 familles sont inégalement représentées. Beaucoup le sont par un seul
genre ou par une seule espèce. 19 de ces familles regroupent 60% des espèces. Quatre
familles sont particulièrement bien représentées à savoir les Carangidae (11 espèces), les
Clupéidae (7 espèces), les Cichlidae (9 espèces) et les Gobiidae (7 espèces). Tous ces
peuplements sont classés en 8 groupes en fonction de l’euryhalinité du milieu et des
caractéristiques fondamentales du cycle bioécologique des espèces (reproduction, répartition).
Le milieu lagunaire joue un rôle très important dans la reproduction des poissons. Au total
près de 30 espèces se reproduisent en lagune, 16 autres peuvent y accomplir la maturation de
leurs produits génitaux jusqu’au stade précédant leur émission et occasionnellement, pour
certaines y pondre. 10 autres, enfin, sont présentes en lagune sous leur forme juvénile,
peuvent accomplir un début de première maturation sexuelle sans que celle-ci aboutisse en
milieu lagunaire.
De nombreux travaux ont été réalisés sur les poissons des milieux littoraux et marginolittoraux de Côte d’Ivoire. Ces travaux portent aussi bien sur la systématique, la biologie,
l’écologie etc que la dynamique des populations. Cet intérêt pour les poissons s’explique par
le fait que la Côte d’Ivoire consomme en moyenne 300 000 tonnes par an alors qu’elle n’en
produit que seulement 100 000 tonnes par an. Toutefois, de nombreuses études restent encore
à faire car les poissons étudiés jusqu’à présent sont les poissons dits « vivriers » qui rentrent
directement dans la consommation des populations et les thons tandis que les autres poissons
n’ont pas fait l’objet de travaux détaillés.
La surexploitation, la destruction des habitats et la pollution sont les deux menaces dont
souffrent les poissons.
2.9 Reptiles aquatiques
L’ordre des Crocodiliens renferment, en Afrique de l’Ouest, trois espèces de crocodiles :
Crocodylus niloticus ; C. cataphractus et Osteolamus tetraspis. Ces trois espèces sont
distribuées en Côte d’Ivoire et se rencontrent dans les zones humides côtières, avec toutefois
une préférence pour les deux derniers. D’autres sauriens retiennent également l’attention : le
varan (Aranus niloticus), assez commun et Cameleo gracilis.
La biologie du comportement et la distribution des tortues sont en revanche mal connues.
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Parmi les espèces rencontrées en zones humides côtières, tant au niveau des formations
végétales qu’en lagunes, citons : Trionyx triungius ; Pelusios niger ; P. gabonensis et
Cyclanorbis senegalensis.
Dans l’ensemble les reptiles sont signalés dans les milieux lagunaires et les mangroves. Les
tortues sont souvent pêchées en mer (plateau continental) et certaines espèces marines
pondent sur les plages bordant les lagunes du Sud-ouest du pays et constituent une source
complémentaire en protéines pour les villageois riverains. Ces comportements renforcent
l’idée de création de réserves naturelles dans ces régions de la Côte d’Ivoire.
Il existe très peu de reptiles aquatiques dans les milieux littoraux et margino-littoraux
ivoiriens. La préoccupation est de savoir si cela n’est pas lié au faible nombre de spécialistes
dans le domaine.
Très peu d’études ont été effectuées sur les reptiles aquatiques. Aussi, il apparaît important
d’initier des travaux sur ce groupe taxinomique. la destruction des habitats constitue la
principale menace des reptiles en Côte d’Ivoire (mangroves etc.)
2.10 Mammifères aquatiques
Le lamantin (Trichechus senegalensis) est certainement le mammifère le plus spécifique de
l’écosystème lagunaire et des estuaires de basse Côte d’Ivoire. Des travaux actuellement en
cours, menés par Powell, suggèreraient que le lamantin soit assez bien représenté dans les
zones humides côtières ivoiriennes, de l’embouchure du Cavally à la lagune Aby. Sa présence
a été rapportée plusieurs fois dans les lagunes de Fresco, de Grand Lahou et Potou. Il est en
outre fréquent que des individus remontent très loin le cours des fleuves, traduisant peut-être
un comportement migratoire de cette espèce. Ces animaux herbivores ont une préférence pour
les eaux douces et peu saumâtres. Cette espèce est signalée comme menacée sur la liste de
l’UICN (1990).
Les cétacés ou les baleines avec une famille, deux genres et deux espèces se rencontrent aussi
dans les eaux marines ivoiriennes. La destruction des habitats et la pollution constituent les
principales menaces des mammifères aquatiques.
Il n’existe pas de travaux sur les mammifères aquatiques des milieux littoraux et marginolittoraux ivoiriens sauf les études conduites par Nicolle et collaborateurs (1996) où ils citent le
travail de Powel sur les lamantins.
3. Etat des connaissances de la diversité biologique des espèces végétales aquatiques
introduites et envahissantes
Parmi les plantes flottantes signalées dans les eaux africaines on rencontre presque toutes les
familles dans les eaux douces des pays du Golfe de Guinée et onze espèces végétales: R.
fluitans, A. africana, S. nymphellula, S. molesta, C. cornuta, P. Striatiotes, E. crassipes,
Lemna sp., Spirodela sp., Wolfia sp., et Wolffiella sp.
Deux familles de fougères, Azollaceae et Salviniaceae et une famille de plantes à fleur les
lemnaceae, présentent des espèces végétales qui sont spécifiquement des plantes qui flottent
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librement à la surface des milieux aquatiques bien que la dernière famille contienne des
espèces qui vivent aussi submergées.
En dehors de ces familles, il existe très peu d'espèces de plantes flottantes librement à la
surface de l'eau car de façon générale la plupart des espèces appartiennent à d'autres formes
de vie dans le milieu aquatique. Par exemple Eicchornia crassipes est la seule espèce de la
famille des pontederiaceae qui flotte librement sur les eaux.
Les principales espèces plantes aquatiques flottant libres envahissantes sont Pistia stratiotes
(Araceae), Salvinia molesta (Salviniaceae) et Eichhornia crassipes (Pontederiaceae).
4. Etat des connaissances de la diversité biologique des espèces animales aquatiques
introduites et envahissantes
4.1 Groupes d’invertébrés envahissant associés aux racines des macrophytes aquatiques
Les invertébrés aquatiques introduits et envahissant n’ont pas souvent retenu l’attention des
scientifiques. Cependant, on note l’introduction des espèces Physa acuta, Lymnae columella,
Helisoma sp et très récemment la crevette géante, originaire des régions occidentales du
Pacifique, Penaeus monodon, Fabricius (Crustacea, Peneidae) dans les eaux ivoiriennes. Cette
espèce a été introduite dans le pays pour le développement de la creviticulture dans les année
1990 dans la région de Grand-Lahou. Les travaux ont été interrompus pour des problèmes de
reproduction, toutefois certains individus se sont retrouvés dans le milieu naturel selon les
populations locales.
Enfin, avec le développement et la prolifération des macrophytes flottant libres dans presque
tous les réseaux aquatiques des pays du Golfe de Guinée, on assiste à une nouvelle forme
d’introduction et de transfert des espèces aquatiques : l’introduction des animaux associés aux
racines des plantes. Aussi, on note un regain d’intérêt pour cette faune car on soupçonne
l’existence d’animaux exotiques dont la prolifération pourrait négative pour les populations
locales.
Faune locale ou indigène
Mollusques gastéropodes
Les bulins sont caractérisés par une coquille sénestre plus haute que large et en
Afrique de l’Ouest on rencontre 7 espèces qui sont : Bulinus globosus (Morelet), Bulinus
Jousseamei (Dautzenberg), Bulinus truncatus Rohlfsi (Clessin), Bulinus guernei
(Dautzenberg), Bulinus umbilicatus (Mandahl-Barth), Bulinus forskalii (Ehrenberg) et Bulinus
senegalensis (Müller). Les espèces B. dyboski et B trigonus ont été mises en synonymie avec
Bulinus truncatus. Enfin, les bulins dont le rôle dans la transmission de Schistosoma
haematobium est confirmé en Afrique de l’Ouest sont B. globosus, B. truncatus, B. guerni, B
jousseaumei, B. senegalensis et B. umbilicatus.
Deux espèces de Biomphalaria (Planorbidae) : Biomphalaria pfeifferi (Krauss) et
Biomphalaria sudanica (Martens) et une espèce de Physa (Physa marmorata) se rencontrent
aussi en Afrique de l’Ouest et participent à la transmission de Schistosoma mansoni. En
présence de plantes flottantes la population de ces Mollusques gastéropodes augmente et ces
animaux dominent numériquement dans presque tous les biotopes.
13
Insectes Diptères hématophages
De nombreux diptères hématophages et particulièrement les moustiques ou les culicidae (3
genres Anopheles – Aedes – Culex et 25 espèces), les Culicoides (2 genres et 2 espèces dont
Bezzia pistiae), les Tabanides (3 sous familles, 8 genres et 46 espèces) prolifèrent aussi en
présence des macrophytes aquatiques flottant libres.
Faune involontairement introduite
L'inventaire a à ce jour révélé trois groupes taxonomiques qui ont été introduits
involontairement : Mollusque Gastéropode (Bulinus camerunensis et Potamopyrgus cilliatus),
Diptères (deux Lépidoptères pyralidae non encore identifié à l’espèce), Crustacés amphipode
(Gammarus sp, Gammaridae non encore identifié à l’espèce). Ces espèces sont signalées pour
la première fois dans les eaux ivoiriennes.
Faune volontairement introduite
Dans le but de lutter biologiquement contre les plantes flottantes, le gouvernement ivoirien a
décidé et autorisé l'introduction d'insectes phytophages. Ces insectes s'attaquent
spécifiquement aux plantes flottantes et ont été introduites dans les eaux ivoiriennes dans les
années 1998.
4.2 Crevettes et poissons introduits et envahissants
Les introductions d’espèces animales aquatiques ont été souvent encouragées en Afrique et
particulièrement dans les pays du Golfe de Guinée dans le but essentiellement d’améliorer la
production. Celles-ci devait contribuer à répondre à la demande croissante en protéine
animale de la population.
Ces introductions sont l’objet de controverses entre les développeurs/décideurs/gestionnaires
et les scientifiques. Les premiers avancent que l'on doit aider la nature et les populations et
que l’introduction d’espèces dans le but d’améliorer la production se justifie. Les seconds au
contraire pensent que toutes les introductions sont à priori susceptibles de causer des dégâts
irréversibles à la flore, à la faune et aux écosystèmes aquatiques locaux.
En effet, certaines introductions ont connu quelques succès tel le cas du poisson Oreochromis
niloticus et Heterotis niloticus dans presque tous les bassins hydrographiques des pays du
Golfe de Guinée et particulièrement en Côte d’Ivoire. D'autres introductions par contre ont
induit des effets négatifs avec des impacts significatifs sur les espèces locales et les
écosystèmes comme l'exemple des macrophytes aquatiques flottants libres Salvinia molesta
(Salviniaceae) et Eichornia crassipes (Pontederiaceae). Ces végétaux, en tapis dense, forment
un écran qui empêche la lumière de pénétrer dans le milieu. En conséquence, ils empêchent
l’activité photosynthétique du phytoplancton. En plus, en modifiant l’hydrodynamisme et la
qualité des eaux, ces végétaux contribuent à l’envasement, à la diminution de l’oxygène et à la
dégradation du milieu. Cette dégradation est très souvent à l’origine des mortalités de
nombreux organismes aquatiques.
Etat de connaissance synthétique sur la diversité biologique des milieux littoraux et marginolittoraux ivoiriens.
14
Taxons
Microphytes
Macrophytes
Bactéries
Zooplancton
Cnidaires (Polype et méduses)
Dans le monde (*)
7000
Indéterminé
10 000
Indéterminé
Cténophores (Concombres de mer)
3100 dont 200
hydrozoaires
90
Plathelminthes
15 000
Némertes
900
Gnathostomulide
Gastrotriche
Rotifères
80
400
2000 dont 50
marins
150
10
600
150
80 000
Kinorhynche
Loricifères
Acanthocéphales
Entoproctes
Nématodes
Nematophores
Ectoprocte
Brachiopodes
240
5000 dont 50
marins
335
Mollusques
Gastéropodes
Bivalves
Céphalopodes
Siphoncules
Echiures
Annélides
Oligochètes
Hirudinées
Polychètes
Arthropodes
Crustacés
Insectes aquatiques
Paganophores
Echinodermes
110 000
3100
300
5400
Indéterminé
350 000
Indéterminé
100
6000
Chaetognathes
100
Poissons (osseux)
Amphibiens
25 000
2000
Reptiles
5000
Oiseaux
9000
Mammifères
45 000
300
140
Nombre
Côte d’Ivoire
1241
327
140
Nombreuses espèces
signalées
Quelques espèces
signalées
Quelques espèces
signalées
Quelques espèces
signalées
Quelques espèces
signalées
Non signalé
Non signalé
Quelques espèces
signalées
Non signalé
Non signalé
Non signalé
Non signalé
Quelques espèces
signalées
Non signalé
Non signalé
Observations
Quelques travaux
Quelques travaux
Quelques travaux
Quelques travaux
Absence de travaux
Absence de travaux
Absence de travaux
Absence de travaux
Absence de travaux
Absence de travaux
Absence de travaux
Absence de travaux
Absence de travaux
Absence de travaux
Absence de travaux
Absence de travaux
Absence de travaux
Absence de travaux
Quelques espèces
signalées
581
246
186
110
Non signalé
Non signalé
Travaux éparses
99
99
434
Travaux éparses
Absence de travaux
Travaux disponibles
302
Indéterminé
Non signalé
Quelques espèces
signalées
Quelques espèces
signalées
Travaux éparses
Quelques espèces
signalées
Quelques espèces
signalées
Quelques espèces
signalées
Quelques espèces
signalées
Travaux disponibles
Quelques travaux
Quelques travaux
Quelques travaux
Absence de travaux
Absence de travaux
Absence de travaux
Absence de travaux
Travaux éparses
Travaux disponibles
Travaux éparses
Travaux éparses
Travaux éparses
Travaux éparses
(*)Margulis et Schwartz, 1988
Remarque : A ces chiffres, il est important d’ajouter les espèces introduites
15
5. Ressources
5.1 Ressources humaines
Nom et prénoms
Ama Antoinette
Adingra
Amon Kothias Jean
Baptiste
Atse Boua Celestin
Jean-Baptiste Louis
François
Doumini Bouberi
Da Costa Sebastino
Da Kouete Philippe
Etien N’DA
Egnakou Wadja
Goore B.I.
Gourène K.
Hie Daré Jean-Pierre
Konan Amoin
Annabelle
Kouassi Aka Marcel
N’Goran Ya Nestor
N’Douba Valentin
Otémé Ziriga
Tidou Abiba
Traoré Kassoum
Traoré Dossahoua
Sankaré Yacouba
Zabi S. Guillaume
Spécialité
Bactérie
Structure
Centre de Recherches
Océanologiques
Halieute-Poissons Centre de Recherches
Océanologiques
Aquaculture
Centre de Recherches
Océanologiques
Aquaculture
Centre National de
Recherche
Agronomique
Halieute-Poissons Centre de Recherches
Océanologiques
Poissons
Centre National de
Recherche
Agronomique
Algues
Université de Cocody
Environnementaliste Agence National de
L’Environnement
Mangroves
Université de Cocody
Crustacés
Université de Cocody
Poissons
Université d’Abobo
Adjamé
Halieute-Poissons Centre de Recherches
Océanologiques
Phytobenthos
Centre de Recherches
Océanologiques
Bactérie
Centre de Recherches
Océanologiques
Halieute –Biologie Centre de Recherches
des Poissons
Océanologiques
Zooplancton
Université de Cocody
Aquaculture
Centre National de
Recherche
Agronomique
Zooplancton
Université AbobAdjamé RCI
Poisson
Centre Nationale de
Recherche
Agronomique
Macrophytes
Université de Cocody
aquatiques
Centre de Recherches
Benthos et
Océanologiques
entomofaune
aquatique
Benthos
Centre de Recherches
16
Adresse
BPV 18 Abidjan
BPV 18 Abidjan
BPV 18 Abidjan
Bouaké 633
BPV 18 Abidjan
Bouaké 633
Abidjan
Abidjan
Abidjan
Abidjan
Abidjan
BPV 18 Abidjan
BPV 18 Abidjan
BPV 18 Abidjan
BPV 18 Abidjan
Abidjan
Bouaké 633
Abidjan
1740 Abidjan 01
Abidjan
BPV 18 Abidjan
BPV 18 Abidjan
Wongbe Yte
Abouo Béatrice
Adepo
Zooplancton
Poissons
Océanologiques
Centre National de
Recherche
Agronomique
Université AboboAdjamé RCI
17
Man 440
Abidjan
5.2 Ressources institutionnelles
Caractéristique des institutions
Collection
Observations
Institution
Type
scientifique
Centre
de Recherche scientifique
Dans
le
domaine
Recherches
Océanologiques océanologique,
saumâtre
et
eaux
douces
-Poissons
Benthos
(collection
gardé
par
l’IRD) et entomofaune
aquatique
et
Université
de Recherche scientifique Poissons
Cocody
dans le domaine des Crustacés
eaux douces
Université
Recherche scientifique Poissons
d’Abobo-Adjamé dans le domaine des
eaux douces
18
Ancienne collection et
Mise en place d’une
nouvelle collection
Nouvelle collection
Nouvelle collection
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25
National Report
Marine biodiversity in Ghana, Togo and Benin – the known and the
unknown
A. K. Armah, S. D. Ababio and E. Lamptey
Department of Oceanography and Fisheries, University of Ghana, Legon, Ghana
INTRODUCTION
The coastline from the western border of Ghana to the eastern border of Benin is
approximately 722 km long. About 550 km of this coastline is in Ghana (Armah and Amlalo,
1998) while Togo and Benin have approximately 47 km (Blivi et al., 1998) and 125 km
(Adam, 1998) of shoreline respectively. Table 1 below shows the aerial coverage of the
continental shelves and EEZs of Ghana, Togo and Benin. The Ghanaian continental shelf is
approximately five times the combined areas of both Togo and Benin continental shelves.
The subtidal environments are generally similar across the three countries, hence the biota are
therefore unlikely to show any major differences. The shoreline and the intertidal
environments however exhibit some differences in terms of habitat types.
Table 1. Coastline, Continental Shelf and EEZ Areas of Ghana, Togo and Benin.
Country
Ghana
Togo
Benin
Coastline (km)
550
47
125
Continental Shelf (km2)
20,000
1,200
3,100
EEZ (km2)
218,000
2,100
27,100
GHANA
Coastal Zone
The coastal zone of Ghana is a low-lying area, not more than 100 m above sea level. The
major rivers which flow into the sea are, from the west, the Tano, Ankobra, Butre, Pra,
Kakum, Amisa, Nakwa, Densu and the Volta. The coastal zone contains over 90 coastal
lagoons, most of which are very small and less than 5 km2 in surface area (Armah, 1993).
However, the largest lagoon (Keta) covers approximately 350 km2 (Ababio, 2001).
The Ghanaian coastal zone may be divided into three geomorphologic zones; the west, central
and east coasts (Ly, 1980).
• The West Coast covers 95 km of stable shoreline and extends from Ghana's border
with Côte d’Ivoire to the estuary of the Ankobra River. The gently sloping beaches
comprise mainly fine sand and are backed by coastal lagoons.
• The Central Coast shoreline is 321 km long and extends from the estuary of Ankobra
River near Axim, to Prampram located to the east of Accra. Most of this embayed
coast comprises rocky shores and headlands, together with littoral sand barriers
enclosing coastal lagoons.
26
•
The East Coast is made up of 149 km of shoreline extending from Prampram
eastwards to Aflao, on the border with Togo. It is characterized by sandy beaches and
about midway is the deltaic estuary of the Volta River. The Volta is the largest river in
Ghana with a regulated flow of about 900 cumecs due to damming upstream.
Climate
The climate of the Ghanaian coastal zone is tropical. The eastern coastal belt is warm and
comparatively dry, whereas the southwestern parts are hot and humid. Two thirds of the
coastal zone falls within the dry coastal savanna strip where annual rainfall ranges from 625
mm to 1000 mm and averages 900 mm. Peak rainfall is in June and the lowest rainfall is
recorded in January. There is a double maxima annual distribution of rainfall in the Ghanaian
coastal zone, with the high maximum occurring during May-June and the low maximum in
September-October.
Minimum temperatures occur during July-August and the maximum during February-March.
The relatively dry coastal climate of the southeast is believed to be caused by the prevailing
winds (south-southwest) blowing almost parallel to the coast and to a cool current of water
immediately offshore as a result of a local annual upwelling (Armah and Amlalo, 1998).
Continental Shelf and Oceanography
The Ghanaian continental shelf is narrow and extends seaward to between 20 and 35 km,
except off Takoradi where it reaches up to 90 km (Armah and Amlalo, 1998). The nature of
the topography of the continental shelf is generally known, but no detailed studies have been
made on the shelf. A belt of dead madreporarian coral beginning at 75 m depth traverses the
entire shelf. Beyond this coral belt, the bottom falls sharply suggesting that this marks the
approximate transition from the continental shelf to the slope. A large elongate centrally
located area of hard bottom stretching between Takoradi and Tema characterizes the shelf.
Outside of this area, soft sediment predominates inshore of the coral belt (Armah and Amlalo,
1998).
The Equatorial counter current, the Guinea Current, which flows eastward, influences the
oceanography of the region. The current is weak, averaging about 0.5 knots, but frequently
exceeds one knot and occasionally reaches two knots when acted upon by the southwesterly
monsoon winds. The current may reverse temporarily under the influence of the northeasterly
trade winds and can reach speeds of up to 1.0 knot (Armah and Amlalo, 1998).
The tide is regular and semi-diurnal with the average range varying along the coast (mean tide
= 0.95 m, Neap = 0.50 m, Spring = 1.5 m). The average range of neap and spring tides
increases from west to east. Tidal phases are similar on the coasts of all three countries. Tidal
currents are low and have an insignificant influence on coastal processes except within tidal
inlets. Other possible sources of intermittent increases of local water levels include line
squalls that can result in additional water level increases of about 30 cm.
The main sources of sediment to the littoral zone are from rivers, together with erosion of
coastal shores and cliffs. In Ghana, the Ankobra, Pra and Volta River are the main sources of
fluvial sediment supply to the coast. It is estimated that the sediment yields of rivers along the
coast varies between 30 and 80 tonnes/km2 per annum depending on the area of the
catchment, topography, geology and climate of the coastal area (EC, 1989).
27
Nature and Extent of Utilization of the Coastal Zone
General Demographic Economic Profile
The coastal zone in Ghana makes up about 7% of the total land area and is home to some 4.5
million people or approximately 25% of the total population (EPA/World Bank, 1997). The
zone serves as a nerve centre for national economic development and has two important
harbours located at Tema and Takoradi. Over 70% of the industries in Ghana are located in
the coastal region. Over 60% of all fish catches in Ghana are produced from marine fishing.
The total Gross District Product (GDiP) of the coastal zone in 1994 was estimated at
US$1,340 million. This is about 26% of the national GDP of US$5,238 million.
Industrial Development
Over 400 small to large industrial concerns are located within the coastal districts of Ghana.
The largest concentration is in the Accra-Tema area where over 80% of the industries are
located. A thermal plant for the production of electricity is also situated in the coastal zone at
Takoradi. The effects of these industries include the discharge of effluents and pollutants into
lagoons and coastal waters, resulting in a degradation of the coastal environment.
Mining
Mining in the costal zone falls under three main categories, namely sand and gravel mining,
mineral extraction and oil/gas exploration. Sand and gravel mining in the coastal zone of
Ghana is largely illegal but has continued to be carried out, resulting in increased coastal
erosion. Mineral deposits are not very significant in the coastal zone and limited mining,
conducted by small companies, does occur. Oil and gas development is still ongoing in the
Ghanaian nearshore waters with several wells been sunk in the Saltpond and Tano basins.
Salt Industry
There are about 24 salt producing companies operating along the coast of Ghana. Of these, 8
are medium to large-scale producers whilst the rest are small-scale producers. The areas of
high concentration of salt winning include the Anlo-Keta area in the Volta region; the Sege,
Ada, Songor and Sakumo wetland areas in the greater Accra region; and Saltpond and Elmina
in the central region. The salt industry is estimated to directly employ about 5,000 persons
and indirectly generates some 15,000 other jobs.
Fishery Sector
Fishing is very important in Ghana and can be divided into canoe (or artisanal) fisheries,
inshore (or semi-industrial) fisheries, distant water (or industrial) fisheries and tuna fisheries.
The sector supplies about 66% of all animal-protein for human consumption. Artisanal
fisheries are the most important in terms of landed catch and employment. The total fish catch
has shown a general increasing trend since 1995. The total catch per annum in 1995 was
401,600 mt while in 2000 it was 508,800 mt. An estimated 100,000 fishermen can be found
along the coast of Ghana using nearly 9,000 canoes and operating from about 300 landing
sites. About 3% of the Ghanaian population is employed in this sector.
28
TOGO
Coastal Zone
The coastal zone in Togo forms part of the Gulf of Benin marine system. The zone also
includes a sandy/clay plateau, lagoonal and riverine systems. The Mono, Zio, Haho, Boko and
Elia rivers influence the hydrography of the coastal zone in Lome. The major lagoons include
the Togo, Togoville, Zowla and Aneho systems.
Climate
Two types of air mass; the Harmattan or continental trade wind from the northeast, which is
dry and hot, and the southwest Monsoon that is humid and hot influence the climate in the
Togo coastal zone. This results in four seasons, a long dry season from November to midMarch, a long rainy season from mid-March to mid-July, a short dry season from mid-July to
August and a short rainy season from September to October. Mean daily temperature values
characteristically peak between February and March and are lowest between July and August.
Continental Shelf and Oceanography
The oceanographic characteristics are influenced by the same dynamics pertaining to Ghana
(see above).
Nature and Extent of Utilization of the Coastal Zone
General Demographic and Economic Profile
The Togo coastal zone does not have any significant mineral or energy resources. The coastal
zone is home to an estimated 2.2 million people, corresponding to about 69% of the
population of Togo. The coastal zone also serves as home to about 82% of the nations
industries.
Industrial Development
The country’s major industries are located in the coastal zone and consist mainly of extraction
industries, farm produce industries, processing and building companies. Togo also has a port
facility and a phosphate processing facility located in the coastal zone.
Fishery Sector
Togo’s fishery resource is made up of pelagic and demersal species. The pelagic resource
includes tunas and sardines while the demersal stock mainly comprises sparids, scianids and
lutjanids, with 600 tons being marketed annually (FAO, 1995).
BENIN
Coastal Zone
The Benin coastal zone includes barrier islands and lagoons whose geomorphological
evolution has been determined primarily by Holocene sea-level fluctuations and climatic
changes, and secondarily by local tectonics. The coastal region is made up of three zones
identified by characterizing the hydrological systems as follows:
29
•
•
•
The Mono estuary, which is characterized by inputs from the Mono and the Couffo
rivers and tidal flows.
The Oueme Delta, which is dominated by the Oueme-So riverine system.
The mangrove systems associated with coastal lagoons, tidal estuaries and Aheme
Lake.
Climate
The tropical climate is similar to that of Ghana and Togo. Benin experiences four seasons;
two rainy and two dry under the influence of the monsoons and the northeasterly trade winds.
Continental Shelf and Coastal Oceanography
The average breadth of the continental shelf varies between 12 and 13 nautical miles and
broadens to about 17 nautical miles near the Nigerian border, covering an area of about 2,800
km². The continental shelf and the coastal oceanography are similar to the Ghanaian and
Togolese coastal areas and are influenced by the same oceanographic regimes.
Nature and Extent of Utilization of the Coastal Zone
General Demographic and Economic Profile
The population of the Benin coastal zone is about 1.5 million, comprising over 30% of the
country’s population. This zone forms the economic hub of the country, with the majority of
the country’s industries located in the coastal zone.
Industrial Development
The port facility at Cotonou has grown steadily and serves several landlocked countries in the
sub-region, including Mali, Burkina Faso and Niger. Other industries in the coastal zone
include manufacturing and processing industries.
Fishery Sector
Fishing is now being carried out on a commercial basis, with an influx of fishers from Ghana.
These fishers have introduced more efficient gears into the fishing industry that now produces
about 39,000 tons of fish per year, mostly for domestic consumption.
Habitats
The identifiable habitats within the coastal zone can be described as onshore habitats, which
extend from the +30 m contour to the mean upper tidal mark, the inshore habitat that
encompasses the tidal and sub-tidal areas, and the oceanic zone, which extends beyond the
continental shelf and excludes the tidal areas.
The onshore habitats comprise the estuarine wetlands, lagoons, lagoonal depressions and their
associated marshes. The inshore habitats include the sandy shores, rocky beaches/pools and
immediate sub-tidal environments, while the oceanic habitat is made up of the pelagic and the
offshore benthic environments.
The onshore habitats in the three countries are diverse but dominated by several coastal
lagoons that may or may not be fringed by mangrove strands. These environments serve as
nursery grounds for several marine fish species as well as permanent habitats for several
30
species. The Keta lagoon, which is the largest coastal lagoon in this area, serves as home to
several water bird species that either migrate there to avoid winter in the northern hemisphere,
or are permanent residents on the lagoon.
The inshore habitats are dynamic and diverse, with rocky shore and rocky pool habitats
occurring naturally only in Ghana. The coastlines of the other countries are generally sandy.
The oceanic environment includes the pelagic, demersal and the benthic habitats.
THE KNOWN
Marine Biota
Knowledge of the marine biota is comparatively better for larger organisms such as fish and
molluscs, and for those organisms inhabiting more accessible habitats such as the marine
intertidal and shallow subtidal areas where fishing occurs. Information is available on the
biodiversity of commercially exploited species in the region. Non-target species (such as
hermit crabs, jelly fishes and star fishes) belonging to other groups have also been recorded
from catches of commercial fishermen. Table 2 summarizes the major groups of
commercially exploited families and species in the subregion.
Table 2. Major commercially exploited taxa in the subregion.
GROUP
Bony Fishes
Sharks
Batoid Fishes (sawfishes, rays and skates)
Lobsters
Shrimps and Prawns
Cephalopods
Bivalves
Gastropods
Sea turtles
FAMILY
80
11
7
3
10
7
17
13
2
SPECIES
627
77
41
3
17
23
47
26
5
Benthic Fauna
Biodiversity coverage of the benthic fauna in the region is generally poor. Species that have
been studied in any detail are mainly species from the coastal lagoons and wetlands or species
from the intertidal environments. Benthic fauna, especially meiofauna, have been poorly
studied. Table 3 shows the number of species recorded for benthic faunal groups in the
subregion.
31
Table 3. Polychaetes, molluscs, crustaceans and other invertebrates in the subregion.
GROUP
Polychaeta
Polychaetes (west Africa)
Polychaetes (Ghana)
Mollusca
Molluscs
Crustacea
Cumacea
Gammaridea
Caridean crustaceans
Echinodermata
Echinoidea
Asteroidea
Ophiuroidea
Bryozoa
Byozoan (Ghana)
Bryozoan (West Africa)
SPECIES
REFERENCE
630
140
Kirkegaard (1988)
Ibe et al. (1998)
200
Edmunds (1978)
10
235
246
Jones (1956)
Reid (1956)
Holthus (1951)
10
13
26
Clark (1955)
Clark (1955)
Clark (1955)
135
222
Cook (1985)
Cook (1985)
Plankton
Some work has been conducted on the biodiversity and distribution patterns of certain
species. Studies include work on characteristic species associated with upwellings and periods
of hydrographic stability. Ghana has been made the center of plankton analysis in West Africa
under the Guinea Current Large Marine Ecosystem Project. The Department of
Oceanography, University of Ghana, and the Marine Fisheries Research Division of the
Ministry of Food and Agriculture are spearheading plankton research in Ghana and the subregion under this project. Table 4 shows the major plankton groups and the number of species
known for each group in the sub-region.
Table 4. Major plankton groups in the subregion (after Wiafe and Frid, 2001)
GROUPS
Anthomedusae
Leptomedusae
Limnomedusae
Trachymedusae
Narcomedusae
Scyphomedusae
Ctenophora
Cladocera
Ostracoda
Copepoda
Chaetognatha
Chordata
Diatoms
Dinoflagellates
Coccolithophores
NUMBER OF SPECIES
7
8
3
7
8
4
3
3
2
190
8
3
35
37
10
32
Aquatic Flora
Seaweed diversity is considerably higher on rocky shores than any other habitat. Differences
in biotope complexity, exposure to waves, rock type as well as grazing pressure all influence
seaweed diversity. Subtidal habitats are generally less known than the intertidal zone. Subtidal
seaweeds usually constitute less than 20% of seaweed flora in the subregion, but in Ghana,
subtidal seaweeds account for as much as 40% of the total flora (Table 5).
Table 5. Macroalgae diversity in the subregion (after John and Lawson, 1997)
COUNTRY
Ghana
Togo
Benin
GENERA
112
33
15
SPECIES
209
41
17
% SUBTIDAL
41
17
6
Coastal Avifauna
The coastal birds generally occur in lagoons, wetlands and on the seashore. Based on regional
abundance, they can be placed into three groups (Table 6), namely:
• ‘waders’ (Burhinidae, Jacanidae, Charadriidae and Glareolidae) which wade in the
shallow floodplain and lagoon waters in search of food.
• terns (Laridae) that fly over the water and dive for food.
• ‘others’ (Pelecanidae, Phalacrocoracidae, Ardeidae, Threskiornithidae and Anatidae)
which are mainly herons, gulls, ducks, kingfishers, etc.
The abundance and diversity of the coastal birds in the sub-region follows a seasonal pattern.
Some species migrate long distances to avoid unfavorable weather (such as winter in the
northern hemisphere) conditions. However, there are some resident species that are found
throughout the year in the lagoons and associated wetlands. Factors that affect coastal
avifaunal populations in the region include anthropogenic perturbations, food, and the
availability of roosting and nesting sites.
Table 6. Coastal birds
GROUP
Waders
Terns
‘Others’
FAMILIES
4
1
5
SPECIES
25
8
13
REFERENCE
Piersma et al., 1995
Piersma et al., 1995
Piersma et al., 1995
Reptiles and Mammals
Not much is known about the distribution and occurrence of marine reptiles and mammals in
the subregion. Some studies have been conducted on sea turtles in Ghana and on the
occurrence of marine mammals in Ghana and Benin. Five species of sea turtles (Dermochelys
coriacea, Erectmochelys imbricata, Chelonia mydas, Caretta caretta and Lepidochelys
olivacea) have been reported from Ghanaian coastal waters.
Eight species of dolphins (Stenella clymene, S. attenuata, Steno bredanensis, Tursiops
truncatus, Grampus griseus, Lagenodelphis hosei, Globicephala macrorhynchus and
Delphinus capensis) have been recorded in a recent study in Ghana (Debrah, 2000) with S.
clymene as the most abundant species. The diversity of whales is poorly known although
several whales, some with calves, have been sighted or washed ashore in the region.
33
THE UNKNOWN
Generally, the vertebrates are fairly well studied in the region, with only about 20% of them
being unknown. The invertebrates, on the other hand, are poorly studied with an estimated
60% unknown in the inshore waters and an even higher percentage unknown in offshore
waters.
The following major groups of organisms in the coastal waters of the three countries are
relatively unknown and require attention:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Porifera
Cnidaria
Brachiopoda
Sipunculida
Echiurida
Nemertina
Platyhelminthes
Pogonophora
Oligochaetes
Priapulida
Brachiopoda
Phorona
Pycnogonida
Protozoa (mainly Foraminifera, Ciliata and Radiolaria)
Meiofauna
Polychaeta,
Mollusca
The following groups have been investigated but further studies are needed:
•
•
•
•
•
Whales
Dolphins
Bivalves
Gastropods
Scaphopods
THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY
The various threats to biodiversity can be broadly placed under three main categories, namely
over-exploitation, habitat loss and encroachment as a result of rapid human population
growth. Over-exploitation of living marine resources both directly and indirectly constitutes a
major cause of biodiversity decline in the Gulf of Guinea. Besides dwindling species numbers
and abundance, the pressure exerted also lead to a reduction in genetic diversity within
affected populations.
In West Africa, there has been a decline in the pelagic Sardinella fishery of Cote d’Ivoire and
Ghana, as well as catches of demersal species such as the sea bream Pagellus sp., benthic
molluscs Cymbium sp. and spiny-lobster Panulirus sp. (Armah & Amlalo, 1998). The by34
catches of shrimpers and beach seiners also have an adverse affect on biodiversity. Nunoo &
Evans (1997) have estimated the non-target (by-catch) fishes to be about 75% by weight of
the total catch of shrimpers in Ghana. Out of this proportion, about 63% comprises either
juveniles of commercial species or fish that are of little commercial value, with both
components being discarded. The beach-seine fishery consists of more than 60% juveniles.
Habitat Loss
Habitat destruction is the most serious threat to the biodiversity of coastal marine habitats. In
West Africa, felling of mangroves, destruction of wetlands through human encroachment,
pollution of coastal waters and trawling activities are primary causes of habitat loss. Marine
protected areas (MPAs) could reduce the rate of habitat loss, but MPAs are non-existent in
Ghana, Togo and Benin. In Ghana, Ramsar sites (mainly for waterbird conservation) exist at
five coastal wetlands, namely the Densu wetlands and Muni, Sakumo, Songor and Keta
lagoons.
Mangroves
In Ghana, for example, mangrove over-exploitation in the eastern portion of the Lower Volta
has led to >60% loss during the twelve year period between 1973 and 1986 (Adu-Prah et al.,
1997). The decline of the coastal shrimp fishery off the Volta estuary is believed to be a direct
consequence of the loss of nursery sites and nutrients provided by the mangrove habitat.
Mangrove loss may have severe repercussions for several endemic macrobenthic species. The
situation is similar in many parts of the Gulf of Guinea (Saenger et al., 1997).
Encroachment in Coastal Areas
Encroachment into wetlands, for the purpose of establishing residential areas, or for the
purpose of agriculture (aquaculture) or industry (salt production) is also a major threat to the
coastal zone. Expanding coastal populations, coupled with the need to feed them and to
provide them with employment has resulted in encroachment into wetlands with negative
consequences for biodiversity.
Illegal activities, such as sand and shingle winning, leads to alterations in the shoreline and,
subsequently, the destruction of intertidal habitats. Large-scale sand winning also has the
potential of accelerating shoreline erosion, hence threatening onshore habitats.
Trawling
Physical alteration of the seabed changes the composition and functioning of the biological
community. Although resource managers generally agree that the physical alterations of
ecosystems is the greatest threat to biodiversity on land, the importance of physical alteration
on marine biodiversity as a result of trawling is often underestimated or overlooked.
In the Gulf of Guinea, perhaps the one single activity that most disturbs the subtidal
community is trawling. Trawling churns and resuspends sediments, damages the sea floor and
associated benthic communities, smothers benthic organisms and alters habitats, and
eventually leads to major changes in the benthic food web.
Pollution
Oil pollution is a major threat to countries exploiting the resource offshore, notably Nigeria,
Cameroon and Gabon. Blowouts in the Niger delta have destroyed biota over large areas.
35
Benin and Ghana are extracting oil on an exploratory basis, and this could have some effect
on the marine environments in the vicinity of test sites.
Other forms of pollution in the coastal zone include domestic and industrial wastes, which are
released, untreated into lagoons and the oceanic environment. This could have effects on
lagoonal flora and fauna as well as on coastal and benthic marine resources. The effects of
pollution can already be seen in some coastal lagoons in Ghana such as the Chemu and Korle
lagoons, which have lost their biota as the results of domestic and industrial effluent.
Some forms of pollution have sub-lethal effects on the environment with their actions mainly
evident after long-term exposure, or as a result of bioaccumulation and biomagnification.
Such pollutants can have significant consequences for biodiversity in terms of altered
composition, structure and functioning of marine communities. Of special interest is
tributyltin (TBT) pollution, normally associated with harbours and marinas. TBT is used as an
anti-biofouling agent in paints on the hulls of ships and other marine vessels. Studies by
Nyarko and Evans (1998) have shown the adverse effects of TBT (imposex) on two marine
intertidal gastropods, Thais haemastoma and Thais nodosa in the Tema port. A regional study
with the aim of establishing the extent and magnitude of TBT pollution on marine
invertebrates in the Gulf of Guinea is therefore necessary.
CAPACITY
A. Human Capacity
Name
Field/Taxa
Personal Details
Armah, A. K.
Benthos
Lamptey, E.
Benthos, Coastal birds
Yankson, K.
Benthos (molluscs)
Ntiamoa-Baidu, Y
Coastal birds
Blay, J. Jr.
Fishery
Darpaah, G. A.
Fishery
Department of Oceanography &
Fishery, University of Ghana
P.O. Box LG 99, Legon, Accra,
Ghana
E-mail: [email protected]
[email protected]
Department of Oceanography &
Fishery, University of Ghana
P.O. Box LG 99, Legon, Accra,
Ghana
E-mail: [email protected]
Department
of
Zoology,
University of Cape Coast, Cape
Coast.
Department
of
Zoology,
University of Ghana, P.O. Box
LG 98, Ghana
Department
of
Zoology,
University of Cape Coast, Cape
Coast.
Department of Zoology, P. O.
Box LG 98, Legon, Accra.
Email: [email protected]
36
Koranteng, K. A.
Fishery
Nunoo, F. K. E.
Fishery
Entsua-Mensah, M.
Fishery
Ababio, S.D.
Fishery
Ofori-Danson
Fishery
Addo, S
Fishery
Aadra, Y.
Fishery
Zacharie, S.
Fishery
Wiafe, G.
Plankton
Addico, G. N. D.
Plankton
Yaqub H. B.
Plankton
Marine Fisheries Research
Division, P. O. Box BT62,
Tema. Email:
[email protected]
Department of Oceanography &
Fishery, University of Ghana
P.O. Box LG 99, Legon, Accra,
Ghana
Water Research Institute,
P.O. Box 38,
Achimota, Ghana
Fax: 777170/761030
Deptartment of Oceanography &
Fishery, University of Ghana
P.O. Box LG 99, Legon, Accra,
Ghana
E-mail: [email protected]
Deptartment of Oceanography &
Fishery, University of Ghana
P.O. Box LG 99, Legon, Accra,
Ghana
Deptartment of Oceanography &
Fishery, University of Ghana
P.O. Box LG 99, Legon, Accra,
Ghana
E-mail: [email protected]
Deptartment of Botany, Faculty
of Science, University of Lome,
B.P. 1515, Lome, Togo.
Email: [email protected]
[email protected]
National
Center
for
Oceanography, Benin Center for
Technique
and
Scientific
Research,
Cotonou,
Benin.
Email: [email protected]
Deptartment of Oceanography &
Fishery, University of Ghana
P.O. Box LG 99, Legon, Accra,
Ghana
E-mail: [email protected]
Water Research Institute
P.O.Box 38
Achimota, Ghana
Fax: 777170/761030
Marine
Fishery
Research
Division, P.O.Box BT -62, Tema
Ghana
Email:
[email protected]
37
Edorh, M. T.
Plankton
Department of Botany, Faculty
of Science, University of Lome,
B.P. 1515, Lome, Togo
Email: [email protected]
[email protected]
Mangroves, semi-aquatic Department of Botany,
vegetation
University of Ghana,
P. O. Box LG 55, Legon, Ghana
Macroalgae
Department of Botany,
University of Ghana, P.O. Box
LG 55, Legon, Ghana
Adomako, J. K.
Ameka, G.
B. Institutional Capacity
Institution
Address
Taxa
Capacity Documentation
Department of
Oceanography
&
Fisheries,
University of
Ghana
Department of
Botany,
University of
Ghana
Department of
Zoology,
University of
Ghana
Marine Fishery
Research
Division
University of
Cape Coast
Department
of
Oceanography & Fishery,
University of Ghana
P.O. Box LG 99, Legon
Accra, Ghana
Department of Botany,
University of Ghana, P. O.
Box LG 55, Legon, Ghana
Fish
Small
None
Plankton
Small
None
Benthos
Macroalgae
Moderate None
Moderate Excellent
Department of Zoology, MacroModerate Inadequate
P.O. Box LG 98, Legon, invertebrates
Accra, Ghana
and Fish
Fish
Small
Satisfactory
Macroinvertebrate
and Fish
Small
None
Universite
National du
Benin
Small
Department of Zoology, MacroBP 526, Cotonou, Benin
invertebrates
and Fish
None
National
Center for
Oceanography
Benin
Center
for
Technique and Scientific
Research,
Cotonou, Benin.
Department of Botany,
Faculty
of
Science,
University of Lome, B.P.
1515, Lome, Togo
Macroinvertebrate
and Fish
Small
None
Macroinvertebrate
and Fish
Small
None
University of
Lome
Marine Fishery Research
Division, P.O.Box BT -62,
Tema, Ghana
Department of Zoology,
University of Cape Coast,
Cape Coast
38
C. Museum Facilities
Museum facilities are generally non-existent, and where they exist, comprise mainly teaching
specimens used in tertiary institutions. The collections are inadequate with the probable
exception of the Macroalgae Collection at the University of Ghana.
Country
Human capacity
Museum/Collection
Ghana
Fisheries = Adequate
Benthos = Very poor
Plankton = Poor
Others = Poor
Fisheries = Adequate
Benthos = Very poor
Plankton = Poor
Others = Poor
Fisheries = Adequate
Benthos = Very poor
Plankton = Poor
Others = Poor
Poorly kept and often limited to
personal collections in Universities
and Research Institutes
Togo
Benin
Poorly kept and often limited to
personal collections in Universities
and Research Institutes
Poorly kept and often limited to
personal collections in Universities
and Research Institutes
39
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AVIFAUNA
Ber Van Perlo (2002). Birds of Western and Central Africa. Harper Collins Pub. Ltd.,
London.
Finlayson, C. M., C. Gordon, Y. Ntiamoa-Baidu, J. Tumbulto and M. Storrs (2000). The
hydrobiology of Keta and Songor lagoons: Implications for Coastal Wetland
Management in Ghana. Supervising Scientist Report 152, Darwin.
GLDD/RPI/ESL (2001-2003). Annual Monitoring Report for the Keta Sea Defence Project.
Environmental Protection Agency, Accra, Ghana
Ntiamoa-Baidu, Y. and I. R. Hepburn (1988). Wintering Waders in Coastal Ghana. RSPB
Conserv. Rev. 2:85-88
Piersma, T. and Y. Ntiamoa-Baidu (1995). Waterbird Ecology and the Management of
Coastal Wetlands in Ghana. Ghana Coastal Wetlands Management Project/Netherlands
Institute for Sea Research (NIOZ-Report 1995-6)/Ghana Wildlife Report.
Serle, W., G. J. Morel and W. Hartwig (1977). A Field Guide to the Birds of West Africa.
Collins, London
BRYOZOA
Cook, P. L. (1985). Bryozoa from Ghana. - Zoologische Wetenschappen Musee Royal
l'Afrique Centrale Tervuren, Belgique 238: 1-315.
CRUSTACEA
Holthuis, L. B. (1951). The Caridean Crustacean of West Africa. Atlantide Rep., 2:7-187
Le Lœuff, P. et A Intès (1974). Les Thalassinidae (Crutacea, Decapoda) du Golfe de Guinèe,
Systèmatique, Écologie. Cah. Orstom, sér. Océanogra., 12 (1):17-69
Manning, R. B. and L. B Holthuis (1981). West African Brachyuran crabs (Crustacea:
Decapoda). Smithsonia Contr. Zool., 306, 379p
Reid, D. M. (1951). Report on the Amphipoda (Gammaridae and Caprellidae) of the Coast of
Tropical West Africa.
Stubbings H. G. (1961). Cirripedia Thoracica from Tropical West Africa. Atlantide Rep., 6:742.
ECHINODERMATA
Clark, A. M (1955). Echinodermata of the Gold Coast. Journal of the West
African Science Association, 1, (2), p. 16-56.
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FISHES
Fischer, W. and G. Bianchi (eds) (1984). FAO Species Identification Sheets for Fishery
Purposes. Eastern central Atlantic. (Fishing area 34 and part of 47). FAO, Rome.
Vols. 1-7: pag. Var.
Ofori-Adu, D. W. (1988). List of Fishes, Shellfishes and other Marine Food Resources in
Ghanaian Coastal Waters. Marine Fisheries Technical Paper 1. Fisheries Research Unit,
Tema, Ghana.
Troadec, J. P. and S. Garcia (eds) (1980). The Fish Resources of the Eastern Central Atlantic.
Part 1: The Resources of the Gulf of Guinea from Angola to Mauritania. FAO Fish.
Tech. Pap., (186.1): 166p.
Wolfgang, S. (1990). Field Guide to the Commercial Marine Resources of the Gulf of Guinea.
FAO Species Identification Sheets for Fishery Purposes. Rome.
MOLLUSCA
Buchanan, J. B (1954). Marine Molluscs of the Gold Coast, West Africa. Journal of the West
African Science Association, 1, 1: 30-45
Knudsen, J. (1952). Marine prosobranchs of Tropical West Collected by the ‘Atlantide’
Expedition (1945-46). Vidensk. Medd. fra dansk naturh. Foren., Bd. 114, 129-85
Maslin J. L. (1986). Les Mollusques Benthicques d’une Lagune du sud du Bénin, le lac
Ahémé les Facteurs de leur Repartition, Dynamique des Populations et Estimation de la
Production de Corbula trigona. Thèse doct. 3e cycle, univ. Lyon I, 116p + Figures
Monod, T. (1956). Hippidae et Brachyura Ouest-Africains. Mem. Ifan, 45, 674p.
Nicklès, M. (1950). Mollusques Testacés Marins de la Côte Occidentale d’Afrique. Manuels
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John, D.M. and Lawson G. (1997). Seaweed Biodiversity in West Africa: a Criterion for
Designating Marine Protected Areas. In: S. M. Evans, C. J. Vanderpuye and A. K.
Armah (eds.). The Coastal Zone of West Africa: Problems and Management. Penshaw
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Lawson, G and John D.M. (1987). The Marine Algae and Coastal Environment of Tropical
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POLYCHAETA
Day, J. H. (1967). A monograph on the polychaete of Southern Africa. Part 1. Errantia.
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Day, J. H. (1967). A monograph on the polychaete of Southern Africa. Part 2. Sedentaria.
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Intès, A. et P. le Lœuff (1975). Les Annélides Polychète de Côte-d’Ivoire. I – Polychètes
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Sedentaries, Compte Rendu Systematigue. Cah. Orstom, sér. Océanogra., 15 (3):215249.
Fauchald, K. (1977). The polychaete worms: definitions and keys to the Orders, Families and
Genera. Natural History Museum, Los Angeles County.
Kirkegaard, J. B. (1983). The Polychaete of West Africa. Part II: Errant species. I
Aphroditidae to Nereidae. Atlantide Report, 13: 181-230. E.J. Brill/ Scandinavian
Science Press Ltd.
Kirkegaard, J. B. (1988). The Polychaeta of West Africa. Ecological Musuem, University of
Copenhagen, Denmark.
Kirkegaard, J. B. (1988). The Polychaeta of West Africa. Part 1. Sedentary species. In: J.
Knudsen and T. Wolff (eds.) Atlantide Report 14. E.J. Brill/ Scandinavian Science
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Kirkegaard, J. B. (1988). The Polychaeta of West Africa. Part 2. Errantia species. In: J.
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Zibrovius, H. (1978). Introduction du Polychaete Serpulidae Japonais Hydroides ezoensis sur
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PLANKTON
Bainbridge, V. (1972). The zooplankton of the Gulf of Guinea. Bulletin of Marine Ecology 8:
61 - 97.
Binet, D. (1977). Grand traits de d'ecologie de principaux taxons du zooplankton Ivoirien.
Cahiers Orstom Series Oceanographie 15: 89 - 109.
Boden, B.P. (1961). Euphausiacea (crustacea) from Tropical West Africa. In Atlantide Report
No. 6. Danish Science Press Limited, Copenhagen. 251 - 262.
Einarson, H. (1945). Euphausiacea - North Atlantic species. Dana Reports 5 no. 27. 185p.
42
Furnestin, M. L. (1966). Chaetognathes des eaux africaines. In Atlantide Reports No. 9.
Danish Science Press Limited. 105 - 135p.
Kramp, P. L. (1955). The medusae of the tropical west coast of Africa. In Atlantide Report
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Mensah, M. A. (1966). Zooplankton occurrence over the shelf of Ghana. In Proceedings of
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Mensah, M. A. (1974). The occurrence of the marine copepod Calanoides carinatus (Krϕyer)
in Ghanaian waters. Ghana Journal of Science 14: 147-166.
Thiriot, A. (1977). Peuplements zooplanctoniques dans les regions de remontees d'eaus du
littoral atlantique africain. Documentation Scientifique Centre Rechercher
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Vervoort, W. (1963). Pelagic Copepoda. Part I: Copepoda Calanoida of the families
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Vervoort, W. (1965). Pelagic Copepoda. Part II: Copepoda Calanoida of the families
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43
GENERAL
Ababio, S. D. (2001). The Population Parameters, Food Habits and Physico-Chemical
Environment of Three Cichlid Species in the South-Western Sector of the Keta Lagoon.
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Ecosystem Project of the Gulf of Guinea. CEDA, Benin.
Adu-Prah, S., J. Gyamfi-Aidoo and G. T. Agyepong (1997). Lower Volta Mangrove Project
Technical Report No. 5. Volta Basin Research Project, University of Ghana, Legon,
Ghana.
Amiteye, B. T. (2001). Ecology and Occurrence of Nesting Turtles in Ghana. Unpublished
M. Phil. Thesis. University of Ghana, Legon.
Armah, A. K. (1993). Coastal wetlands of Ghana. Coastal Zone 93: 313-322.
Armah, A. K. and D. S. Amlalo (1998). Coastal Zone Profile of Ghana. Gulf of Guinea Large
Marine Ecosystem Project. Ministry of Environment, Science and Technology, Accra,
Ghana.
Blivi, A., K. Houekador and D. Johnson (1998). Strategy for Integrated Coastal Zone
Management in Togo: The Coastal Profile. In: Perspectives in Integrated Coastal Areas
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of the Gulf of Guinea. CEDA, Benin.
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Debrah, J. S. (2000). Taxonomy, Exploitation and Conservation of Dolphins in the Marine
Waters of Ghana. Unpublished M. Phil Thesis, University of Ghana, Legon, Ghana.
EC, (1989). Coastal Erosion in the Bight of Benin – National and Regional Aspects. Report
on Expert Findings to the European Community. 370 pp.
EPA/World Bank, (1997). Towards an Integrated Coastal Zone Management Strategy for
Ghana. The World Bank and the Environmental Protection Agency, Accra, Ghana.
Evans, S. M., M. E. Gill, F. G. Hardy and F. O. K. Seku (1993). Evidence of Change in some
Rocky Shore Communities on the Coast of Ghana. Journal of Experimental Marine
Biology and Ecology, 172: 129-141.
Ibe, A. C., A. A. Oteng-Yeboah, S. G. Zabi, and D. Afolabi (eds) (1998). Integrated
Environmental and Living Resources Management in the Gulf of Guinea. Proceedings
of the First Symposium on GEF’s LME Project for the Gulf of Guinea, Abidjan.
UNDP/UNIDO.GEF. 274pp.
44
Jefferson, T. A., B. E. Curry, S. Leatherwood and J. A. Powell (1997). Dolphins and
Porpoises of West Africa: a review of records. ( Cetacea: Delphinidae, Phocoenidae).
Mammalia 61 (1): 87-108.
Longhurst, A. R. (1958). An Ecological Survey of the West African Benthos. Fish. Publ.
Col. Office London, 11, 102p
Longhurst, A.L., (1962). A Review of the Oceanography of the Gulf of Guinea. Bull.
Inst.fr.Afr.noir, Ser. A, 24 (3): 633-663.
Ly, C. K. (1980). The Role of the Akosombo Dam on the Volta River in causing erosion in
Central and Eastern Ghana ( West Africa). Mar. Geol., 37: 323 – 332.
Nyarko, E and S. M. Evans (1998). Impacts of Tributyltin Pollution and Human Food
Gathering on Populations of the Gastropods, Thais haemastoma and Thais nodosa along
the Coast of Ghana. In: Evans, S.M., Vanderpuye, C.J. and Armah, A.K. (eds.), The
Coastal Zone of West Africa: Problems and Management. Proceedings of the
International Seminar on the Coastal Zone of West Africa. Penshaw Press, U.K. pp 243.
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Coastal Zone of West Africa: Problems and Management. Proceedings of the
International Seminar on the Coastal Zone of West Africa. Penshaw Press, U.K. pp 243.
Sackey, E. (1994). Ecological Studies of Ghanaian Mangroves. Unpublished M. Phil. Thesis.
University of Ghana. Legon.
Saenger, P. and M. F. Bellan (1995). The Mangrove Vegetation of the Atlantic Coast of
Africa – A Review. Laboratoire d’Ecologie Terrestre (UMR). Universite de Toulouse,
France, 96 pp.
Wauthy, B., (1983). Introduction á la Climatologie du Golfe de Guinée. Océanogr. Trop., 18
(2): 103-138.
Yankson, K. and M. Kendall (2001). A Student’s Guide to the Seashore of West Africa.
Darwin Initiative Report 1, Ref. 162/7/451.
45
National Report
Marine biodiversity in Nigeria – the known and the unknown
Catherine E. Isebor
Nigerian Institute for Oceanography and Marine Research,
Victoria Island, P. M. B. 12729, Lagos, Nigeria
Introduction
Nigeria has a coastline of 853 km, a maritime area of 46,500 km2 and an exclusive economic
zone of 210,900 km2. The Nigerian coastal area is hot and humid, with an annual temperature
range between 26 and 34oC, and the highest temperatures occurring during the dry season
(November to March). The total annual rainfall averages between 350 and 600 centimeters.
More than 80 percent of the rain falls during the rainy season (April to October) when tropical
storm conditions are frequent. Rainfall is usually heavy and occasionally lasts for over 24
hours. Rainfall of about 50mm/hour between July and August are common and results in
flash floods. The predominant wind is the rain bearing southwest trade wind from the
Atlantic Ocean. During the short dry period, the dust laden north east dry wind from the
Sahara desert reaches the coastal areas, producing hazy conditions (Ibe et al. 1985).
The Nigerian intertidal mangrove swamps cover an area of about 5,590 square kilometres
(Allen 1965). The swamps are separated from the sea by barrier-bar islands that are usually
broken by tidal channels. The Niger delta area, which has a flourishing mangrove ecosystem,
was formed by long and continuous interactions of sediment laden Niger River water and
coastal processes, creating beach-ridges, barrier islands, a fresh water floodplain and brackish
mangrove swamp. This coastal habitat is interrupted by a series of estuaries, lagoons and
embayments. The total brackish water habitat is estimated as 12,900 km2. The mangroves,
wetlands and inter-tidal systems occur in saline soil subject to tidal inundation and occupy a
total area of almost 1 million hectares (Okigbo 1984, FAO 1981).
Fishing is the main occupation of the coastal communities, with various types of gears being
employed. Fishing is conducted in creeks, rivers, estuaries, mudflats, near-shore and offshore.
Commercial fishing supports about 440 trawlers, with about three quarters of the fleet
targeting the shrimp resources. The mangrove plants and associated halophytic plants are used
for building, extraction of tannin; construction works, curing of fish, and other fishing
implements. Mineral resources in the coastal and marine waters include petroleum, with an
oil reserve of about 21 billion barrels and gas reserve estimated at more than 11 trillion cubic
feet. Current production levels are at about 1.9 million barrels of crude oil and 200,000 barrels
of gas condensate per day. The current natural gas production is 3,400 million cubic feet per
day in the form of associated gas, of which about 340 million is marketed in the domestic
market, 340 million re-injected and 2,720 million cubic feet is flared daily.
Sand and gravel are exploited onshore and offshore, in the riverbed, lagoons, estuaries and
beaches. Millions of cubic meters of sand are dredged annually during oil exploration and
exploitation, as well as for the construction industry. Most of the sand mined is used for
reclamation of swampy areas, in the block-making industry and construction work.
46
The Known
The Nigerian coast comprises four distinct geomorphic zones. On the western side is the
barrier bar lagoon complex that changes about 100 km eastwards of Lagos into mud beaches.
The mud beaches then grade into the Niger delta that consists of a chain of sandy beach ridge
barrier islands backed by an extensive mangrove swamp. The barrier islands rim the subaerial Niger delta from the Benin River on the northwest flank of the delta to the Opobo River
in the east. There are more than 20 major beach ridge barrier islands between the mangrove
swamp and the open sea (Allen 1964). Eastward of the Opobo River to the eastern border
with Cameroon is the strand complex coastline. The continental shelf widens from 25-30 km
off Lagos to 75 km at the Niger delta. There are 36 estuaries on the coast, which owe their
origin to bar-built (such as the Lagos lagoon) drowned river valleys (such Qua Iboe River)
and river delta estuaries
The end of the continental shelf is marked by an often-steep continental slope. The slope is
the beginning of what is called the offshore ocean environment (as distinct from what is
generally referred to as the near shore coastal ocean). Most of the physical factors such as
winds, waves and tides affecting the coastal zone have their origin in the offshore ocean. This
offshore ocean feature, together with the near shore ocean and their drainage basins (the socalled marine catchment basins) constitute the geographical space sometimes referred to as a
Large Marine Ecosystem (LME) by Sherman and Alexander (1986).
The coastal area is richly endowed with abundant aquatic and other natural resources, both
renewable and non-renewable. Considerable information is available on the plankton, fish and
fisheries of the Nigerian coastal zone (Olaniyan 1957, Williams 1962, Fagade 1969, Ezenwa
1981, Ajayi 1982, Ssentogo et al 1986).
Coastal vegetation (mangroves)
Taxonomic considerations are based on Hutchinson and Dalziel (1927-1936) and Olorode
(1984). Strict mangroves are separated from their relatives at least by generic level, often at
subfamily or family level. Minor elements are distinguished by their inability to form
conspicuous elements of mangrove vegetation, and may occupy peripherial habitat and only
rarely form a pure community. Mangrove associates are never inhabitants of strict mangrove
community and may occur only in transitional vegetation. Specialized elements include
climbers, epiphytes and parasites. Attempts have been made to classify mangrove zones
occurring within the Nigerian coastal zone. These categories are not sharply circumscribed
and assessment is somewhat subjective given the continuum of possibilities. The major
elements of mangroves in the country include the dominant species Rhizophora racemosa,
Avicennia africana and Nypa fructicans. A list of plant families found in the Nigerian coastal
zone is given in Table 1 and includes 60 species belonging to 49 genera. Various surveys
carried out in the Nigerian coastal zone indicate that the mangroves have been impacted by
human activities.
Phytoplankton
Nwankwo (1988b) produced a checklist of Nigerian marine algae. Other studies on plankton
of the Nigerian coastal zone have been documented (Olaniyan 1969&1977, Nwankwo 1984,
1988a, 1990a and 1990b). A total of 103 genera of phytoplankton have already been
identified from Nigerian coastal waters (Table 2).
47
Table 1: Mangrove and associated vegetation in the Nigerian coastal zone
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
Family
Genera
Species
Rhizophoraceae
1
3
Avicenniaceae
1
1
Combretaceae
2
2
Adiantaceae (Polypodiaceae)
1
1
Amaranthaceae
1
2
Palmae
5
6
Araceae
2
2
Apocynaceae
1
1
Cannaceae
1
1
Convolvulaceae
1
2
ceratophyllaceae
1
1
Panadanaceae
1
1
Papilionaceae
2
2
Cyperaceae
5
8
Typhaceae
1
1
Lemmaceae
2
2
Loganiaceae
1
1
Moraceae
1
2
Nymphaeaceae
1
1
Onagraceae
1
1
Poaceae
5
7
Polygonanceae
2
2
Rubiaceae
4
4
Salviniaceae
1
1
Scrophulariaceae
1
1
Sphenocleaceae
1
1
Passifloraceae
1
1
Pontederiaceae
1
1
Total
49
60
Source: Chapman, V. J. (1984), RPI/NNPC (1985) & Isebor, C. E. (1998)
Table 2: Taxonomic listing of phytoplankton genera from Nigeria
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
Family
Bacillariophyceae
Chlorophyceae
Cyanophyceae
Chrysophyceae
Dinophyceae
Euglenophyceae
Total
Genera
42
39
17
1
3
1
103
48
Zooplankton
Within the zooplankton community, crustaceans are the dominant group, with copepods
frequently the most abundant component. Shrimp larvae are recorded in most samples, with
tunicates and chaetognaths also common. Other zooplanktonic animals found in the Nigerian
coastal zone include protozoans, bryozoans, cnidarians, ctenophores, worms (e.g.
oligochaetes), and the larvae of crustaceans (e.g. barnacles, crabs, shrimps), insects (e.g.
mosquitoes), molluscs (e.g. bivalves, gastropods, scaphopods), echinoderms, ascidians and
fishes. A listing of the number of species and genera already identified is given in Table 3.
Table 3: Taxonomic list of zooplankton from Nigeria
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
Group
Copepoda
Ciliatea
Hydrozoa
Polychaeta
Cirripedia
Isopoda
Pisces
Scyphozoa
Chaetognatha
Polychaeta
Ostracoda
Genera
8
2
4
3
1
2
unknown
3
2
4
3
Species
8
2
4
3
1
2
unknown
3
3
5
4
Genera
4
3
2
4
Species
4
3
unknown
unknown
Table 4: Taxonomic list of Cnidaria from Nigeria
No.
1
2
3
Class
Hydrozoa
Scyphozoa
Anthozoa
Total
Table 5: Taxonomic list of Annelida from Nigeria
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Family
Capitellidae
Nereidae
Nephytidae
Paraonidae
Pilargiidae
Cossuridae
Maldanidae
Glyceridae
Pisionidae
Chaetopteridae
Genera
5
4
2
1
5
1
7
1
1
5
49
Species
5
4
3
1
5
1
7
4
1
5
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
Spionidae
Orbiniidae
Arenicolidae
Opheliidae
Cirratulidae
Ampharetidae
Flabelligeridae
Nanididae
Hesionidae
Mageloniadae
Funicidae
Aphroditidae
Sabellidae
Sternapsidae
Owenidae
Pectinariidae
Sabellaridae
Scalibregmidae
Terebellidae
3
6
1
1
1
3
1
unknown
3
1
4
2
1
1
1
1
2
4
4
3
6
1
3
1
3
1
unknown
3
1
4
2
1
1
1
2
2
4
6
A total of 23 species of shrimp, belonging to 16 genera, have been recorded (Table 6). These
include commercially important species such as Penaeus notialis, Penaeus monodon, P.
kerathurus, Parapenaeopsis atlantica, Macrobrachium macrobrachium, M. vollenhovenii and
Nematopalaemon hastatus. These species are most abundant and dominate the catch landings.
Shrimps are concentrated in Nigerian estuaries, lagoons and adjacent near shore waters. There
are 9 families of crabs comprising 17 genera and 23 species (Table 7). The Portunidae
(Callinectes sp. and Portunus sp.) are the most economically important in the Nigerian
coastal zone.
Table 6: Taxonomic list of some commercially important Crustacea from Nigeria
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
Family
Hippolytidae
Nematocarcinidae
Palaemonidae
Pandalidae
Pasiphaeidae
Palinuridae
Scyllaridae
Aristeidae
Penaeidae
Sicyonidae
Solenoceridae
Total
Genera
1
1
1
3
1
1
1
2
3
1
1
16
50
Species
1
1
7
3
1
1
1
2
4
1
1
23
Table 7: Taxonomic list of Decapoda from Nigeria
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Family
Calappidae
Gecarcinidae
Geryonidae
Graspsidae
Homolidae
Majidae
Ocypodidae
Portunidae
Xanthidae
Genera
1
1
1
4
1
1
2
4
2
17
Species
3
1
1
4
1
1
3
7
2
23
Molluscs
The diversity of the coast corresponds to the variety of coastal and marine sediments (sandy,
muddy and rocky) that are transported into the coastal area and sea by the numerous rivers.
There are no near shore coral reefs but there is dead coral in deeper waters. The different
bottom sediments support different populations of molluscs. In Nigeria, molluscs are found
on/in various substrata, including the zones between fresh and brackish waters, and between
estuaries and the marine environment. A taxonomic listing of the number of bivalves,
gastropods and cephalopods is given in Tables 8, 9 and 10.
Table 8: Taxonomic list of Bivalvia from Nigeria
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
Family
Arcidae
Aloididae
Cardiidae
Carditidae
Chamidae
Donacidae
Dreissenidae
Erycinidae
Garidae
Glycymeridae
Hiatellidae
Mactridae
Mytilidae
Ostreidae
Pectinidae
Petricolidae
Pholadidae
Pinnidae
Pteriidae
Saxicavidae
Genera
4
4
1
1
1
3
1
1
1
1
1
2
4
1
2
1
3
2
1
1
51
Species
4
4
3
2
2
7
1
1
1
1
1
5
7
3
2
1
3
2
3
1
21
22
23
24
25
26
Solecurtidae
Solenidae
Tellinidae
Teredinidae
Veneridae
Vulsellidae
Total
2
3
2
1
4
1
49
2
3
4
1
6
1
71
Table 9: Taxonomic list of Gastropoda from Nigeria
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
Family
Haliotidae
Fissurellidae
Patellidae
Neritidae
Littorinidae
Turritella
Architectonia
Vermetidae
Melanidae
Potamididae
Cerithidae
Calyptraeidae
Xenophoridae
Strombidae
Naticidae
Cypraeidae
Cassididae
Doliidae
Muricacea
Columbellidae
Buccinidae
Galeoidae
Nassidae
Olividae
Mitridae
Harpidae
Volutidae
Turridae
Conidae
Terebridae
Genera
1
2
1
1
2
1
1
2
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
4
1
1
1
4
1
1
1
1
3
1
1
42
52
Species
1
3
1
2
4
4
1
3
2
2
3
2
1
1
8
4
3
1
15
1
2
1
7
3
1
1
5
6
5
2
94
Table 10: Taxonomic list of Cephalopoda from Nigeria
No.
1
2
3
4
Family
Sepiidae
Loliginidae
Ommastephidae
Octopodidae
Genus
2
2
8
1
13
Family
6
2
9
2
19
Pisces
Marine fish resources off West Africa exhibit a geographical variation in distribution and
abundance. Longhurst (1961) observed three distinct zones as follows:
(a) A northern subtropical zone of abundant fish resources beginning from the south of
Senegal (under the influence of the cold Canary Current).
(b) A southern subtropical zone of equally abundant resources beginning from the mouth
of the Congo River (under the influence of the cold Benguela Current).
(c) The two rich zones enclose a less productive equatorial tropical zone with the
Nigerian marine area located in the Gulf of Guinea.
The listing of teleost and elasmobranch fishes found in Nigerian coastal waters is given in
Tables 11, 12 and 13.
Demersal fishes
The term ‘demersal’ refers to fishes and invertebrates that spend most of their adult life on or
near the sea bottom. The demersal assemblages considered here account for the bulk of the
catches by various gears. Despite such rich diversity, only about 284 species occur regularly
in trawl catches and far less is commercially important. Trawl surveys provide information on
the magnitude, composition and distribution of demersal resources over time. The bulk of the
demersal fish biomass comprises zoobenthos feeders, indicating the importance of the large
detritus sources as a major driving factor in the coastal fisheries ecosystem of Nigeria.
Pelagic Fishes
The term ‘pelagic’ as used here refers to fishes that spend all or most of their adult life living
in the water column, away from the sea bottom. While considerably less diverse than the
demersal species, the pelagic assemblage is still species-rich. The species listed are brackish,
coastal marine and oceanic species. The pelagic species have been categorised into small and
large, the former characterised by maximum lengths of 20-30 cm. The small pelagic species
feed mainly on zooplankton and small crustaceans. They are fast growers with high mortality
rates and relatively short life spans (2-3 years). Spawning is frequently a year round activity
with two spawning and recruitment peaks annually. In contrast, the large pelagics are located
at the top of the aquatic food chain and are piscivorous in adult life. Large pelagics are
frequently the first resource group to suffer the effects of heavy fishing pressure in view of
their more favourable market prices. Small pelagics include Clupeidae (Ethmalosa fimbriata,
Sardinella aurita, S. maderensis and Ilisha africana), Ariommidae (Ariomma bondi and A.
melanum) and Engraulidae (Engraulis sp.). Large pelagics include Carcharchinidae,
Scombridae (Thunnus albacares, Katsuwonus pelamis, T. obesus) and Sphyraenidae.
53
Table 11: Teleost fish families recorded, including the number of genera and species
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
Family
Acanthuridae
Albulidae
Antennariidae
Ariidae
Ariommidae
Ateleopodidae
Balistidae
Batrachoididae
Belonidae
Bothidae
Bramidae
Branchiostegidae
Carangidae
Centracanthidae
Centrolophidae
Chlorophthalmidae
Citharidae
Clupeidae
Congridae
Coryphaenidae
Cynoglossidae
Dactylopteridae
Diodontidae
Diretmidae
Drepanidae
Eleotridae
Elopidae
Emmelichthyidae
Engraulidae
Ephippidae
Excocoetidae
Fistulariidae
Gempylidae
Gerridae
Grammistidae
Haemulidae
Hemiramphidae
Istiophoridae
Kyphosidae
Labridae
Lampridae
Lethrinidae
Lobotidae
Lophiidae
Lutjanidae
Macrouridae
Genera
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
4
4
6
1
1
14
1
2
1
1
4
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
4
1
3
2
1
2
4
3
1
3
1
1
1
2
2
3
54
Species
2
2
1
4
2
1
2
4
5
9
1
1
26
2
2
1
1
6
2
2
8
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
7
2
3
2
2
5
5
5
1
3
1
1
1
2
6
4
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
Megalopidae
Merlucciidae
Molidae
Monodactylidae
Moridae
Mugilidae
Mullidae
Muraenesocidae
Muranenidae
Ophichthidae
Ophidiidae
Percophidae
Periophthalmidae
Peristediidae
Platycephalidae
Polynemidae
Pomacentridae
Pomatomidae
Priacanthidae
Psettodidae
Rachycentridae
Scaridae
Sciaenidae
Scombridae
Scorpaenidae
Serranidae
Soleidae
Sparidae
Sphyraenidae
Stromateidae
Synodontidae
Tetraodontidae
Trachichthyidae
Trachinidae
Trichiuridae
Triglidae
Uranoscopidae
Xiphiidae
Zeidae
1
1
1
1
3
3
1
1
5
6
1
1
1
1
1
3
1
1
2
1
1
2
6
9
2
6
6
6
1
1
1
3
3
4
4
2
1
1
2
191
1
1
1
1
3
6
1
1
9
6
1
2
1
1
1
3
2
1
2
1
1
2
13
11
5
10
13
11
4
1
1
4
3
4
4
5
2
1
2
284
Table 12: Rajiform fish families recorded, including the number of genera and species.
No.
1
2
3
4
5
Family
Dasyatidae
Gymuridae
Torpedinidae
Myliobatidae
Mobulidae
Genera
1
1
1
3
2
55
Species
4
2
4
3
3
6
7
8
9
10
Pristidae
Rajidae
Rhinobatidae
Rhynchobatidae
Rhinopteridae
Total
1
1
1
1
1
13
3
5
3
1
1
29
Table 13: Squaliform fish families recorded, including the number of genera and species.
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Family
Hexanchidae
Carcharhinidae
Hemigalidae
Ginglymostomatidae
Leptochariidae
Odontaspididae
Oxynotidae
Scyliohinidae
Sphyrnidae
Squalidae
Squatinidae
Triakidae
Genera
2
3
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
4
1
2
21
Species
2
6
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
9
2
2
30
Reptiles
The Nile crocodile, Crocodylus niloticus, is found in some estuaries. Turtles are protected
species, species occurring in the Nigerian zone include (Caretta caretta carretta(Atlantic
Loggerhead), Lepidochelys olivacea (Pacific riddley turtle), Eretmochelys imbricata (Atlantic
Hawksbill turtle) and Demochelys coriacea (Leatherback turtle). They nest along the
Nigerian beaches and inhabit mainly coastal waters.
Birds
A total of 13 bird families, comprising 45 species, have been recorded in the Nigerian coastal
zone (Table 14). Most of these birds are migratory, utilizing the mangrove and mudflat areas
of the estuaries for short periods each year, while others are resident. The most common
palaeartic migrant shorebirds are Charadrinus hiaticula, Pluvialis squatorola, Tringa tetanus,
T. nebularia and Actitis hypoleucos. Among the water birds, the most common large
residents are Egretta species (e.g. E. intermedia, E. garzetta and E. alba).
Table 14: Families, genera and species of birds in the coastal zone of Nigeria
No.
1
2
3
Family
Alcedinidae
Ardeidae
Charadriidae
Genera
8
3
2
56
Species
11
8
2
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
Hirundinidae
Laniidae
Muscicapidae
Nectarinidae
Pelicanidae
Phylacrocoracidae
Pycnonotidae
Scolopacidae
Scopidae
Sylviidae
3
1
1
2
1
1
2
4
1
1
29
3
1
1
2
2
1
2
9
2
1
45
Source: Roux, F. (1999)
Studies of the mangrove forests have so far not taken into account the bird community living
within this habitat. A previous contribution (Roux 1998) has underlined the common features
of mangrove bird community in Senegal and in Western Nigeria, as well as peculiarities of
these countries in terms of specific composition. There is a degree of dependency of the most
characteristic mangrove species towards the coastal zone.
All 45 species have been reported to utilize the mangrove and mudflat areas as foraging
grounds and/or roosting sites. Shore and water birds consume large amounts of crustaceans,
annelids, molluscs and fish in their diet. The Nigerian coastal zone is a very suitable wintering
or staging site for migratory waders. The expansive areas of exposed mud and sand flats at
low tide and the large mangrove systems provide rich nutrient flows into the intertidal zone,
thus providing suitable conditions for visiting water birds. A typology of mangroves in terms
of bird composition may reflect the different organisational types of mangrove ecosystems, an
essential tool for mangrove study and management.
Mammals
Fruit bats most likely play an important role in the reproductive biology of most mangrove
plants by acting as their pollinator. A large population of tree pangolin (Manis tracuspis),
Grasscutter (Thryonomys swinderianus), Leopard (Panthera capensis), Otter (Aonyx
capensis), Nile crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus), short nosed crocodile (Orteolaemis
tetraspis), Mona monkeys (Cercopithecus mona), Putty nose monkey (C. nictitanus), Forest
genet (Genetta poensis), Hippoptamus (Hippopotamus amphibius), Red river hog
(Potamocherus porcus), Buffalo (Syncerus caffer), Bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus),
Maxwell duiker (Cephalophus maxwelli), Yellow-backed duiker (Cephalophus sylvicultor),
Blue duiker (C. monticola), Brush tailed porcupine (Antherurus africanus), Olive colombus
(Colobus verus), Chimpanzees (Pan trogloytes), Pygmy hippopotamus (Choeropis
liberiensis), Sitatunga (Tragelaphus spekei) and manatees (Trichenchus senegalensis)
classified as endangered species of wildlife utilize the coastal zone, occurring in remote and
undisturbed mangrove forests, they feed on leaves and fruits and palm shoots. Some monkeys
have a preference for feeding on mangrove leaves.
The Unknown
The marine environment is very difficult to study, as it requires special mobility and
equipment. Unlike the terrestrial environment that is easily accessible by road or by foot, the
marine environment has wide ranging depths, from one metre to thousands of metres deep.
57
The craft used are expensive and most of the vessels used for research have been donations
from the Japanese Government.
Another constraint has been that most of the available literature is usually from temperate or
other tropical areas and species identification therefore often difficult. Many taxa have not
been studied and others have not been described. The most studied taxa are those of
commercial importance. Unknown marine invertebrate constitute the bulk of the unknown.
These include the phyla Porifera, Cnidara (Coelenterata), Ctenophora, Plathyhelminthes,
Nemertea, Sipunculida, Echiurida and Nematoda, Entoprocta, Tardigrada, Chaetognatha,
Bryozoa, Branchiopoda, Mollusca (Aplocorphora, Polyplacophora, shell-less gastropods,
scaphopods, some bivalves and gastropods), Arthropoda (Crustacean, Insecta, Collembola,
Pycnogonida and Arachnida) Annelida, Bryozoa, Brachiopoda, Echinodermata and
Ascidiacea.
For the marine vertebrates, the fishes (bony and cartilaginous) are not fully studied and some
are listed only by their generic name. The biology and ecology of most species still requires
investigation. Marine birds are not always correctly identified, especially from a distance or
based on listening to their calls. The coastal environment is not always suitable for
ornithologists but a wide variety of birds winter on the mud flats, sand bars and within the
mangroves. Coastal mammals, reptiles and amphibians are yet to be studied due primarily to
the inhospitable terrain.
Threats
The Nigerian marine environment continues to come under various serious threats, usually
linked to development pressure. Man-made impacts tend to impair the integrity of the marine
environment and negatively influence biodiversity.
Pollution of coastal waters
The main sources of pollution include industrial waste, raw/untreated sewage and pesticides.
Hydrocarbon production contributes about 95% of the country’s Gross National Product
(GNP). Oil exploration, exploitation and transportation have a significant effect on the
environment. Crude and refined oil spills incidents are very frequent in the coastal and marine
environment, especially during periods of very strong ocean currents when it can spread to
cover the entire 853 km coastline. The area where frequent spillages occur is categorized as
ecologically sensitive or critical (mangrove ecosystems).
Gas flaring
Efforts to reduce the flaring of associated gas have not been very successful as low
technology does not permit the exploitation of natural gas. Flaring impacts on the quality of
the coastal atmosphere and affects coastal vegetation and human habitation. The mixture of
flared gas and precipitation causes acid rain, with harmful effects on the mangrove biota and
marine organisms. These impacts are yet to be studied and fully understood.
58
Land reclamation
Land reclamation of swamps adjoining the coast for the increasing human population and
other development activities destroys the nursery, breeding and feeding grounds of marine
organisms. It also restricts the distribution of organisms and leads to considerable loss of
biodiversity.
Coastal erosion
Coastline erosion is prevalent in Nigeria and has been closely associated with ocean front
constructions such as ports and harbours. Ibe (1988) reported that the Nigerian coastline
experiences some of the fastest erosion rates in the world averaging about 20-30 metres per
year in some locations.
Over fishing
The coastal and marine resources are either over fished, or fished close to, or beyond their
maximum sustainable yield. The heterogeneity of species of different sizes poses a problem
in mesh size regulation in the fishery sub-sector.
Deforestation
Deforestation of the coastal mangrove vegetation exposes the coast to storm surges, coastal
erosion and loss of land. The mangrove swamp is the spawning, breeding, nursery and
feeding ground for fish and shellfish for both brackish and marine organisms.
Construction of canals and channels
Construction of canals/channels contributes to land loss as craft movement generates strong
waves that impact on the banks of these waterways.
Mining of sand
Mining activities on the foreshore and seabed are a very common feature in Nigeria and they
impact negatively on the bottom communities. Mining of sand affects the environmental
sediment balance and has major impacts on the associated bottom dwelling organisms.
Invasive species
Water hyacinth Eichhornia crassipes entered Nigeria through the freshwater lagoon system in
September 1984. The present distribution in coastal waterways has been estimated at 3,561
km2 by the Chemical Task Force on Water Hyacinth Control (1992). Spreading of the
infestation to adjoining lagoons in the Republic of Benin and the Cameroon is estimated at
500 km2 and 275 km2 respectively.
The tiger shrimp Penaeus monodon entered the Nigerian coastal waters in about 1992
following the escape of captive stocks from a shrimp farm in the Rivers area. These shrimps
now occur throughout Nigerian coastal waters less than 20 m deep. They are most abundant in
Akwa Ibom, Rivers and Cross River coastal waters and have recently been reported in Lagos
lagoons and other estuaries along the coast. The shrimps are caught throughout the year with
59
a peak period in abundance between February and October. Initial trawl landings in 19981999 were limited (500-800 kg per trip of 50 days) but by the year 2000 it had become a
major fishery for the commercial shrimp trawlers with each vessel landing between 10 and 14
tonnes per annum. By the end of 2001 each vessel landed an average of 17-21 tonnes per
annum (Isebor 2003). The impact of this invasive species on indigenous shrimps is unknown.
Nypa fruticans is gradually replacing Rhizophora sp. due to mangrove deforestation and the
lack of a management plan for the coastal zone. Slow natural regeneration of deforested areas
leading to the rapid invasion and colonisation by Nypa. This invasive plant is a threat to the
economically and ecologically important mangrove trees, as well as exacerbating the
destabilisation and erosion of coastal foreshores. Nypa lacks the necessary prop root system
that stabilises and consolidates the muddy banks.
Threatened coastal species
A list of threatened animal species in the coastal and brackish water zones of Nigeria is given
in Table 15.
Table 15: Some threatened fauna in the coastal and brackish water zones of Nigeria.
Group
Pholidon
Rodentia
Carnivora
Carnivora
Tubulidentata
Artiodactyla
Artiodactyla
Reptilia
Reptilia
Primates
Primates
Primates
Primates
Primates
Primates
Carnivora
Proboscidea
Artiodactyla
Artiodactyla
Rodentia
Species name
Manis tricuspis
Expixerus epii
Thryonomys swinderrianus
Panthera capensis
Aonyx capensis
Trichenchus senegalensis
Choeropis liberiensis
Tragelaphus spekei
Crocodylus niloticus
Orteolaemis tetraspis
Pan troglodytes
Cercopithecus erythrogaster
Cercopithecus mona
Colobus verus
Cercopithecus nictitans
Cercopithecus nictitanus
Genetta poensis
Loxodonta africana
Hippopotamus amphibius
Potamocherus porcus
Syncerus caffer
Tragelaphus scriptus
Cephalophus maxwelli
Cercopithecus sylvicultor
Cercopithecus monticola
Antherurus africanus
60
Common name
Tree Pangolin
African palm squirrel
Grasscutter
Leopard
Otter
Manatee
Pigmy hippopotamus
Sitatunga
Nile Crocodile
Short nosed crocodile
Chimpanzee
Red bellied quenons
Mona monkey
Olive colombus
Putty nosed monkey
White- throated monkey
Forest genet
Elephant
Hippopotamus
Red river hog
Buffalo
Bushbuck
Maxwell duiker
Yellow-backed duiker
Blue duiker
Bush tailed porcupine
Capacity
Human Capacity
Most taxonomists are focussed on terrestrial species. Marine biodiversity research is still in its
infancy in Nigeria.
Institutional Capacity
Nigerian has signed and ratified all the necessary conventions. Research is primarily
concentrated on species of commercial value. The Nigerian Institute for Oceanography and
Marine Research was primarily established in 1975 to conduct research on the living and nonliving resources of the coastal zone. Other institutions active in marine biodiversity research
are the coastal Universities such as Lagos, Port Harcourt, Uyo, Calabar and the Science and
Technology Institute in Port Harcourt.
There are no national museums but collections can be found in various institutions. Nigeria
welcomes any assistance leading to establish a central national museum. The state of species
identification and documentation is in its infancy, with limited and scattered collections
currently available. There is no electronic cataloguing of museum specimens.
61
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63
National Report
Marine biodiversity in Cameroon – the known and the unknown
C.E. Gabche, IRAD – Fisheries and Oceanography Research Station, Batoke,
PMB 77 – Limbe, South West Province, Cameroon
1. INTRODUCTION
Cameroon’s coastal zone (Figure 1) is 402 km in length (Sayer et al., 1992), from latitude
2.30°N at the Equatorial Guinea border to 4.67°N at the Nigeria border. This zone is
considered to be the area that extends from the high tide mark up to 60 km into the hinterland
and 200 nautical miles offshore. The coastal zone land area is estimated at 9,670 km² (Adam,
1998) representing 22% of the surface area of Gulf of Guinea countries. Aquatic ecosystems
within these limits include the incoming rivers, their estuaries, the continental shelf and deep
ocean.
Between the coastline and the deep ocean, the continental shelf gradually descends through
the 10, 30, 50 and 100m depth contours, with a high degree of aquatic biological diversity
throughout. The survival of this biodiversity depends on natural factors, anthropogenic
influences and the implementation of appropriate conservation measures. Considering the
location and connection of Cameroon’s aquatic ecosystems with other African ecosystems,
the management of marine biological diversity cannot be done in isolation. The term
biodiversity is used to describe the variety that is found in both living organisms and their
habitats.
This paper gives baseline information on Cameroon’s coastal and marine natural
characteristics, existing anthropogenic influences, and highlights the richness of its
biodiversity. In addition, the development of conservation projects around biological
diversity, both at a national and international level, is outlined.
1.1 Natural Characteristics
1.1.1 Coastal Climate
Cameroon’s coastal climate is equatorial and influenced by the meeting of the anticyclonic
weather patterns of the Azores (North Atlantic) and those of Saint Helen (South Atlantic).
This climate results from the combined effect of convergence of the tropical oceanic lowpressure zone and the inter-tropical front within the continent.
Two distinct seasons: a long rainy season of more than 8 months (March-October) and a dry
season of four months (November-February) exist. Air temperatures are high throughout the
year and humidity values close to saturation point. South-westerly monsoon winds
predominate, modified by land and sea breezes. Wind speeds attain can attain 18 m sec-1
(April, 1993) but average values recorded over a period of 10 years (1983-1993) varied
between 0.5-2.5 m sec-1. The hot and dry northeasterly Harmattan occurs when the inter
tropical convergence zone deviates from its normally southern position at 5-7°N.
64
Cross
Ndian
Cameroon and
Rio del Rey
estuaries
Meme
4.5
Rio del
Rey
Mungo
Cameroon
Atlantic
Ocean
Wouri
Doula
4.0
Dibamba
Sanaga
Malabo
3.5
Nyong
3.0°N
0
50 Kilometers
8.0°E
9
9.0
10.0
Figure 1. Map of Cameroon’s coastal zone.
1.1.2 Hydrological Systems
A dense river network, classified into three major estuarine systems, characterize the coast.
The West/Rio-del-Rey system has several rivers (Cross-river, Ndian and Meme) that
discharge at Rio-del-Rey Point (4.8°N; 8.3°E). The Cameroon estuarine system with several
rivers (Mungo, Wouri, Dibamba etc.) discharges at Douala Point (3.8-4.1°N and 9.25-10°E).
This system extends westwards to Bimbia and southwards to the Sanaga River estuary. The
third estuarine system in the south is made up of several rivers (Nyong, Lokoundje, Kienke,
Lobe and Ntem) which discharge independently into the Atlantic Ocean. Some physical
characteristics of the Cameroon and Rio-del- Rey estuarine complexes are given in Table 1.
The rivers of these estuaries have watersheds arising at high altitudes (2,000-2,500 m) in the
Adamawa Plateau, Rumpi Hills and Manegumba Mountains.
The mangroves of the Rio-del-Rey cover an area of about 1,500 km2 with 50 km of coastline
and a landward extension of 30 km. The Cameroon estuarine system extends along the
coastline for some 60 km, from the Sanaga to the Bimbia estuary, and 30 km into the
hinterlands giving a total area of 1,800 km2. Other estuarine mangrove swamps are supplied
by the southern river systems at Ntem.
The main hydrological characteristics (seasonal runoff) are indicated in Table 2. Rainfall and
evaporation with seasonal values are given in Table 3. The supplies of freshwater from the
dense river network, groundwater and rainfall enter the continental shelf (area = 15,400 km²)
(Gabche and Folack, 1997). The gradual slope of the continental shelf results in generally
weak circulation with subsequent high sedimentation rates.
65
Table 1. Physical characteristics of some of Cameroon’s coastal zone estuarine systems.
Estuarine
System
Cameroon
Long
(°E+)
9.2510.00
Lat
(°N+)
River
Catchment
Area
(km2)
Mungo
Wouri
Dibamba
3.834.10
Rio-delRey
8.28
4.83
Mean
Depth
(m)
Water
15
15
15
4,200
8,250
2,400
14,850
Total/Mean
Estuarine
Area
(km2)
Mangrove
1,800
1,500
14
13
14
800
2500
500
Cross
Ndian
Meme
3800
Total/Mean
15
1,500
1,350
14
Table 2. River runoff of some of Cameroon’s coastal estuarine systems.
Estuarine
System/Rivers
Cameroon
• Mungo
• Wouri
• Dibamba
Total
Rio-del-Rey
• Cross river
• Ndian
• Meme
• Others
Total
River Flow
(m3 s-1)
Annual
Dry
Rainy
River Runoff (VQ)
(106 m3 d-1)
Annual
Dry
Rainy
415
737
480
52
92
60
519
921
520
36
64
41
141
4
8
5
17
45
80
45
170
577
246
300
96
142
60
74
24
725
310
377
121
50
21
26
8
105
12
5
6
8
31
63
27
33
10
133
Table 3. Rainfall and evaporation for some of Cameroon’s coastal zone estuarine systems.
Estuarine
system/location
Cameroon
Douala
Ro-del-Rey
Calabar
Rainfall
(mm month-1)
Annual
Dry
Rainy
Evaporation
(mm month-1)
Annual
273
44
388
100
246
86
326
117
66
1.1.3. Oceanographic Conditions
Hydrodynamic processes within the estuarine complexes indicate that tidal changes (semidiurnal) in the rivers can be detected a long distance from the sea (40 km in the Wouri; 35km
up the Dibamba), with water level recordings ranging from 1.5-4.5 m. There is considerable
wave action in the estuarine complexes (Olivry, 1986; Morin et al., 1989). Tidal currents are
sometimes strong: 1-1.5m sec-1 for flood tides and up to 2.6 m sec-1 for ebb tides.
Chaubert et al. (1977) noted that sea swells are from south to southwest and distant in origin.
This peculiarity results from the double obstacle constituted by Bioko Island and the widening
of the continental shelf at Rio-del-Rey (80 km as compared to 40 km on the Kribi coast). The
swells of stronger magnitude (226 m long) are common between June and September with
lesser ones between November and April.
Salinity distribution within Cameroon’s estuarine complexes is determined by large inputs of
fresh water from rivers, rainfall and ground water. Salinities are generally low, with values at
Douala Port ranging between 9 and 12 psu. Lafond (1967) showed maximum values of 20 psu
15 km offshore the port during the dry season, and less than 12 psu during the rainy season.
These values decrease towards the port at a rate of approximately 2.6 psu for each km
traveled. Near Japoma, on the river Dibamba, maximum salinity values decline to 6.5 psu at
low tide. Values of between 12.0 and 17.5 psu have been recorded within the Mungo estuary,
with increased values due to seawater intrusion of the system during the dry season. Salinity
values, with seasonal variations at different depths and various stations (fresh, estuarine and
marine) of the Cameroon and Rio-del-Rey estuarine systems are given in Table 4. Areas of
high river flow have low salinities, with higher values recorded at the Cameroon estuary due
to salt-water intrusion. Salinity distributions are in line with regional surface values, which
show significant fresh water in the Gulf of Guinea and, in particular the Bight of Biafra, with
ocean values lower than 29 psu (ICITA, 1973; Gate, 1980).
Table 4. Mean temperature, salinity and nutrient levels of Cameroon’s coastal zone estuarine
systems (Gabche, 2003).
River
Estuarine
system
Cameroon
estuary
Rio-delRey
estuary
Estuary
Ocean
Parameter
o
Temp ( C)
Salinity (psu)
Si (‫ب‬M)
NO3 (‫ب‬M)
PO4 (‫ب‬M)
Temp (oC)
Salinity (psu)
Si(‫ب‬M)
NO3(‫ب‬M)
PO4 (‫ب‬M)
Dry
29.9
0
26
2.6
2.1
29.2
0
32
1.9
2.0
Wet
21.7
0
27
2.4
2.0
28.4
0
30
1.8
1.6
67
Dry
25.0
15.8
24.5
3.8
1.2
28
17.8
26
3.2
0.9
Wet
21.1
8.7
24
3.6
1.1
27
11.3
25
3.1
0.8
Dry
30.4
21.4
20
5.2
0.6
30
19.2
24
0.4
0.5
Wet
27.5
16.5
18.1
2.5
0.5
29
15.3
23
0.3
0.4
2. THE KNOWN
Fish species diversity
The exploitable species of aquatic fauna within the marine and coastal ecosystems consist
essentially of fishes, shrimps and molluscs. The locality of exploited species in Cameroon’s
coastal waters has been described some time ago by Crosnier (1964) (Table 5). Pelagics
(made up mostly of clupeids) comprised 41% of the catch and demersals (made up mostly of
sciaenids) comprised 42% of the catch. The diversity of exploited species contributes to the
abundance of the fishery resources. Currently the Sciaenidae and Clupeidae families are
overexploited but the full impact on fish species biodiversity has not been determined. In the
south, where the bottom of the sea is rocky, there are stocks of demersal fish and lobsters
that are either not exploited or are under-exploited.
Cameroon’s coastal waters also contain zooplankton, comprising mainly copepods, which
serve as food for fish larvae and the adults of planktivorous taxa.
68
Table 5. Targeted fish, shrimps and other crustacean species, together with their habitats in
Cameroon marine waters (modified from Crosnier, 1964).
SPECIES
A) FISH
Pseudotolithus typus
P. senegalensis
Galeoides decadactylus
Pteroscion peli
Brachydeuterus auritus
Sardinella maderensis
Ethmolsa fimbriata
Pseudotolithus elongatus
Arius spp.
Drepane africana
Pentanemus quinquarius
Dentex angolensis
D. congolensis
Epinephelus dentatus
Lutjanus dentatus
L. goreensis
Cynoglossus spp.
B) CRUSTACEA
Parapenaeopsis atlantica
Palaemon hastatus
Penaeus duorarum
Euparopeus africanaus
Callinectes latimatus
Ocypoda ippeus
C) MOLLUSCS
Siphonaria mouret
Purpura yetus
P. collifera
Sepia officinalis
Mytilus tenuistriatus
Crassostrea gasa
C. rufa
ZONE
NATURE OF HABITATS
Off-shore surface water
Very warm, low
salinity water
Coastal and estuarine
waters
Mud, sand or rocks
Estuarine waters
Sandy mud
Coastal waters
Muddy sand (<150 m)
Coastal waters
Sandy mud (20-50 m)
Below thermocline,
water cold and saline
Sandy rock (40-300 m)
Base of the thermocline
Rocky bottom
Thermocline zone
Muddy/muddy sand (15-300 m)
Sandy mud (15-40 m)
Very warm, low salinity Sandy mud (10-50 m)
water
Thermocline zone
Mud/muddy sand (15-100 m)
Brackish water, estuaries, Mud and mangroves
lagoons, rivers
Sandy beaches
Coastal zone
Solid substrata
Open sea
Coastal zone
Sandy mud (0-200 m)
Mangrove roots, rocky beaches
Plankton, macro-algae and seagrasses
Phytoplankton species form the primary producers within the pelagic zone on which most
zooplankton feed. The zooplankton is, in turn, consumed by fish larvae and the adults of
certain species. No studies have been carried out on marine zooplankton or the associated
pelagic food web dynamics in Cameroon waters.
Phytoplankton in this region comprises mainly diatoms, dinoflagellates and Cyanophycea.
Available information includes studies by Folack (1988, 1989) relating to phytoplankton
distribution and phytoplankton pigments in the southern region of Cameroon, Valet (1973) on
marine macro-algae, Valet (1975) on Chlorophycea, and Gutwinski (1906) on freshwater
69
algae. Phytoplankton species in Cameroon were dominated by diatoms such as Chaetoceros
testissimus, Nitzchia closterium, Diatomavulgare spp., Trachyneis spp. and Coscinodiscus
spp. (Folack, 1991).
In order to link with future studies on seaweeds in the Gulf of Guinea area, David et al. (2001)
developed an identification manual under the Darwin Initiative Project. This manual will be
very useful for future studies on phytoplankton, macro-algae and sea grasses.
Coastal mangrove forests and associated fauna
Cameroon’s coastline tropical rain forest is interrupted by the mangroves associated with
estuarine complexes. These complexes are characterized by very low altitudes (0-20 m), and
the mangroves develop on soils generally less than 5 m high, with primary stages of
mangroves developing at 0-5 m and mature stands at 2 m. Mangrove complexes in Cameroon
occupy approximately 30% (3,500 km2) of Cameroon’s coastal zone. There are about 38
species of mangroves dominated by Rhizophora (R. racemosa and R. harrisanii) species
(Gabche, 1997). Adjacent swamp forests are dominated by Rapphia spp., Matritia
quadricorius, Clenolephon englerianus and seasonally inundated forests by Guitbortia
demeussei and Oxysttigma menil.
Faunal species within the mangroves and estuarine complexes are dominated by the forest
elephant (Loxondonta africana), giant forest hog (Hylochohrus meinertz hageni), endangered
drill (Mandrillus leucophaeus), highly vulnerable black colobus (Colobus satanus), upper
guinea primates (Cercopithecus Mictitans martini, C. erythrotis camerunensis and C.
pogomius pogonius). An important population of the highly vulnerable African manatee
(Trichechus senegalesis) is found in the Sanaga estuary.
Cameroon estuarine complexes and mangroves serve as habitats for meiofauno taxa such as
nematodes, copepods, amphipods and protozoans, all of which contribute to the conversion of
mangrove primary production to detritus. The benthic fauna is made up of polychaetes (e.g.
Amphiura sp., Nephthys sp.), bivalves (e.g. Arca nuculana, Aloidis, Nsa sp.) and sponges.
They also serve as breeding grounds and nurseries for invertebrates (crabs e.g. Grapsidae,
Ocypodidae and Portunidae; shrimps e.g. Penaeidae and Palaemonidae) shellfish (oysters e.g.
Crassostrea gasar) and finfish species (e.g. Periopthalmus sp., Cichlidae, Scianidae,
Polynemidae, Clupeidae, Drepanidae etc.).
70
3. THE UNKNOWN
The unknown in Cameroon lies mainly within the following areas:
• The existing diversity of marine mammals in Cameroon has not been documented.
• No detailed knowledge exists on the biodiversity of aquatic ecosystems around the
beaches, muddy flats, mangroves and the continental shelf.
• Studies on marine endemic species and the ecology of these taxa have been
completely neglected. Whenever this information has been obtained, it has been
limited to economically useful species.
• Most of the coastal zone areas within the Cameroon and Rio del Rey estuaries are
inaccessible either by land or by boat. This has greatly limited the sampling of
marine biodiversity in these areas.
• The absence of a research vessel in Cameroon has limited inventories and surveys
of offshore marine biodiversity. Most results obtained so far come from samples
collected by commercial boats.
• The identification of all aquatic fauna and flora is based on the use of
morphometric characteristics. The use of genetics in the identification of species
and populations has not been undertaken.
4. THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY
Several anthropogenic factors contribute to the depletion and degradation of aquatic
resources, notably:
•
•
•
•
•
Pollution: Sewage, agro-industrial wastes, industrial wastes, etc., cause damage to
marine biodiversity and fishery resources.
Inappropriate fishing techniques: Fishing techniques currently used in Cameroon
target two families, Clupeidae (artisanal and semi-industrial fishery) and Sciaenidae
(artisanal and industrial fisheries). The indiscriminate use of fishing gears results in
the capture of immature fish. Fishing in nursery areas destroys eggs and juveniles.
Fishing techniques involving the use of explosives and chemicals destroy the juveniles
and hinder stock renewal.
Overexploitation of stocks: Overexploitation in the industrial fishing sector results
from the fact that the capital investment deployed is not commensurate with the yield
potential of the stocks. More adults than necessary are exploited, thereby hindering
stock renewal. The disparity between exploitation effort and existing stock potential
can also be explained by the inadequacy of knowledge on the fishery resources
(absence of inventory of exploitable stocks, evaluation and study of population
dynamics). Inventory and stock assessment are thus necessary steps to ensure better
management of fishery resources.
Socio-cultural constraints: The high degree of individualism prevailing amongst
fishermen constitutes an obstacle for the organization and development of fishing
activities. All existing associations are based either on family ties or tribal affiliation.
Lack of training and supervision of fishermen: There is limited professional grounding
and the lack of supervision is due to the fact that the field officers are few and
inadequately trained in biodiversity monitoring. Instead of training field officers,
emphasis is laid more on tax collection and control of fish product quality.
71
•
•
•
•
Conflicts: Besides conflicts between artisanal and industrial fisheries, there are
conflicts between shrimps fishermen and those using Mbara (a technique, which uses
pegs, planted in the water to form a barrier). These pegs are usually abandoned in the
water, constituting an obstacle for fishermen using nets. Mbaras also destroy immature
fish. Such conflicts also exist in the sea and Wouri areas where Awasha units are
accused of destroying the stock, resulting in a loss of biodiversity.
Inappropriate fishing legislation: The present fishing regulations have severe
limitations. The legislation fails to define the different mesh sizes to be used per
exploited species, to define fishing seasons and fishing areas, to provide a clear
procedure for resolving permanent conflicts between industrial and artisanal fisheries,
or amongst fishermen themselves. No consideration is given to conservation of
biodiversity in the legislation.
Poor performance of the administration: This is a function of the inappropriate
legislation, poor collaboration amongst the different administrative units, lack of
enforcement measures and inefficiency of controllers.
Mangroves and coastal forest: The coastal forest is protected by the forestry law but
the mangrove, which is a specific type of coastal forest, is not yet protected by this
law. In effect, the forestry law, of which the main objective is the protection of the
biodiversity, does not make any specific provisions for mangroves. The immediate
consequence of this omission is the accelerated destruction of the mangrove
ecosystem, which serve both as habitat and nursery ground for many fish species.
• Soil erosion: Loss of vegetation cover as a result of coastal urbanization, development
of tourism facilities, agricultural development, leads to erosion and siltation. This
impacts, in turn, on estuarine and marine biodiversity.
5. PRESENT AND FUTURE STATE OF MARINE BIODIVERSITY
The present state of marine biodiversity knowledge in Cameroon is still in its infancy.
Government, research and university institutions seldom fund projects on marine biodiversity
because they do not see the immediate economic benefits.
Tourist attractions centred around biodiversity, particularly in the domain of eco-tourism,
need to be identified. There is an urgent need to increase these attractions in Cameroon and
other coastal marine states.
Forestry activities represent 20% of total exports from Cameroon but these are also areas
(mangroves) of importance to aquatic biodiversity. Their conservation is therefore of the
utmost importance.
There exist a large number of endemic species within Cameroon’s coastal ecosystems, with
the conservation of these taxa a high priority. Research needs to be carried out to identify all
species, characterize the functioning of these ecosystems, determine species distributions and
their life history strategies, and assess the environmental characteristics of the ecosystems and
the various influences upon these habitats.
Level of biodiversity and constraints to the development of the aquatic resources sector
72
There is an urgent need to address the environmental issues, identify their causes and develop
a strategy to solve them. The base of such a solution should be directed at a strategic system
of monitoring of factors responsible for biodiversity loss. Coastal management can then
follow this, with planning based on solutions drawn from the results of monitoring. This will
obviously lead to reduced pollution, erosion and improvement of the negative effects on the
health and quality of life of all stakeholders.
Some recommended approaches geared towards getting solutions towards biodiversity
conservation are as follows:
•
•
•
Use of the research approach to solve problems by involvement of researchers at the
doctoral (PhD) level in finding solutions to biodiversity related problems.
Improved planning of human activities in the coastal zone and better utilization of
resources are necessary in order to address the issues of marine resources degradation.
A more integrated approach to coastal area use is needed to replace current policy.
Government bodies concerned with these issues recognize that the pressure on coastal
resources is increasing but little attempt has been made to solve the problems.
73
REFERENCES
Adam, S.K. (ed) 1998 Towards Integrated Coastal Zone management in the Gulf of Guinea.
A framework document. UNIDO/UNDP-GEF. Les Editions du Flamboyant. 86 pages.
David, M. J., George, W. L. and Gabriel, K. A. 2001. Seaweeds of the West Africa Subregion-Identification Manual. Marine Biodiversity Capacity Building in the West Africa
Sub Region. Darwin Initiative Report 4, Ref. 162/7/451.
Folack, J. 1989 Etude préliminaire du phytoplancton d’une zone côtière d’exploitation
crevetticole (Kribi – Cameroun, Golfe de Guinée – Atlantique centre Est. Cameroon
Journal of Biological and Biochemical Sciences 2(1): 51-65.
Folack, J. 1988 Estimation et degradation de la chlorophyll dans une zone creveticole: KribiCameroon (Golfe de Guinée). Cameroon Journal of Biological and Biochemcial
Sciences. 1(2): 35-43.
Folack, J. Mbome, I/L Bokwe, A. and Tangang, A. (eds). 1991 Cameroon Coastal Profile.
Ministry of the Environment, Large marine Exosystem Project for the Gulf of Guinea.
MINEF – C/UNIDO/UNDP-GEF, 102 pages.
Gabche, C.E. 1997 An appraisal of fisheries activities and evaluation of economic potential of
the fish trade in the Douala – Edea reserve – Cameroon. Cameroon Wildlife and
Conservation Society Consultancy Report. June 1997. 39 pages.
Gate, 1980 Physical oceanography of the tropical Atlantic during GATE, GARP/ATE,
Miami, USA. 89 pages.
ICITA, 1973 Oceanographic Atlas, Equalant I and II, UNESCO, Paris, 237 pages plus
appendices.
Lafond, L.R. 1967 Etudes Littorales estuariennes en Zone intertropical Humide. These d’Etat
Université de Paris.
Morin, Kuete M, 1989 Le littoral Camerounais: Problems morphologiques. Trav. Labo.
Geogr. Phys. Appliquee. Inst. Geogr. Univ. Bordeaux II No. 11:5-33.
Olivry, 1986 Fleuves et riviers du Cameroun. ORSTOM, MESIRES, Mem. No 9. 733 pages.
Sayer, J.A., Harcourt, C.S., Collins, N.M., (eds). 1992. The conservation atlas of tropical
forest – Africa. Macmillan Publishing Ltd., London.
74
National Report
Marine biodiversity in Gabon – the known and the unknown
Carole Ogandagas; Ministere de L’economie Forestiere, des Eaux,
de la Peche; Charge de L’environnement et de la Protection de la Nature;
Direction Generale des Peches et de L’aquaculture, B.P. 9498, Gabon
INTRODUCTION
Gabon is situated in central Africa and has a coastline approximately 800 km long. It is
located in the inter-tropical zone and endowed with a humid climate and a surface area of 267
667 km². There is also an Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) that almost equals its land area,
i.e. 265 000 km².
There are two major seasons, a wet season ranging from September to May and a dry season
from June to July. The high rainfall and humid climate supports dense coastal forests
interspersed by estuaries, deltas, bays, coastal lakes and lagoons. The major systems include
the Muni estuary in the north, the Como estuary in the central coastal zone, the bay of
Mondah, the delta of the Ogooué River, and the lagoons of Fernan-Vaz, Ndogo and Iguela.
This diversity of habitats supports a wide variety species, including many marine species that
occupy these systems even though they are located far away from the sea. In this marine
biodiversity review, the focus will be on the fish diversity of the Gabonese coastal zone.
At present, the marine resources do not appear to be overexploited but fishing activities
require close monitoring. There are two major fishing sectors in Gabon, viz. traditional and
industrial. In 2000, the quantity of resources harvested in the industrial fishing sector totalled
11 730 tons and 24 890 tons in the traditional fishing sector. In 2001, industrial fishing
increased to 23 490 tons and traditional fishing declined to 20 500 tons. The rapid increase in
industrial fishing and decline in traditional fishing is of concern.
Apart from fish resource exploitation, other activities that are growing in the Gobonese
maritime domain include tourism (the hotel trade business, seaside tourism, ecotourism), sea
transportation, and off-shore oil exploitation.
The marine and coastal environment of Gabon
The Gabonese marine and coastal systems include:
•
•
•
The ocean, which has a surface area of about 265 000 km² and a biological
diversity that is poorly understood because of the difficulty in obtaining
adequate collections for study.
The estuaries that were formed with the inundation of the coastal zone 12000
to 5000 years before present. The rising sea level gave birth to the current
estuaries located along the coast, e.g. the estuaries of the Como the Muni
rivers.
The deltas, mainly those formed by the Ogooué River, including a maritime
delta and an inland delta, the latter ranging from Lambaréné to the frontier
between Enyonga et Ngola.
75
•
The lagoons, including (a) The lagoons of the Fernan-Vaz region. The Nkomi
lagoon (coastal lake) is the largest with a surface area of about 1200 km² and
depths of up to 20 m. This lagoon is linked to the delta system of the Ogooué
River. (b) The Ngové lagoon (coastal lake) which covers about 100 km² with
depths of 12 m. (c) The Ndogo lagoon (coastal lake) is about 380 km² in area,
with depths of up to 19 m. (d) The Banio lagoon is located in the southern part
of Gabon and extends over 60 km along the coast, separated from the ocean by
a narrow strip of sand.
Mangrove forests (swamps) occur all along the Gabon coast, especially along channel inlets
linking estuaries, deltas and lagoons to the sea. Mangroves are very rich in terms of the
abundance of biota.
Figure 1. Map of Gabon showing major river and coastal systems.
76
THE KNOWN
Carangidae
Commercial name:
Scientific name:
Vernacular name:
Distibution:
Carangue
Caranx hippos (Linnaeus, 1766)
Nkawa (in Galoa tongue) Evlababa (in Fang tongue)
In the lakes of south Lambaréné, Ningué-Rolé and estuaries
Commercial name:
Sceintifique name:
Distribution:
Carangue
Alectis alexandrinus
In coastal waters and the Como estuary
Carcharinidae
Commercial name:
Scientific name:
Vernacular name:
Distribution:
Requin bouledogue
Carcharhinus leucas (Valenciennes, 1839)
Nkondjé (in Galoa tongue), Nkwégnan (in Fang tongue)
This species has been captured in the Lambaréné lakes
Clupeidae
Commercial name:
Scientific name:
Vernacular name:
Distribution:
Rasoir
Ethmalosa fimbriata (Bloch, 1795)
Ossako mbèrè (in Nkomi tongue)
In estuaries and lagoons
Commercial name:
Nom scientifique:
Nom vernaculaire:
Distribution:
Sardine of estuaries
Ilisha africana (Bowdich, 1825)
Mbèrè (in Nkomi tongue)
Ogooué and Ningué-Rolé estuaries
Elopidae
Commercial name:
Scientific name:
Vernacular name:
Distribution:
Hareng
Elops lacerta Valenciennes, 1846
Nyanga (in Galoa tongue), Ebole (in Fang tongue)
All brackish waters of the Ogooué lower basin
Ephippidae
Commercial name:
Scientific name:
Distribution:
Disque
Drepane africana Osorio, 1892
In the Fernan-Vaz lagoon and the Como estuary
Haemulidae
Commercial name:
Scientific name:
Grey Sea Bream
Pomadasys peroteti (CUVIER, 1830)
77
Vernacular name:
Distribution:
Nkuéré (in Galoa tongue) Woroworé (in Fang tongue)
Ogooué, Fernan-Vaz and Banio lagoons, Como estuary
Lutjanidae
Commercial name:
Scientific name:
Vernacular name:
Distribution:
Red
Lutjanus goreensis (Valenciennes, 1830)
Ntchivo (in Galoa tongue) Engil (in Fang tongue)
Ogooué estuary and Como, Banio and Fernan-Vaz lagoons
Commercial name:
Scientific nome:
Vernacular name:
Distribution:
Red
Lutjanus agennes Bleeker, 1863
Ntchivo (in Galoa tongue) Engil (in Fang tongue)
Coastal and brackish waters, Como and Ogooué estuaries, Fernan-Vaz
lagoon and Banio river
Commercial name:
Scientific name:
Vernacular name:
Distribution :
Red fish
Lutjanus dentatus (Dumeril, 1858)
Ntchivo (in Galoa tongue) Engil (in Fang tongue)
Come estuary, Ogooué and Banio rivers, Lambarene lakes
Paralichthyidae
Commercial name:
Scientific name:
Distribution:
Perpeire lisse
Citharichthys stampflii (Steindachner, 1895)
In estuaries of the Ningué-rolé region and Port-Gentil bay
Polynemidae
Commercial name:
Scientific name:
Vernacular name:
Distribution:
Captain Plexiglass
Galeoides decadactylus (Bloch, 1795)
Ntchena mandji ( in Nkomi tongue)
Ningué-rolé region and Port-Gentil’s bay.
Commercial name:
Scientific name:
Vernacular name:
Distribution: :
Captain Royal
Pentanemus quinquarius (Linnaeus, 1758)
Ntsena oronga (in Galoa tongue)
Estuaries of the Négué-Rolé region and Port-Gentil’s bay
Commercial name:
Scientific name:
Vernacular name:
Distribution:
Big Captain
Polydactylus quadrifilis Cuvier, 1829
Ntsena (in Nkomi and Galoa tongues) Nsna (in Fang tongues)
Southern lakes, Lambaréné, Fernan-Vaz and Ningué-Rolé regions
Mugilidae
Commercial name:
Scientific name:
Vernacular name:
Distribution:
Mullet
Liza falcipinis (Valenciennes, 1836)
Mono (Galoa) , Bone (Fang) and Mono tchama (Nkomi)
Ogooué system, lakes of Lambaréné, Fernan-Vaz
78
Sciaenidae
Commercial name:
Scientific name:
Distribution:
Bossus
Pseudotolithus elongatus (Valenciennes, 1833)
Ogooue river, Como estuary
Commercial name:
Scientific name:
Distribution:
Bar
Pseudotolithus senegalensis (Valenciennes, 1833)
Ogooué, Como estuary
Commercial name:
Scientific name:
Distribution:
Bar
Pseudotolithus typus (Bleeker, 1893)
Ogooué, Como estuary.
List of fish species found in the marine and coastal waters of Gabon
Alectis alexandrinus
Alestes kingsleyae
Alestes longipinnis
Alestes macrolepidotus
Aphyosemion australe
Arius latiscutatus
Atopochilus savorgnani
Barbus compinei
Barbus condei
Barbus guirali
Barbus holotaenia
Batanga lebretonis
Bathygobius soporator
Bostrychus africanus
Boulengeromyrus knoepffleri
Brienomyrus longicaudatus
Caecomastacembelus flavomarginatus
Caecomastacembelus marchei
Caranx hippos
Carcharhinus leucas
Chiloglanis cameronensis
Chromidotilapia guentheri
Chrysichthys nigrodigitatus
Chrysichthys walkeri
Citharichthys stampflii
Clarias buthupogon
Clarias camerunensis
Clarias gabonensis
Clarias gariepinus
Congocharax gossei
Ctenopoma kingsleyae
Ctenopoma nanum
79
Dasyatis ukpam
Distichodus notospilus
Doumea typical
Drepane africana
Elops lacerta
Enneacampus kaupi
Epiplatys sexfasciatus
Ethmalosa fimbriata
Liza falcipinnis
Liza grandisquamis
Lutjanus agennes
Lutjanus dentatus
Lutjanus goreensis
Malapterurus electricus
Microsynodontis batesii
Monodactylus sebae
Mugil cephalus
Nannaethiops unitaeniatus
Nannocharax intermedius
Nannopetersius ansorgii
Neolebias ansorgii
Neolebias unifasciatus
Parrachana obscura
Parauchenoglanis boutchangai
Pellonula vorax
Pentanemus quinquarius
Periophthalmus papilio
Petrocephalus simus
Physailia occidentalis
Plectorhinchus macrolepis
Polynemus quadrifilis
Pomadasis jubelini
Pomadasis peroteti
Pomadasis rogeri
Pristis microdon
Protopterus dolloi
Pseudotolithus elongatus
Pseudotolithus senegalensis
Pseudotolithus typus
Sardinella aurita
Sardinella maderensis
Sicydium brevifile
Sphyraena barracuda
Sphyraena dubia
Sphyraena piscatorum
Stomatorhinus walkeri
Eucinostomus melanopterus
Eutropius grenfelli
Galeoides decadactylus
Gerres nigri
80
Grasseichthys gabonensis
Hemichromis bimaculatus
Hemichromis fasciatus
Hepsetus odoe
Heterotis niloticus
Ilisha africana
Ivindomyrus opdenboschi
Kribia kribensis
Tarpon atlanticus
Tilapia cabrae
Tilapia guineensis
Tilapia heudelotii
Tilapia macrochir
Tilapia nilotica
Tilapia ogowensis
Tilapia rendalli
Tilapia schwebischi
Tilapia tholloni
Xenocharax spilurus
Xenomystus nigri
Despite the lack of detailed marine investigations in Gabon, the studies already undertaken in
continental waters confirms the existence of a highly diverse biological community. The
degree of endemism to Gabon is very low, due to the fact that most marine species in the Gulf
of Guinea occur in a variety of gulf countries.
The limited research that has been conducted in Gabon has been directed toward the river and
brackish water environments, primarily as a result of the existing utilisation of these habitats
by people. Although very limited research has been conducted in the sea, it is already
noticeable that the number of marine species with a capacity to adapt to estuarine and
lagoonal waters is remarkably high. There are also interesting faunal and floral distribution
patterns within the coastal environments that require investigation.
THREATS
Several impacts are threatening the marine and coastal environments of Gabon, including:
Human activities
As part of people’s fishing activities in the coastal zone, the mangrove is used as firewood to
cure fish by smoking. The mangrove forests should be conserved since they constitute a
breeding and nursery areas for many marine species. The destruction of such an ecosystem
will have an adverse effect on the overall productivity of the coastal zone.
Fishermen sometimes destroy marine biodiversity by using illegal fishing techniques. This is
especially the case in certain lagoons where traditional poisonous products are sometimes
used to kill fish. These activities not only upset the ecological balance within the lagoons,
they also cause some species to become increasingly rare.
81
Industrial fishing is increasingly using more sophisticated technology in order to improve fish
and prawn capture rates in the marine environment. Unfortunately the gear used in this fishing
sector damages marine biodiversity through high by-catches that are then discarded at the
expense of the ecosystem.
Oil exploitation
Oil exploration and exploitation activities are widespread in the coastal zone of Gabon.
Pipelines are situated along most sections of the coast. Several accidents have occurred, with
oil then leaking from these damaged pipelines and resulting in hydrocarbon pollution of
coastal and marine habitats.
Off-shore oil drilling activities also impact negatively on biological marine diversity,
especially those oil rigs that are installed near prohibited fishing zones. Marine species are
sometimes infected by oil pollution and this is obvious when eating these organisms.
Industrial activities
In Gabon, most industrial activities are concentrated in the coastal zone. In the case of hotels
and industries (e.g. breweries), there is a pollution threat due to the concentration of these
activities in certain areas. Indeed, the waste water from coastal hotels often flows directly into
the sea, resulting in the physico-chemical pollution of nearshore waters to the detriment of
holidaymakers and the marine biota.
Coastal erosion
Coastal erosion is increasingly prevalent along the coast of Gabon. This phenomenon has
resulted in the destruction of coastal sections known as ‘frayères’. In certain zones there was
sand 35 years ago, together with associated marine species. Today, only rock outcrops occur
in these zones, resulting in the disappearance of species such as crabs from these areas.
CAPACITY
Human capacity
As far as maritime investigations are concerned, very little research has been conducted in
recent times. Gabon is still to invest in a marine biodiversity research programme. The
research that has been undertaken to date has focused on the continental margin, with the first
explorations commencing in 1866 and including names such as Chaillut, Braouezec, Serval,
Walker, Gunther, Marche, Sauvage, Dumeril, Günther, Steindachner, Gill, Bleeker And
Peters. The results of these early works were analysed and collated in the 1990s for a wider
audience by P. Gilbert (Hydrobiologist at the Agronomic Research and Forest Institute), M.
L. Manfredini (National Pédagogic Institute), A. Pham Dang Cang (Professor at the National
College of Forest and Water).
82
Surname
First names Department
Expertise
MBEGA
Jean-Daniel
Institut de
Doctorant,
Recherche
chercheur
Agronomique et
Forestière (IRAF)
BP : 2246 Libreville/ Gabon ;
Laboratoire
d’Hydrobiologie et
d’Ichtyologie
MVE-BEH
Jean Hervé
Institut de
Technicien
Recherche
Supérieur de
Agronomique et
recherche
Forestière (IRAF)
BP : 2246 Libreville/ Gabon ;
Laboratoire
d’Hydrobiologie et
d’Ichtyologie
LIWOUWOU
Jean Félicien Institut de
Technicien
Recherche
Supérieur de
Agronomique et
recherche
Forestière (IRAF)
BP : 2246 Libreville/ Gabon ;
Laboratoire
d’Hydrobiologie et
d’Ichtyologie
NDOUTOUME
Essono Jean
Ferdinand
Institut de
Technicien
Recherche
Supérieur de
Agronomique et
recherche
Forestière (IRAF)
BP : 2246 Libreville/
Gabon ;Laboratoire
d’Hydrobiologie et
d’Ichtyologie
BANGOLO
Joséphine
Institut de
Recherche
Agronomique et
Forestière (IRAF
BP : 2246 Libreville/ Gabon ;
Laboratoire
d’Hydrobiologie et
d’Ichtyologie
NZIENGUI
Jehovane
Direction générale Technicien
Supérieur
des Pêche et de
l’Aquaculture
BP : 9498 Libreville/ Gabon
Fax : (241) 76 46 02
RERAMBYATH Guy Anicet
Direction générale Docteur
Vétérinaire
des Pêche et de
l’Aquaculture
BP : 9498 Libreville/ Gabon
Fax : (241) 76 46 02
Email:[email protected]
POSSO
PAUL
Enseignant
Institut de
Chercheur
Recherche en
Ecologie Tropical
(IRET)
RABENKOGO
Nicaise
Institut de
Recherche en
science Humaine
(IRSH)
Technicien
Supérieur de
recherche
Chercheur
Contact
Tél. : +241 37 08 44
Email: [email protected]
Email:[email protected]
Institutional capacity
Unfortunately there is no museum for marine collections in Gabon. However, the Gabon
government department in charge of the fishing sector has just commenced a joint
83
investigation with Spain to evaluate Gabonese marine fish stocks. Samples collected will
form the basis of a collection of marine biological diversity of Gabon territorial waters. As
part of the improvement in marine environmental knowledge from the region, the department
is also planning to publish a catalogue (in 2004) of the fish fauna found in Gabon.
84
REFERENCES
GILBERT, P., MANFREDINI, M.L. & PHAM DANG CANG, A. 1989. Les poissons du
Gabon (eaux douces et eaux saumâtres). I.P.N, 216 pages.
MBEGA, J.D., TEUGELS, G.G. 2003. Guide de détermination des poissons du bassin
inférieur de l’Ogooué. Presse Universitaires de Namur, 165 pages.
MOMBO, J.B.,OGANDAGAS, C., AGONDOGO, M. & MBA ASSEKO, G. Etude de
faisabilité pour la mise en place d’un Observatoire de la zone côtière en Afrique
Centrale, le cas du Gabon. Association pour le Développement de l’Information
Environnementale (ADIE), 131 pages
TSUBAKI, I. 2003. Liste des produits de la pêche artisanale. Rapport provisoire, 104 pages.
85
National Report
Marine biodiversity in Angola – the known and the unknown
Nkosi Luyeye*, Maria de Lourdes**, Silvi Edith* & Jean-Paul Roux***
*Instituto de Investigação Marinha, P.O. Box 2601, Luanda, Angola
** BHEP Center, P.O. Box 2601, Luanda, Angola
*** MFMR, P.O. Box 394, Lüderitz, Namibia
1.
Introduction
Environmental concerns in the post-war era
Angola has just woken up from 4 decades of war. The end of this year will mark the transition
from an emergency situation to a development situation, where efforts need to be redirected to
the empowerment of people to meet their own needs – which in many cases include the most
basic needs, such as water and food.
In this scenario, environmental concerns may not seem to be a priority to most people.
However, the majority of the people’s livelihoods depend on natural resources. Angola is
endowed with rich and diverse natural resources, some of which remain in the hands of a
few. Those resources that are available to the population – such as trees, fish, soil and
biodiversity – have been seriously depleted in the past decades. The rural population is
concentrated in small areas, both for agro-climatic and war insecurity reasons, exhausting the
soil, often with inappropriate cultivation systems. In the rural areas, most people still depend
on wood and charcoal for cooking. The war has resulted in the breakdown of the protected
area system (established prior to independence and covering 6,5% of the national territory),
and there is a risk that some unique ecosystems will be lost. There has been considerable
over-fishing off the Angolan coast, particularly in the south, which has traditionally supported
some of the richest fish stocks.
The Ministry for Urbanism and Environment is slowly taking shape. The preparation of
national environmental plans and policy frameworks is on the agenda. In a time when the
socio-economic system is being rebuilt, there is a unique opportunity to incorporate
environmental concerns in the planning process from the outset. There is, however, a lack of
qualified people and, above all, a lack of an environmental conscience.
A brief overview of the coastline
Angola is located on the south-western coast of Africa. Angola’s borders are bounded by
Namibia in the south, Zambia in the east and the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) in the
north. Geomorphologically six regions can be distinguished: the coastal strip, the transitional
zone, the coastal hill ranges, the high plateau, the Congo basin, and the Zambezi basin. The
whole of Angola is situated in the tropical zone. Most of the coastal area in the south is dry
with a desert climate (less than 110 mm rain per year). Only Cabinda and the area just south
of the Congo River has meaningful rainfall (up to 1000 mm per annum) and high humidities.
The annual mean temperature is about 20ºC in the south and 25ºC in the north.
86
The Angolan coast ranges from tropical in the north to temperate in the south, and offers
several potential fishery and aquaculture opportunities. The coastline of the Angola is about
1650 km long, including Cabinda.
The continental shelf is about 51 000 km2 (using the 200 m depth contour), with a mean width
of about 20 nautical miles. The southernmost region from Cunene up to Tombwa has a
relatively broad and shallow shelf, but with a steep slope except in the extreme southern part.
From Tombwa to Benguela the shelf is very narrow and the slope is too steep for any deep
water trawling. From Benguela northwards the shelf is generally wide all the way up to
Cabinda, but with a narrow part off Luanda and a steep underwater canyon adjacent to the
Congo River.
Three large rivers discharge their waters into sea: the Congo River, the Kwanza River and the
Cunene River. The Estimated Exclusive Zone (EEZ) is about 330 000 km2 (Anon, 1991).
Habitat types
Little is known about the types of habitat along the Angolan coast. Most studies have been
concentrated around Luanda, the capital of the country. The following summary information
was extracted from an unpublished BCLME document entitled “Integrated overview of
coastal developments in the Benguela Current region” by Pat Morant (CSIR, Stellenbosch,
South Africa):
a) Congo River-Luanda
The coastline is characterized by extensive wetlands, some of which are in permanent contact
with mouth of rivers and are also associated with evergreen forests and areas of mangroves.
There exist an important lagoon complex (Mussulo lagoon), within which the mangroves,
fish and invertebrates are heavily used for subsistence.
b) Luanda-Porto Amboim
The coast between Luanda and Porto Amboim is influenced by a black water system with
extensive areas of mangroves and wetlands. It is characterized by cliffs reaching 100m in
height places. However there are some 20 km of sandy beach south of Ponta das
Palmeirinhas and sandpits in the vicinity of the Kwanza and Longo rivers. The Cabo de São
Braz bay is separated from the open sea by an extensive sandbar.
c) Porto Amboim to Lobito
This coastline is also influenced by black water systems, with about 70 km of wetlands and
lagoons. There are long sandpits sheltering a narrow lagoon on this section of the coast.
Extensive saltworks are located in Lobito Bay.
d) Lobito to Benguela
This section of the coast marks the northern limit of the Namib Desert. It is characterized by
a complex of lagoons supporting a variety of water birds, e.g. pelicans, herons and pink
flamingos.
87
e) Benguela to Namibe
The coast is arid mainly rocky and arid without any perennial rivers.
f) Namibe to Cunene River mouth
A large part of this stretch of coast is the Namibe partial reserve. The coast comprises sandy
desert backed by mobile sandy dunes. Baia dos Tigres lies some 80 km south of Tombwa and
the bay is protected by a 30 km long sand island. There is a large wetland area at the mouth
of the Cunene River The river seems to be an important bio geographical boundary of several
species such as the fresh water prawn (Macrobrachium vollenhoveni). The green turtle
(Chelonia mydas) can be found around the mouth of river.
Hydrography
The physical oceanography off southern Angola is described by Dias (1983), and features of
the oceanic frontal system by Shannon et al. (1987). Two different, highly productive systems
can be identified in Angolan waters: seasonal coastal upwelling, typifying most of the
northern and central parts southward to Tombua, and the almost permanent upwelling zone
located adjacent to the southern part of the coast and coinciding with the northernmost
extension of the Benguela current. Other factors contributing to the nutrient enrichment of the
Angolan marine waters include freshwater discharge from the Congo River and shelf-break
upwelling, a phenomenon that is common in the tropics and elsewhere, e.g. the Gulf of
Guinea (Longhurst & Pauly, 1987).
2. The Known Marine Biota
The study of Angolan marine fish fauna and flora is of special interest because of the major
changes in species composition taking place along the continental shelf. The shelf extends
from about 5ºS to 17ºS and encompasses a typical tropical regime in its northern part as well
as a temperate one in the south, separated by the Benguela-Angola frontal system
(Moroshkhin et al., 1970).
Several authors have recognized that a major zoogeographic boundary is present along the
Angolan coast, separating the tropical fauna of Guinean origin from the temperate fauna
associated with the Benguela system (Longhurst 1962).
According to the field guide to living marine resources of Angola there are about 312 species
of fish (115 families) (Bianchi, 1986). From the Nansen´s demersal survey results in February
and March 1989 (Annex I - Table 1) there were approximately 289 species collected off
Angola (Bianchi, 1992). The species were distributed within different biotopes. The Angolan
continental shelf and the upper slope have about 8 different biotopes:
Shallow coastal waters under the influence of Equatorial water (northern and
central Angola)
88
Coastal waters, to the bottom of the thermocline, mainly on soft bottoms (northern
and central Angola)
Coastal waters, to the bottom of the thermocline, on sandy, hard bottoms (northern
and central Angola)
Subthermocline sparid assemblage, sandy, sandy-mud bottoms off northern and
central Angola
Subthermocline fish assemblage from mud bottoms off northern and central
Angola
Subthermocline fish assemblage from southern Angola (Tombua-Cunene)
Upper slope (to 350 m depth)
Upper slope (to 750 m depth)
From Cabinda (5º00´S) to the Benguela (12º30´S) the coastal zones may be covered by
mangroves, providing substantial areas for the reproduction of crustaceans and other marine
organisms. Further south (Namibe) there is very little mangrove colonisation. It also well
known that the mangroves are very important as nursery areas for the early life stages of
many marine species. The mangroves along the Angolan coast are not well studied and are
also not protected. Mangroves were heavily exploited during the war because the coastal areas
offered good opportunities to people seeking safe settlements. The mangrove families and
species identified along the Angolan coast are presented in the Table 1. Between the area
above indicated (5º - 12º30´S) (Figure 1) there are five coastal lagoons which have been
poorly surveyed. Fish species such as Oreochromis macrochir and Oreochromis angolensis
are present in these lagoons.
Demersal communities off Angola
The Angolan shelf and upper slope areas are characterised by a rich and diverse fauna that has
formed the focus of industrial and small-scale fishing since the 1960s. These resources are
mainly represented by fish species, crustaceans and cephalopods. Shelf assemblages (20-200
m depth) include important families such as Sparidae, Sciaenidae, Merluccidae, Lutjanidae,
Haemulidae, Ophidiidae, Aridae, and Sepiidae etc. Slope assemblages (200-800m depth)
include several fish families such as Sparidae and Merluccidae, as well as invertebrate
families such as Aristeidae, Penaeidae, Geryonidae, Sepiidae and Loliginidae (Bianchi, 1992).
The distribution of fish assemblages is mainly influenced by depth, temperature and bottom
type (Bianchi, 1992). The major discontinuities in assemblage distribution are associated with
depth (shelf versus slope assemblages) and, on the shelf, with depth (shallow-warm water
assemblages versus mid and deep-shelf assemblages) (Bianchi et al., 2000). Mid and deepshelf assemblages show clear latitudinal differences that can be related to the presence of the
Benguela Current on the southern shelf.
89
Figure 1. Map of Angola
The northern part of Angola (5ºS-9º10´S) is characterized by large areas of fine to coarse
sand. Silt is found outside the Congo River mouth, south of Cabinda and north of Luanda.
These areas are interrupted by beds of stones, rocks and corals. The central part of Angola,
from south of Ponta das Palmeirinhas to Benguela (9º10´S-12º30´S), is also characterized by
alternating fields of mud and fine to coarse sand, but silt and clay dominate large areas and
rocky bottoms are found mainly north of Cabo Ledo (9º40´S) and Cabeça da Baleia
(11º40´S). The shelf between Tombua (15º50´S) and Cunene River mouth (17º10´S) has a flat
bottom, with clay and silt in Baia dos Tigres and sand northwards to Tombua. Shelf
assemblages typical of muddy bottoms can be identified (Bianchi, 1992).
90
Table 1: Mangroves identified along the Angolan coast
Family
Rhizophoraceae
Species
Rhizophora mangle
R. racemosa
R. harrisonni
Avicenniaceae
Avicennia germinans
Combretaceae
Laguncularia
An important difference between the southern region and the remaining Angolan coast is that
the latter is characterized by a strong and shallow thermocline and by a major seasonal signal
(Sætersdal, Bianchi & Strømme 1999). The presence of the thermocline and its seasonal
changes affect the distribution of fish assemblages, particulary in the zone where thermocline
impinges on the shelf bottom.
Seabirds and marine mammals
During the last two pelagic surveys carried out by the R/V F. Nansen along the Angolan shelf,
a new component was introduced to the regular survey, viz. making an inventory of seabird
and marine mammal species. Counts of seabirds and mammal species were made analyzing
patterns of distribution and abundance in relation to oceanographic features and fish
distribution. Results of the two surveys (2002-2003) are presented in the Tables 2 and 3.
Table 2: Seabird species and numbers of individuals identified during the 10’ observation
periods and in total (including CTD, trawl and incidental sightings). Cape fur seal numbers
are also given (2002).
Species
10' obs total Species
Diomedea cauta
Diomedea melanophris
Diomedea chlororhynchos
Diomedea sp.
5
6
57
4
Daption capense
Procellaria aequinoctialis
29
1025
Puffinus griseus
Puffinus puffinus
Puffinus gravis
29
8
1
Oceanites oceanicus
Hydroba pelagicus
St pet sp.
1648 Sterna maxima
6
Sterna sandvicensis
90
Chlidonias niger
Sterna caspia
0
Phalarope sp.
Oceanod leucorh
Stercorarius sp
Catharacta antarctica
10' obs total
St. longicaudus
St. pomarinus
St. parasiticus
4
6
9
1
4
19
Sterna hirundo
Sterna paradisea
Sterna “comic”
1308
38
777
Pelican
91
65
8
249
2
5
Phalacrocorax capensis
Phalacrocorax carbo
Gan ad
Gan leop
Gan juv
Gan age?
813
0
Larus fuscus ad
L. fuscus sa
L. fuscus ju
0
L. fuscus/domin?
29
22
12
370
558
381
99
3073
L. sabini
L. dominicanus juv
L. dominic ad
L. dominic?
148
1
3
520
Arctocephalus pusillus
94
Table 3: Seabird species and numbers of individuals identified during the 10’ observation
periods and in total (including CTD, Trawl and incidental sightings). Cape fur seal numbers
are also given (2003).
Species
10' obs total Species
Diomedea cauta
1
Diomedea melanophris
7
Diomedea chlororhynchos 98
Daption capense
Procellaria aequinoctialis
Puffinus griseus
Puffinus puffinus
0
771
59
4
Oceanites oceanicus
2524
Phalacrocorax capensis
Phalacrocorax carbo
95
29
Morus capensis
4564
2
8
154
Stercorarius sp
Catharacta antarctica
10' obs total
0
27
Larus dominicanus
1068
5
Larus cirrocephalus
5
1296
114 Sterna hirundo
235
5
Sterna paradisea
3
Sterna hirundo/paradisea 196
3156 Sterna maxima
4
Sterna sandvicensis
1
182 Chlidonias niger
5
64
Arctocephalus pusillus
127
6449
2
47
2143
7
313
3
238
15
2
10
259
Patterns of abundance
On a broad scale and according to seabird and marine mammal distributions observed during
the 2002 and 2003 surveys, southern Angolan waters can be divided in 4 distinct zones (the
latitudinal limits given below are approximate and the description of the patterns only for late
winter and spring).
a) 9o30’S to 12o30’S
This area is characterized by:
• Presence of the tropical Royal tern Sterna maxima inshore,
• Presence of the Sooty shearwater P. griseus at low densities in deep waters only,
• Presence of White-chinned petrel at low densities at the shelf break and beyond,
• Absence of Albatrosses, Cape Petrel, Cape cormorant
92
•
•
•
Concentration of turtles (probably Lepidochelis olivacea) around the shelf break
Low densities of the Cape fur seal A. pusillus, on the shelf,
Presence of Balaenoptera sp. (probably B. edeni).
In the southern half of this zone, a small area stands out at 11o10’S-11o15’S (the “Quicombo
area”). In this area, exceptionally dense aggregations of Wilson’s storm petrels can be found,
marking the steep shelf break (indicating concentrations of zooplankton along a frontal zone).
Also associated with this feature is the unexpected presence of the subantarctic skua (C.
antarctica) noted during the 2002 and 2003 surveys. This species is otherwise found only
south of the Angola-Benguela Front.
b) 12o30’S to 14o30’S
This area is noticeable because of the general low densities of all seabird species and is
characterized by
• Absence of the tropical Royal tern
• Lowest density of the four most abundant and widespread species, Wilson’s Storm
petrel, White-chinned petrel, Kelp gull and Cape Gannet
• Absence of Balaenoptera spp. and turtles
• Absence of Cape fur seal to 14oS, and very low abundance to 14o30’S
c) 14o30’S to 16o00’S
This area seems to constitute a transition zone with the appearance, at low densities, of some
species more common further south, e.g. Yellow-nosed albatross Diomedea chlororhynchos,
Cape cormorant Phalacrocorax capensis and Cape petrel Daption capense and a slight
increase in fur seal abundance.
d) 16o00’S to 17o15’S
South of 16oS, the avifauna changes dramatically and is marked by a large increase in density
of many subantarctic species (Yellow-nosed albatross, Cape petrel, Sooty shearwater,
Subantarctic skua, White-chinned petrel) as well as Benguela Current region endemics (Cape
gannet, Cape cormorant, Kelp gull). The density of Cape fur seal increases dramatically as
well at around 16oS.
Sub-antarctic species more common in Namibian waters at this time of the year appear in this
area (Black-browed albatross, Shy albatross) and marine mammals characteristic to the
Benguela upwelling region are also present (Heaviside’s dolphin, Dusky dolphin).
Marine mammals
a) Cape fur seal: Arctocephalus pusillus
Fur seals were present in small numbers north of 12o30’S, absent between 12o30’S and 14oS,
and becoming regular and abundant south of 16oS. It is generally restricted to the shelf in
waters of less than 200m depth, except between 14oS and 15oS were the shelf is extremely
narrow.
93
b) Cetaceans
The summary of the cetacean sightings made during this part of the survey is given in Table
4. Most of the rorqual sightings are believed to be of the Bryde’s whale (Balaenoptera edeni)
although only one individual could be positively identified at close range. Several rorquals
including that of a B. edeni cow-calf pair were sighted in the same area during the September
2002 survey. These observations possibly indicate a regular breeding/feeding ground for this
species in winter and spring in Angolan waters between 10oS and 12oS.
Four sightings of Humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) were made during this survey,
all between 100 and 200m depth. The sighting of Killer whales, Orcinus orca, is believed to
be only the second sighting of this species in Angolan waters (one sighting was made during
the 2002 survey). The presence of the Heaviside’s dolphin, endemic to the Benguela, in the
Baia dos Tigres area is a confirmation of the suspected northern limit of distribution for this
species and of its presence in the extreme south of Angolan waters.
Table 4: Summary of cetacean sightings
Species
Number
Depth
Water
temp
Latitude
Longitude
Balaenoptera sp
Balaenoptera sp
M. novaeangliae
1
2
m
20.6
99.4
21.6
22
decimal
-10.395
-10.756
decimal
13.516
13.522
Balaenoptera sp
O. orca
2
60 - 80
1
1
2
106.2
502.2
35.6
42.6
153.4
22.1
21.9
21.3
21.2
21.8
-10.764
-10.855
-10.808
-10.837
-11.134
13.507
13.305
13.718
13.713
13.598
M. novaeangliae
M. novaeangliae
Balaenoptera sp
Balaenoptera sp
Balaenoptera sp
1
2
1
1
1
140.7
113.5
298
109.6
474.9
20.6
20.9
20.7
20.6
20.6
-11.635
-11.637
-12.115
-12.127
-12.108
13.405
13.503
13.427
13.454
13.408
Balaenoptera sp
Balaenoptera sp
balaenoptera edeni
Balaenoptera sp
T. truncatus
2
1
1
1
17 - 20
621.9
771.4
808.4
98.6
454.7
20.9
20.7
20.8
20.7
20.8
-12.098
-12.114
-12.142
-12.229
-12.629
13.376
13.329
13.318
13.458
13.068
M. novaeangliae
C. heavisidii
3
4-6
195.6
38.3
16.4
15.5
-15.810
-16.609
11.677
11.656
L. obscurus
6 -10
119.6
13.8
-17.105
11.504
Stenella sp
large baleen whale
c) Turtles
Marine turtles were encountered during 15 sightings for a total of 24 individuals. From the
shape of the carapace they were identified as either loggerhead (Caretta caretta) or Olive
94
Ridley (Lepidochelis olivacea) turtles. The sightings were concentrated between 10o 23’S and
11o08’S and depths ranging from 85m to 700m. In addition, in the same area (11o 03’S, 13o
30’E), during a night pelagic trawl over depths of 240-330m, a turtle was caught, together
with myctophids, and released alive. It was identified as L. olivacea (D. Zaera, 2003) and it is
likely that the other sightings in this region are from the same species.
Of the 8 species of sea turtles worldwide, 5 of which occur in Angola (Caretta caretta,
Chelonia mydas, Dermochels coriacea, Lepidochelis olivacea and Erytmochelys imbricata),
and are inadvertently caught in some fisheries.
3. The Unknown Marine Biota
The marine biota of the inshore coastal (shallow water) zone is not well known due to the lack
of coverage by the R/V F. Nansen. Artisanal fisheries exploit this area and there is a lack of
qualified people to identify catches.
There is also a shortage of knowledge on the mammals and seabirds from the north of Luanda
to Cabinda. More than 50 rivers are located in the 18 provinces of Angola with considerable
numbers of unidentified species. There is little or no available information on the zoobenthos
and aquatic plants along the Angolan shelf.
The Ministry of Fisheries has promulgated rules for the protection of the sea and rivers. This
Ministry is also planning the implementing of a national aquaculture programme. The
programme has several phases, the first of which will be the conducting of baseline studies.
4. Current Threats
The main threats to marine biodiversity are:
a) Fisheries
The marine fishery in Angola can be divided into artisanal (mainly for horse mackerel,
Sardinella sp., as well as the spiny lobster (Panulirus regius), semi-industrial where the main
species caught are the crab (Chaceon maritae) and prawns (Penaeus sp.). The industrial
fishing sector is well developed and is targeting deep water shrimps, demersal and pelagic
fish (e.g. Horse mackerel). The main impact fisheries exert on the ecosystem is related to the
non-optimal harvesting of the resources. The primary cause may be fishing over-capacity
(e.g. in the demersal fisheries). In some cases there are too many boats fishing the resource.
In the other hand there is a conflict between the artisanal and industrial fishery, which
compete in the same fishing areas and for the same resource (e.g. Horse mackerel). This can
lead to a depletion of the resource below sustainable levels, high by-catch (as in the case of
the deep-water shrimp fishery) and undersized catch. The above actions lead to changes in
species composition and abundance of many marine species and there is an urgent need for
these changes to be documented.
Most sea turtle species are considered endangered and are technically protected under laws
promulgated by the National Ministry of Fisheries. However, there is still exploitation of
turtles for their meat, eggs, for ornamental crafts made from their shell, and for leather from
their skin.
95
One of the species of sharks, Bronze whaler (Carcharhinus brachyurus) is a shared species
between Angola and Namibia. This species is declining according to a Namibian report
documenting trends over the last three years. In Namibia the species is caught by shore
anglers and occasionally by seine netters. However, the industrial fishery targets the same
species in Angola.
A number of the seabird species present in Angolan waters during winter and spring are
susceptible to being accidentally caught by longline fisheries (as well as direct catch from
small crafts). These include all species of albatrosses, petrels and shearwaters as well as the
Cape gannet. By-catch by long-line fisheries in the southern hemisphere has impacted
widely on many species of seabirds and, despite major international efforts to limit the
problem, is threatening the survival of several species of albatrosses and petrels. The high
incidence of Cape gannets sighted in southern Angola during this survey (2003)
(particularly south of Tombua) with remnants of lines and hooks in their beaks attests to the
reality of this potential threat which might be impacting negatively on the threatened
Namibian gannet population.
b) Habitat destruction due to people settlements and unplanned urbanization
During the war period the majority of the human population lived in informal settlements
surrounding the urban centers along the coast. With a climate that is predominantly semi-arid
or arid, the coastal region has relatively limited agricultural potential. This implies that, in the
absence of other income generating opportunities, the population relies increasingly on the
sea for a livelihood. The expanding urban population also results in a serious pollution threat
as untreated sewage is discharged into the sea in increasing volumes. The settlement of large
numbers of people along the coast during the war period has also led to the destruction of
mangrove forests.
c) Oil exploration
According to the National oil spill contingency plan, a major risk of oil spills emanates from
shipping activities, including those taking place in ports. Large tankers call at the oil
production facilities to export the crude oil to countries such as U.S.A. Smaller tankers,
including coastal vessels, are used to transport crude oil from the production facilities to the
refinery in Luanda and refined products from the refinery to Angolan ports or overseas.
The majority of licensed blocks are located north of Luanda. However, there is a southward
expansion into areas currently used for fishing activities, thus creating competition for space
between the two sectors.
5. Human Capacity
There is a lack of qualified people in Angola and no more than 5 persons at the national level
are working in the biodiversity field. For instance, at the National Museum of Natural
Resources in Luanda there is only one scientist conducting taxonomic studies. Most of the
specimens (e.g. molluscs, fish, birds, turtles and butterflies) in this museum were identified
during the colonial era. The name and the address of the person working at the National
Museum are:
Esteves da Costa Afonso
Museu Nacional de História Natural
96
Rua da Muxima nº 47
C.P. 2528
Tel: 334054/334055
Fax: 338907
E-mail: [email protected]
Cell:092314957
E-mail: [email protected]
97
Literature
Bianchi, G. (1986). Fichas FAO de identificação de espécies para propósitos comerciais.
Guia de campo para as espécies comerciais marinhas e de àguas Salobras de Angola.
Bianchi, G. (1992). Study of the dermesal assemblages of the continental shelf and upper
slope of Angola. (Norway). Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. Vol. 81:101-120.
Bianchi, G., Hamukuaya, H., Alvheim, O. (2001). On the dynamics of demersal fish
assemblages off Namibia in the 1990s. S. Afr. J. mar. Sci. 23:491-428.
Bianchi, G., Lundsør, E. & Hamukuaya, H. (2001). On Namibia´s marine diversity. Afr. J.
mar. Sci. 3-5 pp.
Compagno, L. J. V., Ebert, D. A. & Smale, M. J. (1989). Guide to the sharks and rays of
southern Africa.
Longhurst, A. R. (1962). A review of the oceanography of the Gulf of Guinea. Bull. Inst.
Fond. Afr. noire 24:633-633.
Moroshkhin, K. V., V. A. Bubbnov & R. P. Bulatov. 1970. Water circulation in the Eastern
South Atlantic Ocean. Oceanology, 10 (1); 27-34.
Newell, G. E. & Newell, R. C. (1963). Marine plankton - a practical guide.
Olivar, P. M., Fortuňo, M. J. (?). Guide to ichthyoplankton of the southeast Atlantic
(Benguela Current Region). Sci. Mar., 55 (1) :1-383.
Smith, M.M. & Heemstra, P.H. (1986). Smiths’ sea fishes. Southern Book Publishers.
van der Elst, R. (1993). A guide to the common sea fishes of Southern Africa. Struik
Publishers
98
National Report
Marine biodiversity in Namibia – the known and the unknown
Lizette Voges, Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Coordinator, National Biodiversity
Programme, P.O. Box 3098, Vineta 9000, Namibia
Author’s note: Most of the material in this document has been copied directly from
Palomares & Pauly (2003) and Sakko (1998).
1.
INTRODUCTION
The Namibian coast runs generally in a north-south direction, with few embayments and is
hyper-arid desert along its entire length (1470 km). Most of the shore is sandy beach (54%)
or mixed sand and rock (28%). Rocky shores constitute 16% of the total length, while 2% is
made up of lagoonal shores.
1.1 Climate
The marine environment of Namibia falls within the Benguela system, and, although the
system is continuous, there is an unusually intense cell of upwelling off Lüderitz at 27°S,
which effectively divides it into two parts. The southern Benguela system thus extends as
far northwards as Lüderitz, while the rest of the Namibian coast as far as the Kunene River
mouth falls within the northern Benguela system.
The driving physical process in the Benguela system is coastal, wind-induced upwelling.
Prevailing south to southwesterly winds, which occur all year round off Namibia, tend to
move near shore surface water northwards and offshore, while cool, central water from a
depth of about 300m wells up to take its place. The deeper water is rich in dissolved nutrients
which, when present in the photic zone, facilitate rapid growth of phytoplankton. The high
productivity of these microscopic plants supports abundant marine life. The most intense
upwelling regions off Namibia are found where the continental shelf is narrowest and the
wind strongest, e.g. off Cape Frio, Palgrave Point and Lüderitz (Figure 1).
Upwelling in the Benguela system is potentially of great significance for the biological
diversity of Namibia’s marine environment. Continuous physical, chemical and biological
changes give rise to a three-dimensional mosaic of environmental conditions, which varies
continuously in time and space. This gives rise to marine habitats of variety and variability,
and imparts an inherent unpredictability to the system as a whole.
1.2 Habitat types
Like those elsewhere, Namibia’s marine environment can be divided into several zones
forming a gradient stretching west from the coast.
The littoral zone marks the boundary between land and sea, and extends from the splash zone
down to the low tide mark. The euphotic zone extends down about another 50 m at a distance
of 10 -15 km from the shore. The key features of this whole zone are the shallowness of the
water and the abundance of light, which may penetrate to the sea floor. The entire coast is
exposed to heavy wave action with accompanying silting and sand scour.
99
16
N
Cunene
18
Cape
A
Rocky
20
M
Dune
Palgrave
Toscanini
Cape
I
22
Swakopmund
Walvis
24
B
Sandwich
Conception
pronounced divergence
of current
Meob
I
Sylvia
Dolphin
26
A
Lüderitz
Upwelling
28
Panther
Angola Benguela front
Orange
10
12
14
16
18
Figure 1. Map of the Namibian coastline showing the most intense upwelling areas and
position of the Angola Benguela front.
The continental shelf of Namibia is generally fairly narrow, especially off southern Angola
and Lüderitz. It is at its widest off the Orange River mouth and Walvis Bay. It extends some
90 km offshore between Cape Cross and Conception Bay, and the shelf area from the shore to
a depth of 200 m is approximately 110 000 km2. The predominant surface sediment on the
Namibian shelf is biogenic, or formed from living matter. A noteworthy feature is a belt of
diatomaceous mud containing a high organic content as well as sulphur, stretching 500 km
100
between Cape Frio and Conception Bay. Decomposition of the organic matter leads to
oxygen depletion, and these shelf waters are uniformly oxygen-poor. Such sediments are
typical of areas of high primary production.
At the edge of the continental shelf the seabed descends rapidly to the ocean floor, marking
the shelf break zone. The Namibian shelf is one of the world's deepest, generally thought to
reach 400 m in places. A double shelf break exists off Walvis Bay, with two parallel shelves
of different depths. Waters around the slope tend to be richer in oxygen than shelf waters, and
specific communities of organisms are associated with this zone.
The oceanic or abyssal zone is the area of open sea beyond the continental shelf, cradled
between the continental masses. On the whole, understanding of the biology of this zone is
confined to the surface photic zone. The Angola and Cape basins, which are the abyssal plains
of the south-east Atlantic, both lie in part off the Namibian coast. The two basins are
separated by an undersea mountain range, the Walvis Ridge, which extends to the south and
west of the shelf edge off Walvis Bay. The Walvis Ridge acts as a barrier to the movement of
deeper water.
1.3 Nature and intensity of utilization
Seabirds – guano is harvested from four different bird platforms and from islands in the south.
Seals are harvested for commercial use.
Recreational fishing from the beach occurs throughout the year especially along the central
and northern coasts. Skiboats are sometimes used to fish for popular angling species like kob,
steenbras, galjoen, dassie and sharks.
Approximately 250km of Namibia’s coastline between Lüderitz and the Orange River mouth
falls in the zone known as the ‘Sperrgebiet’ or ‘Diamond Area’. This is the site of Namibia’s
most productive diamond mines. Sea-based operations involve the removal of gravel from
intertidal and subtidal habitats, whereas land-based mining involves the removal of the sand
overburden until bedrock is exposed. In some areas (e.g. vicinity of Oranjemund), sections of
sea are reclaimed by building a surrounding dyke and then pumping out the seawater.
Sediments are then removed in order to locate the buried diamonds. At Elizabeth Bay,
diamonds are mined from the land adjacent to the coast. Undersized grits, or “fines”,
resulting from the extraction processes are pumped into the sea.
Fisheries activities cover all marine habitats except the deepest ocean floors and abyssal
depths. The most important impacts of fishing are the removal of large numbers of naturally
occuring organisms and the physical alteration of habitats by bottom trawl gear. Fishing is the
third-largest sector of the Namibian economy, after agriculture and mining. This sector has
generated more than 10% of the GDP since 1998, up from 5% in 1991, and the projected
export value for 2003 is N$ 2 900 million, which will make the fishing sector the secondlargest export earner after mining. It is the second fastest growing industry in the Namibian
economy (behind tourism) with the value of exports now approximately six times greater than
at Independence. The following species are all harvested by controlled TAC’s:
Horse mackerel
Hake
Monk
Pilchard
Orange roughy
101
Deepsea red crab
Crayfish
2. THE KNOWN
2.1 Characteristics of Namibian marine biodiversity
Biodiversity in the Namibian marine environment shows several pertinent trends. Most
habitats support no endemic species. A few species are endemic to the Benguela system, of
which the Namibian waters form a part. Species richness in most habitats is relatively low. In
almost all cases, richness is lower than in comparable habitats in the southern Benguela
system off the west coast of South Africa. In most cases, this low richness is accompanied by
high biomass.
There is a well-recognized latitudinal gradient in patterns of global species richness, with
highest richness in equatorial regions and lowest richness towards the poles. Namibian marine
biodiversity provides an anomaly in this gradient since, in general, species richness is
substantially lower than recorded in the more southerly marine habitats off South Africa. In
addition, there is a clear trend of decreasing marine species richness from south to north off
Namibia, contrary to the expected trend. Why is this?
A given supply of food may be partitioned among many species with narrow diets
(specialists) and small populations, or among few species with wider diets (generalists) and
large populations. Specialization is favored where food availability is predictable and
competition may lead to the evolution of specialized feeding behavior. This is the case in
tropical regions, where the high genetic diversity is correlated with trophic stability. In
temperate regions, however, where conditions are seasonally variable, food availability is less
predictable and organisms may need to feed opportunistically during times of food shortage.
Specialization is thus not as feasible, and resources tend to be partitioned between fewer
species with large populations.
Upwelling systems in general are extreme cases of unstable environments, where continuous
variation prevents the fine-tuning of genotypes to local conditions. Food availability is
variable, and generalist feeders are favored. Such systems predictably support only low
species richness, while at the same time being among the most productive habitats in the
world. Significantly the Namibian marine environment (particularly the northern Benguela
system) is species-poor, even by comparison to other upwelling systems, such as the southern
Benguela and West African upwelling systems. This may arise in part due to the intensely
dynamic and perennial nature of upwelling off the Namibian coast, which creates extreme
instability and unpredictability of numerous environmental factors such as temperature and
water chemistry.
102
2.2 State of knowledge
In this section a summary of the work by Maria Lourdes D. Palomares and Daniel Pauly
(2003) Biodiversity of the Namibian Exclusive Economic Zone: a brief review with emphasis
on online databases, is presented. The reference to Appendices, refer to their report.
Birds
Bianchi et al. (1999) reported that a total of 62 species of seabirds, including 20 rare visitors,
have been recorded in Namibia. Of the 25 endangered bird species listed in the Birdlife
International species database for Namibia, 5 are seabirds and 4 are shorebirds.
Appendix IA (refers to the list in the report of Palomares and Pauly) considers only seabirds
and lists 58 of the 62 seabird species from these different sources, including 3 endemic
species, all of which are endemic to southern Africa. It also includes 4 commercially
important guano producing species. All seabirds are protected by law in Namibia but only 38
of those listed in Appendix IA are listed by CITES.
Marine mammals
Jefferson et al. (1993) lists 36 species of cetaceans (8 baleen whales and 28 toothed whales,
dolphins and porpoises) and 4 pinnipeds occurring between 20-40°S. Bianchi et al. (1999)
reported 31 species (8 baleen and 23 toothed whales, dolphins and porpoises) and 3 species of
pinnipeds but provides information on only 12 cetaceans and 2 pinnipeds. The number of
cetaceans occurring in Namibian waters represents a considerable 41% of the total number of
species of cetaceans worldwide. Of these, only one is an endemic species, Heaviside’s
dolphin, Cephalorhynchus heavisidii, which is a coastal shallow water species found only off
southern Africa from about 17ºS to the southern tip of Africa (Jefferson et al. 1993). This
species is common in Namibian waters and seen mostly about 5 miles from the shore in small
groups of 2-7 individuals (Bianchi et al. 1999).
Peddemors (1999), who reported 18 species of delphinids from Africa south of 17°S,
concludes that there seems to be little human-induced threat to these species at present and
only two inshore species are considered vulnerable, i.e., the Namibian population of
Cephalorhynchus heavisidii, and a localized Namibian population of Tursiops truncates
which is reportedly vulnerable to future coastal development and commercial fishery
expansions. The offshore species Lissodelphis peronii is also a localized population and may
be adversely affected by the expansion of commercial driftnet fisheries off Namibia
(Peddemors 1999).
Cephalopods
There are 55 species of cephalopods occurring in Namibia according to Nesis (1991) but
Bianchi et al. (1999) include only 19 commercially important or potentially important species
in 8 families. The list in Appendix ID includes 66 species (26 families) and may include
species found in South Africa (Branch et al. 1994). Appendix ID includes 13 species caught
with bottom trawls or as bycatch of bottom trawls. None of the cephalopod species are listed
in the IUCN or in the CITES Appendices.
103
Lobsters
There are 11 species of lobster occurring in Namibia (Bianchi et al. 1999) but Appendix IE
documents only 10 species from 5 families. Four of these have commercial value or of
potential interest, i.e. Cape rock lobster, Jasus lalandii, Royal spiny lobster, Panulirus regius,
Red slipper lobster, Scyllarides herklotsii, and Scarlet lobsterette, Nephropsis atlantica. The
Namibian Cape rock lobster fishery is now protected by closed seasons (November-May) and
size restrictions.
Crabs
Bianchi et al. (1999) reported 38 species of crabs occurring in Namibia, of which 9 have
existing fisheries or are incidentally caught as by-catch. Branch et al. (1994) recorded 300
species occurring in South Africa and reported a few more species, which are known to occur
in the southern border area of Namibia with South Africa. These are integrated here in
Appendix IF, which lists 43 species, 58% of which are found at depths 0-1000 m. None of
these crabs are listed in the IUCN or CITES lists and receive no protection from the Namibian
government.
Shrimps and prawns
The lists of shrimps and prawns indicate 54 (Macpherson 1991) to 56 (Bianchi et al. 1999)
species occurring in Namibia. Appendix IG reconstructs 48 taxa, 40% of which are swimming
and 60% benthic shrimps, of which 50% are found at 200-1000 m depths, 15% at 0-200 m
and about 1% are deepwater species (occurring at depths >1000 m). Only a third of the
shimps and prawns are of commercial interest and usually targeted using bottom or pelagic
trawls. None of these species are listed under IUCN or CITES and there are indications of
local protection by the Namibian government.
Fishes
Bianchi et al. (1999) listed a total of 492 fish species from 163 families, consisting of 2
species of jawless fishes from 1 family, 46 sharks from 15 families, 28 species belonging to 7
families of batoid fishes, skates and rays, 6 chimaerids from 3 families and 410 bony fishes
from 137 families. Only about 40% of these are discussed in detail by Bianchi et al. (1999)
because of their commercial or potential value as exploitable resources. However, the
checklist obtained from FishBase (see www.fishbase.org) and presented in Appendix IC
accounts for a total of 515 native and 1 endemic species. Almost 50% of these 515 species are
bottom dwellers (20% demersals and 18% benthopelagic; see Figure 2) while 36% are
deepwater species (18% each bathypelagic and bathydemersals) and only 13% are truly
pelagic species. This is not surprising given that the Namibian EEZ comprises 64% of waters
deeper than 1000 m, 24% between 200-1000 m, and 12% between 0-200 m.
Further analyses of the FishBase data indicate about 34% have commercial use in Namibia
and another 42% are reported to have potential commercial value. More than 60% are
exploited by commercial and about 25% by the sport fisheries (see Figure 3). Three species
are currently under the IUCN list of threatened species, i.e., Broadnose sevengill shark,
Notorynchus cepedianus (Data Deficient), Yellowspotted catshark, Scyliorhinus capensis
(Low Risk/near threatened) and Sharptooth houndshark, Triakis megalopterus (Low Risk
/near threatened) while two appear in the CITES list of species, i.e., Great white shark,
Carcharodon carcharias (Appendix III for Australian populations) and Whaleshark,
Rhincodon typus (Appendix II).
104
Reef-associated
2%
Pelagics
13%
Bathydemersals
18%
Demersals
20%
Bathypelagics
29%
Benthopelagics
18%
Figure 2. Contribution of marine fish species by habitat in the Namibian marine ecosystem.
Data from FishBase list of marine fishes of Namibia (SE Atlantic, FAO Area 47).
Protected
Potential
n = 218
Uses and status
Endemic
Threatened
Exported live
Recorded
n = 175
Aquaculture
Sport fish
Fisheries
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Number of species (% of total)
Figure 3. Number of fish species by commercial use, status of threat and protection in the list
of marine fishes of Namibia (SE Atlantic FAO Area 47) extracted from FishBase.
105
70
Benthic invertebrates
Sakko (1998) reports about 200 benthic invertebrate species occurring in Namibia. Appendix
II covers about 70% of these, including 2 endemic species, i.e. Disc lamp shell, Discinisca
tenuis and Cape mantis shrimp, Pterygosquilla armata capensis. The Disc lamp shell is a
benthic filter feeder abundant at depths to 25 m off the southern coast of Namibia (Sakko
1998). The Cape mantis shrimp is the only southern west African coast stomatopod (endemic
according to Griffiths and Blaine 1988) found burrowed in soft terrigenous sediments at
depths < 300 m between St. Helena Bay and the south border of Namibia (Griffith and Blaine
1988) but may congregate in large swarms near the surface where it is preyed on by seals,
hake and other fish (Branch et al. 1994).
The bulk of benthic invertebrates occur in depths at 0-200 m. Only the Sea spider, Pallenopsis
bulbifera, a new species described from the Namibian coast in Munilla and Stock (1984) is
recorded at a depth of 260-269 m.
Jellyfishes
Appendix IJ lists 7 species of jellyfishes and 10 species of planktonic crustaceans. The
dominant jellyfish of the Benguela Current system, Aequorea aequorea, is a large medusa
found usually offshore and to the north of Namibia between 0-200 m (Sparks et al 2001).
Another abundant species in the Benguela is the Moon jelly, Aurelia aurita (Senn 2000).
Macrozooplankton
Different krill species dominate the different regions of the Benguela Current. The shelf
region of the southern Benguela Current is dominated by Euphausia lucens while that the
outer shelf is dominated by Euphausia hanseni. The neritic region of the northern Benguela is
dominated by Nyctiphanes capensis (Pillar et al. 1991). These species have high turnover
rates, as they reproduce throughout the year with multiple recruitment pulses and large
numbers of eggs per brood. Northern Benguela euphausiids have twice as much biomass as
that of the southwest Benguela. Adults are opportunistic omnivores, while juveniles are
herbivorous. Pillar et al. (1991), report that euphausiid grazing has a minor impact on the
phytoplankton biomass but has a high predatory impact on other mesozooplankton species
and compete directly with fish species, the major consumer of euphausiid production in
Benguela ecosystem.
Ichthyoplankton
Eggs and larvae of fish species are evenly distributed within the water column (0-200 m)
when the coastal area is undergoing strong upwelling influxes, with isotherms running
parallel to the coast in winter and spring (Olivar et al. 1991). However, ichthyoplankton
distribution is clearly segregated between coastal and slope/oceanic areas in intense upwelling
seasons in northern Benguela, i.e. the lanternfishes, Lampanyctodes hectoris and Maurolicus
muelleri dominate oceanic areas while Sufflogobius bibarbatus dominates the coastal areas. In
the 1980s, Olivar and Barange (1989) reported that the most abundant ichthyoplankton
species on the Namibian continental shelf and slope were larvae of Ringneck blenny,
Trachurus pilicornis; lanternfishes, Symbolophorus sp., Hygophum macrochir; and the
pelagic goby, Nematogobius bibarbatus (synonym of Sufflogobius bibarbatus). Larval and
egg abundance were different between the southern and northern coasts, i.e. the northern coast
apparently acts as a nursery area for the majority of the species. Similarly, vertical distribution
106
showed stratification with highest ichthyoplankton concentrations above the thermocline.
Upwelling affected the diurnal distribution of anchovy and pilchard eggs and larvae as well as
those of King gar, Scomberesox saurus scombroides, larvae which were most abundant at
night. In another survey of the area, 20-100 miles off the coast between 17-25oS, Belyanina
and Stejker (1988) reported that during the non-upwelling period of April-May 1985 and
January 1986, ichthyoplankton was scarce. Larval oceanic mesopelagic fishes, mainly
myctophids, dominated the samples. At depths < 500 m, the average ichthyoplankton
abundance increased with high concentrations of Pilchard, Sardinops ocellatus (synonym of
Sardinops sagax) and mackerel, Trachurus spp.
Assuming that the data in Appendix I are representative of the species occurring in the
Namibian EEZ, the results probably reflect the particular topography of the Namibian EEZ,
i.e. a narrow shallow shelf area and large oceanic zone with an upwelling area (Sakko 1998),
with a predominance of deep-water fish groups, e.g. bathypelagic fishes (15.2%) closely
followed by demersals (10.5%) and benthopelagic fishes (9.7%). The next most important
groups are from high trophic levels, including cephalopods, seabirds and marine mammals,
(together comprising 15%), while benthic invertebrates comprised 13% of the species
composition. Figure 4 gives an overview of the contribution of each functional group, and
indicates a ‘seemingly’ greater number of high trophic level species. This is biased however,
as large, high trophic level and commercially important species are better documented than
the small, less conspicuous species of no commercial importance.
Number of species (% of total)
0%
2%
4%
6%
8%
10%
12%
14%
Seabirds
Marine mammals
Turtles
Bathydemersal fishes
Bathypelagic fishes
Benthopelagic fishes
Demersal fishes
Pelagic fishes
Reef-associated fishes
Cephalopods
Lobsters
Crabs
Shrimps and prawns
Pycnogonids
Bivalves
Chitons
Gastropods
Echinoderms
Ascidians
Hexacorals
Brachiopods
Polychaetes
Cirripeds
Isopods
Amphipods
Stomatopods
Mysids
Hacpacticoids
Hydroids
Jellyfishes
Planktonic crustaceans
Macroalgae
Diatoms
Dinoflagellates
Protozoans
Bacteria
Figure 3. Number of species (in % of total) by functional groups from an analysis of data
assembled in Appendix I for the Namibian marine ecosystem (SE Atlantic, FAO Area
47).
107
16%
Table 1 summarizes species counts of endemic, commercial, threatened and protected species,
and provides counts of the number of species by depth range and habitat. The number of
endemic species accounts for 0.9% of the total number of species listed in Appendix I,
confirming the low level of endemicity reported in Sakko (1998). Commercially important
species account for 14.4%, with fish groups making up 66% of those that are commercially
important.
3. THE UNKNOWN
The intertidal rocky shores of Namibia are among the least studied in the southern African
region, and very few biological collections have been made in the area. During the last few
years more effort has been put into these areas. The information has not been included in this
study and has not been fully processed.
Research on subtidal organisms along the Namibian cost has also been very limited. Few
scientific publication are available on the biodiversity of this particular habitat, and museum
collections have not been updated. The occurrence of many subtidal benthic species is underreported, with the consequence that distribution maps for species along the southern African
coastline often do not include Namibian waters, even though many of the species may be
common there. Current knowledge is restricted to macrobenthic communities of rocky
substrata in depths < 30 m, mainly in the area between Diaz Point and Mercury Island.
The ecology of subtidal seaweeds of Namibia is almost uninvestigated.
No research has been done specifically on the biodiversity of oceanic or abyssal habitats in
Namibian waters. Only 57 species of bony fish deeper than 1000m have been recorded. An
estimated 500 species of demersal fish are found at depths greater than 1000m in the Atlantic
as a whole, indicating the relatively small number recorded in Namibian waters. The deep-sea
benthic communities off Namibia are largely unknown. However, in samples of
macrobenthic organisms from 10 deep-ocean basins in the Atlantic Ocean, species richness in
sediments from the Cape Basin and the Angola Basin (off Namibia) was intermediate between
the rich tropical regions and less rich higher latitude areas.
4. CURRENT THREATS
4.1 Natural threats
Fluctuations in the Benguela system
The Benguela ecosystem is characterised by continuous environmental changes on scales
from hours to decades. For example, nutrient availability may vary on an hourly basis, as
upwelled nutrients reach the photic zone and are rapidly used by phytoplankton. Levels of
dissolved oxygen in the water may also change rapidly as patches of low-oxygen water move.
Winds, which induce upwelling, and thus drive the system, are perennial off the coast of
Namibia, although seasonal changes in the position of the southeast Atlantic high-pressure
system influence the intensity of upwelling. Seasonal changes in atmospheric 'forcing' also
control the penetration of warm Angolan Current waters into the northern Benguela region
with southerly movement of Angolan waters most likely in late summer and autumn. In
addition, the exceptional southward incursions of warm Angolan waters as far as Walvis Bay,
known as Benguela-Ninos, occur on a decadal scale. The combination of hourly, daily,
seasonal and decadal patterns of change creates an inherently variable marine environment.
Since biodiversity is often linked to habitat complexity, it is clear that this variety is important
in maintaining biodiversity off the Namibian coast. However, it also makes the environment
108
unpredictable, leading to mortalities of organisms that cannot cope with, or escape from,
sudden changes.
Of particular interest are the intrusions of Angolan waters into the northern Benguela region.
These occur seasonally, although the exact timing and extent are not predictable. At these
times the front between the two systems moves southwards by up to 2°, and tongues of warm
water reach into the otherwise cold waters of the Benguela. The warm, saline Angolan water
brings with it plant and animal species of more tropical affinity. Such species have been
recorded in all the marine habitats in northern Namibia, as described in the relevant sections
above. In some instances these species may become established, such as the sandy shore
mussel Donax rugosis, but more often they retreat with the northward movement of the warm
water. Conditions may become unfavorable for some temperate species during warm-water
intrusions, and they tend to move away. Local mortalities are possible for less-mobile species,
but these are unlikely to influence regional biodiversity.
During Benguela-Ninos, warm, saline water may intrude as far south as Walvis Bay, as
occurred in 1995. These intrusions may happen quickly, over a matter of days, and may last
as long as six weeks. Associated with higher sea temperatures, the oxygen content of Angolan
Current water can be extremely low, making conditions unsuitable for many Namibian
species. During the 1995 Benguela-Nino, hake distributions off central and northern Namibia
changed dramatically in response to the presence of poorly oxygenated water. Several species
of fish including hake, horse mackerel and pelagic goby are physiologically adapted to cope
with low oxygen conditions. However, Benguela-Ninos represent extreme conditions and it is
possible that mortalities of less-mobile species could occur. Fluctuations in environmental
conditions in the Benguela system are thus a potential short term and localized threat to
marine species off Namibia. Local extinctions of fish and crayfish in response to intrusions of
low-oxygen water have been recorded. However, these fluctuations are inherent in the
functioning of the system, a system that has been in existence in some form off northern
Namibia for about 12 million years. Even the modern Benguela system, as we know it today,
is 2 million years old. Clearly, species, which persist, have evolved mechanisms for coping
with the inherent variability. Local mortalities in response to environmental fluctuations
should therefore not be seen as significant threats to Namibian biodiversity on a regional or
national scale.
Sulphur eruptions
Sulphurous patches in coastal and near-shore waters are a common feature off the Namibian
coast, especially the central region near Walvis Bay and Swakopmund. Low oxygen water is a
feature of the shelf bottom over large areas in this region. Some bottom-dwelling bacteria
produce sulphur as a product of decomposition, and they may form patches of concentrated
sulphur. Such eruptions have been associated with mortalities of fish and other species.
Extensive deposits of fish scales and bones found in the region of Walvis Bay may be the
remains of large populations of fish that died in response to sulphur outbreaks. Like other
variations, sulphur eruptions are a feature of this system and do not pose a threat to
biodiversity on anything but the local level.
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4.2 Anthropogenic threats
There are several ways in which humans influence biological diversity in the marine
environment. Most important among them are pollution, physical encroachment by activities
such as mining, overexploitation, and the introduction of exotic organisms.
Underlying all these forms of disturbance are social and economic reasons, which, at the time,
are deemed of more importance than are detrimental ecological effects. Usually, the activities,
which directly or indirectly destroy marine biological diversity, bring short-term profit to
some group or individual. The costs of such activities, on the other hand, are incalculable and
are borne by everyone.
Pollution of shore and ship origin
The coastal zone of the Namibian marine system is virtually devoid of permanent human
settlement. Apart from the four medium-sized coastal towns of Liideritz, Walvis Bay,
Swakopmund and Henties Bay which have permanent populations of between 4500 and
50000, there are a number of conservation stations and fishing camps which support a few
residents and a few dozen visitors at any one time. In addition, the coastal desert is not
suitable for agricultural development. Consequently, the level of pollution normally
associated with urban communities, shore-based industries and coastal agricultural land does
not occur. Despite the lack of large-scale coastal urban development, partially enclosed
lagoons at Walvis Bay and Lüderitz support cargo-handling harbor facilities. In addition, both
ports are home to expanding fish-processing and related industrial factories. Organically rich
effluent from fish factories has resulted in anoxic conditions in the vicinity of the outlet points
of the lagoons. Spillages and disposal of inorganic pollutants, primarily hydrocarbons and
anti-fouling paint, into the lagoons are additional threats. Localized shore litter, primarily
plastics, originates from anchored vessels.
Monitoring of the water quality in Walvis Bay has to date not indicated pollution levels,
which have any more than a localized impact. In addition, species diversity of shorebirds on
the mudflats of the Walvis Bay lagoon has changed little since biannual bird censuses began
in 1983. However, the proximity of the harbors and fish factories at Walvis Bay and Lüderitz
suggest that the lagoon communities may be vulnerable.
Much of the cargo shipped between the Far East, North America and Europe rounds the
southern tip of the African continent and thus passes close to Namibian waters. Apart from
the few, which actually call at Namibian ports, however, these vessels remain outside the
'Exclusive Economic Zone' (EEZ). Therefore the high levels of pollutants from such vessels,
which occur in other major shipping lanes, are not found in Namibian waters.
Coastal diamond mining
Approximately 250 km of Namibia's coastline between Lüderitz and the Orange River mouth
falls in the zone known as the Sperrgebiet or Diamond Area 1. Access to the area is highly
restricted, as this is the site of Namibia's most productive diamond mines. Historically,
mining activities extended north to Conception Bay, but today operations are confined to the
area between Oranjemund and Lüderitz.
Several forms of mining take place in this area. Sea-based operations involve the removal of
gravel from intertidal and subtidal habitats, whereas land-based mining involves the removal
110
of the sand overburden until bedrock is exposed. In some areas, such as the vicinity of
Oranjemund, areas of sea are reclaimed by building a surrounding dyke and then pumping out
the seawater. Sediments are then removed in order to locate the buried diamonds. On a local
scale, these activities are highly destructive to biodiversity. The substrate is significantly
altered and entire communities may be disturbed or totally eradicated. The mining operation
at Elizabeth Bay, south of Lüderitz, is an example.
At Elizabeth Bay diamonds are mined from the land adjacent to the coast. Undersized grits, or
'fines,' resulting from the extraction processes are pumped into the sea. Discharge from the
original Elizabeth Bay plant, which processed grits from nearby deposits up until 1935,
resulted in a beach deposit of over 100 m along the exposed rocky shore of the peninsula.
Today there is no sign of this deposit, as it was rapidly eroded away by the action of the sea,
after mining ceased. When mining operations recommenced at Elizabeth Bay in 1991, the
Ministry of Fisheries and Marine Resources expressed concern at the potential impact of
suspended sediments within the bay. Surveys were conducted to determine both the effect of
change in beach morphology within the bay on intertidal sandy shore communities, and the
impact of suspended sediments on the ecology of nearby rocky shores. Unfortunately both
studies were conducted after the discharge of fines was well under way and consequently no
data were available prior to disturbance. Nevertheless, results of both studies suggested major
changes to biological communities as a result of the beach disposal of fines. Sandy shore
communities became depauperate, and limpet-dominated rocky shores were replaced with
lushly growing seaweeds where limpets had become dislodged. In a recent survey, the
Elizabeth Bay colony of Damara terns was found to have declined from 15-20 pairs before
mining to two pairs. Poor foraging conditions in the bay were suggested as the reason for the
decline.
NAMDEB, the mining corporation, accepts responsibility for monitoring ongoing changes to
the biology of the Elizabeth Bay area, and in 1992 launched an environmental programme to
this end. The impacts of small-scale, surf-zone contractor operations on the intertidal and
subtidal communities in the area are also monitored regularly. The monitoring programmes
aim to detect and minimise long-term damage to the environment while still enabling
diamond mining to contribute to the economy of the country. It is predicted that following the
closure of the Elizabeth Bay mining operations, currents and winds within the bay will
quickly resculpture the beach. In addition, the recovery of disturbed intertidal communities
should progress rapidly once the sediment load in the water is reduced. Similar recoveries
were documented after the fresh water and sediment loads in floodwaters of the Orange River
caused large-scale limpet mortalities in that area.
The potential for diamond-mining activities to cause biological damage is clearly great.
Because of this there is an obligation to monitor changes in biological communities in areas
where mining operations occur, and to restrict damage as far as possible. Since mining
activity is restricted to relatively small areas, it is not considered a major threat to coastal
biodiversity on a major scale. In addition, there is evidence that suggests that the physical
processes occurring on the coastal zone of Namibia are of such magnitude that alterations are
likely to be only temporary.
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Fishing
Fisheries activities are ubiquitous across marine habitats, directly affecting virtually every
habitat except the deepest ocean floors and abyssal depths. The most important impacts of
fishing are the removal of large numbers of naturally occurring organisms and the physical
alteration of habitats. Both factors can have disastrous consequences for stocks of
commercially exploited species and ultimately for those who derive benefit from their
exploitation. All fisheries activities must therefore pursue a balanced strategy incorporating
ecological considerations and socioeconomic needs to ensure the long term sustainability of
marine resource use.
Physical destruction of the benthic habitat through aggressive trawling techniques,
particularly beam trawling, as well as the large scale incidental catches of seabirds and marine
mammals through the use of drift-nets, are legislated against in Namibian waters. In addition,
the massive catch of non-target species reported to occur in other fishing nations is limited
through effective implementation of strict legislation. Bottom trawling for species such as
hake and monkfish most certainly has an impact on demersal habitats, although since this is
out of human view it has not been considered important enough to warrant study. Habitat
degradation can potentially result in a loss of species richness, as habitats are made unsuitable
for certain species.
Genetic factors
The removal of large numbers of individuals from a single species reduces the genetic
diversity of the remaining populations. Within each species, genetic diversity in a population
enhances its ability to adapt to environmental change. It is the basis for natural selection, and
is perhaps most important in inherently variable systems. Current levels of intraspecific
variation are the result of accumulated genetic mutations over millions of years of evolution.
Severe reductions in population numbers, which occur when a stock is overfished, or
collapses, cause a genetic bottleneck. Although populations, which are subsequently protected
from harvesting, may recover, much genetic material has almost certainly been lost, since
individuals removed from the breeding population are no longer able to pass on their genes.
This phenomenon is known as 'genetic drift’. The recovered population will have a different
genetic composition from the original population, as well as reduced heterozygosity and
reduced ability to adapt to a changing environment. Fisheries activities can also change the
genetic composition of exploited populations through the selection of specific sub-groups.
Usually, larger individuals are targeted and their removal from the breeding community
implies, in evolutionary terms, that there is directional selection for smaller size at maturity,
smaller final size, decreased growth rate and younger age at maturity. These are the
characteristics of the population left behind to continue breeding. This amounts to selection
for lower productivity, and is diametrically opposed to the rationale behind genetic selection
in aquaculture and agriculture in general.
Exploited fish species in Namibian marine habitats display a variety of life-history
characteristics. Some species are adapted to life in stable environments where food is
predictable. These include the species of the deeper shelf, slope and oceanic floor habitats,
such as orange roughy and alfonsino. These species are slow-growing, long-lived, and less
fecund. Overfishing of stocks of these species can lead rapidly to population collapses
because of the slow rate of replacement through reproduction. It has been estimated that deepsea orange roughy take 30 years to reach sexual maturity and approximately 100 years to
grow to supermarket size.
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In contrast, species which inhabit the neritic waters are adapted to survive in less stable
environmental conditions. They grow rapidly, reach sexual maturity early and are highly
fecund. Pilchard and anchovy are among the species with such life-history patterns. These
species are considered highly susceptible to the effects of genetic drift and directional
selection since their generation times are short. Indeed, reduced age at maturity, and possibly
increased growth rates, have been documented in Namibian pilchard and horse mackerel
stocks, suggesting that directional selection has already occurred.
The substantial reduction ('crash') of the Namibian pilchard stock several times in the past
three decades has certainly reduced the genetic diversity of this species. Unfavourable
environmental conditions are usually invoked as the major cause of these population crashes.
It appears from historical evidence, such as records of guano yield from piscivorous seabirds
on nearshore islands and fish-scale deposits in the bottom sediments off central Namibia that
populations of pelagic fish species fluctuated in the absence of exploitation. However,
fisheries practices continually erode the genetic potential of populations to recover from and
adapt to such conditions in the long term.
Healthy fish stocks are clearly essential to the continued success of the fishing industry in
Namibia. The promotion of practices leading to sustainable use of genetic resources is an
urgent priority; such practices revolve around maximising population sizes and avoiding
bottlenecks. Although naturally induced population fluctuations cannot be avoided in the
Benguela system, overfishing of exploited species must be prevented at all costs. Rule-based
fisheries management, whereby minimum spawner biomasses of exploited species are
specified and exploitation is halted when biomasses are below the minimum levels, has
potential to prevent the kind of overfishing that has occurred in the past.
The expectation of obtaining even, reliable catches of marine resources from year to year
seems unfounded. Natural populations experience favourable and unfavourable times, the
'prosperous' years serving as a cushion against leaner years to come. This is certainly true of
the variable, unpredictable Benguela system. Unfavourable events such as the Benguela-Nino
of 1995 place stresses on marine populations. The tolerance of populations to these stresses is
directly related to their intraspecific genetic diversity, and the practice of eroding this
diversity by overfishing is an additional stress undermining long term viability of populations.
Introduced alien species
Alien species have become common in virtually all habitats occupied or modified by human
activities. The single most important source of invasive aliens in the marine environment is
the ballast water of ships. Ballast water, containing the larvae and spores of coastal
organisms, is taken on in one biogeographical zone, transported across oceans and then
discharged wherever the ship happens to be at the time. It is estimated that more than 3000
species of coastal marine animals and plants are in transit around the world, at any given
moment, in the ballast of ships. The effect of this is that coastal habitats all over the world are
becoming dominated by alien species.
One alien species has invaded Namibia's rocky shore habitats. The Mediterranean mussel
Mytilus galloprovincialis was introduced to South Africa in the late 1970s and has spread
progressively along the west coast of that country, where it is currently the dominant intertidal
mussel. By the early 1990s the species was well established in southern Namibia as far north
113
as Sylvia Hill, where it dominates the indigenous intertidal mussels Aulacomya ater and
Choromytilus meridionalis. Subtidal beds of the indigenous species appear unaffected by this
invasion, since M. galloprovincialis is mainly found intertidally.
Further north as far as the Kunene River mouth, only isolated individuals of M.
galloprovincialis were found in the early 1990's. However, in 1994 in the extreme northern
region, and in 1995 in the Swakopmund area, large numbers settled amongst the indigenous
species of those areas (Perna perna and Semimytilus algosus. The rapid growth rate and high
fecundity of the alien species are matched by those of the indigenous species, and it remains
to be seen which species will become dominant.
So far the presence of M. galloprovincialis along the Namibian coast does not appear to have
had any ecosystem effects. Trophic relationships seem to remain unaltered and biodiversity
on a regional scale is unaffected, although the intertidal distributions of indigenous species
have been locally altered. This species appears unstoppable in its spread around the southern
African coastline and no efforts are being made to control it.
Several species of alien oysters, such as the Pacific oyster Crassostrea gigas and European
oyster Ostrea edulis, have been introduced to Namibian coastal waters. They are farmed
commercially in sheltered, warm water conditions near Swakopmund, Walvis Bay and
Lüderitz. Currently these species have not become established outside the mariculture areas,
and are not considered able to survive the rigors of the local marine environment.
Consequently they may not threaten the biodiversity of these areas.
The extent to which alien invasions may have occurred in the pelagic and shelf environments
is largely unknown. There is a lack of baseline data on the composition of these communities,
and there are no studies focused specifically on invasions. To some extent the variable and
biologically harsh nature of the upwelling system that is Namibia's marine environment may
inhibit invasions of species not specifically adapted to these conditions.
Atmospheric pollution
Atmospheric pollution with compounds generated by human activities, such as chlorofluorocarbons, is destroying the ozone layer of the atmosphere. This layer protects the earth's
atmosphere from incident ultraviolet radiation, and its destruction alters the exposure of the
oceans to ultraviolet radiation. Increased UV-B (the biologically damaging UV) radiation
penetrates many meters below the surface of the ocean and can cause significant biological
and ecological damage. Such effects have been demonstrated for phytoplankton, zooplankton,
ichthyoplankton and certain benthic organisms in shallow or surface waters.
Although not a problem of exclusively Namibian origin, the effects of global climatic
changes on the marine environment have the potential to supersede in importance the effects
of any of the current crises, including that of resource depletion. Namibians have an
international responsibility to ensure that they do not contribute unduly to the escalation of
these potentially destructive processes. In addition, policy-makers have a duty to note the
possible effects and to plan accordingly.
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4.3 Measures to counter threats to biodiversity
Policy and legislation initiatives
Under the Sea Fisheries Act (Act 29 of 1992), the Namibian marine environment (including
open waters, tidal lagoons and sea-shore up to the high water mark) falls under the
jurisdiction of the MFMR. This Act forms the legal framework whereby the 'conservation of
the marine ecology and the orderly exploitation, conservation, protection and promotion of
certain marine resources' are provided for. No allusion is made in the Act to protection of
biodiversity per se, although the conservation of 'the marine ecology' is a stated aim.
Sea Fisheries regulations are extensive, providing for the control of exploitation through total
allowable catches (TACs), minimum mesh sizes on nets, minimum individual sizes, closed
seasons and areas, and limited quantities. In addition, means of enforcement, and punishments
for infringements, of the set regulations are detailed and potentially dissuasive. Initiatives for
joint management of stocks are now developing in Angola, Namibia and South Africa.
Protected marine areas
Vast stretches of the Namibian coast are ostensibly protected from fishing, collection of
resources and disturbance or damage in any form up to a distance of two nautical miles
seawards from the high-water mark. These include the area of the Skeleton Coast Park, the
Namib-Naukluft Park the area between Walvis Bay harbor and Pelican Point (22°53'S,
14°26'E), and the areas around offshore islands. In addition, there are two areas in the vicinity
of Lüderitz where the catching of rock lobsters is prohibited.
The closed areas described above are effectively closed only to recreational rock-and-surf
anglers, to recreational ski-boat fishermen and to commercial ski-boat fishermen. Since most
of these areas are inaccessible to these groups, this legislation would seem superfluous.
'Protection' up to 2 nautical miles offshore thus does not prevent commercial line fishing,
purse seining or Cray fishing within the zone.
Currently there is no proclaimed marine reserve along the Namibian coast. For many years
(1979 to 1993), Sandwich Harbour was the site of a protected area, which extended 1.6 km
seaward of the low water mark. This area was proclaimed under the legislation of the then
South West African Directorate of Agriculture and Nature Conservation (now incorporated
into the MET). In the Sea Fisheries Act (29 of 1992), the MFMR claimed control of the
marine environment up to the high water mark, and did not make provision for the protection
of any marine areas, except from unlicensed vessels, recreational anglers, and commercial
ski-boat anglers as described above. Commercial trawlers may thus currently operate off
Sandwich Harbour. The MET's legislation concerning the 1.6 km protected area off Sandwich
Harbour still stands, but this Ministry is powerless to enforce the observance of the area.
Walvis Bay lagoon is Namibia's largest coastal wetland and is used by large numbers of
wetland birds. It has been recognized as a Ramsar wetland of international importance,
particularly for migratory birds, which merits special protection. As a signatory of the Ramsar
Convention, Namibia has an international obligation to protect this site. Although the lagoon
had the status of a reserve under South African legislation, this was lost on transfer of
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ownership to Namibia in 1994. The 15 near shore islands in Namibian waters were also
reserves under South Africa's jurisdiction, and are also currently unprotected as a
consequence of transfer of ownership to Namibia.
The proclamation of one or more true marine reserves, in which human activities, especially
commercial harvesting of marine resources, are strictly prohibited, is a priority. There is a
glaring imbalance between the portions of Namibian terrestrial and marine environments,
which are protected. Protection of even small patches of ocean can have significant effects,
since they can support source populations, which may enable repopulation of depleted areas
outside the reserve. However, the dynamic and fluctuating nature of the Namibian marine
system makes the selection of sites for possible marine reserves an intimidating task. From
the point of view of protecting marine biodiversity a marine reserve could prove ineffectual
because so large a proportion of the marine species are migratory or highly mobile. This
applies especially to those species, which are commercially exploited, and most in need of
protection. Resident species may benefit more by such protection, although resident coastal
species already enjoy protection in the vast areas, which are inaccessible to anglers and to
commercial line-fish boats.
The conservation of marine biodiversity might more effectively be accomplished through the
protection of spawning and nursery areas of the commercially exploited species. Since the
sites of spawning grounds differ for different species, no single protected site would suffice.
Spawning centers exist off the Skeleton Coast Park for commercially exploited species such
as hake, round herring, horse mackerel, pilchard and anchovy. Protection, especially of the
northern Skeleton Coast Park waters, would ensure that spawning in these species could
occur. This would, however, provide no guarantee of egg or larval survival, nor of recruitment
into the adult populations.
Protected species
A search for ‘Namibia’ and the ‘Southeast Atlantic’ area through the IUCN (www.iucn.org)
species search resulted to 13 marine species, 9 of which are marine mammals, 3 sharks and 1
turtle. This search approach did not find seabirds, which should actually have been marked for
the Southeast Atlantic as well. Table 2 contains 28 marine species, i.e. 13 marine mammals,
11 seabirds, 3 sharks and 1 turtle.
A similar search for species listed in the UNEP-WCMC database for Namibia yielded 31
amphibians, 627 birds, 106 fishes, 232 invertebrates, 208 mammals, 216 reptiles, 7 orchids
and 459 others. Here, again, habitats were not provided and we had to examine the list for the
necessary distinction by habitat. This yielded 76 species listed in the CITES Appendices I-III
ratified in February 13, 2003 and 6 more which are protected locally by the Namibian
government. Of these, 38 are seabirds, 35 marine mammals, 5 turtles, 2 sharks, 1 lobster and 1
macro-alga.
Namibian legislature protects all marine mammals, marine turtles and seabirds. This contrasts
to the level of protection (and research) focused on invertebrates: the only invertebrate species
protected is Jasus lalandii, Cape rock lobster which is an important fishery in Lüderitz on
lobster pots and hoop nets (Bianchi et al. 1999). More than 33% of benthic invertebrate
species are commercially exploited, however, none of them figure in the IUCN nor CITES
nor receiving any specific protection from the Namibian government.
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5. Capacity and Resources
5.1.
Human capacity
Biodiversity
researcher
Bronwen Currie
Groups
studied
Invertebrates
Andre Goosen
Invertebrates
Colette Grobler
Invertebrates;
Lobster
Marine
mammals
Mike Griffin
JP Roux
Rob Simmons
Marine
Mammals; Sea
Birds
Sea Birds
Institution
Contact details
Ministry of
Fisheries and
Marine
Resources
(MFMR),
Namibia
Marine De
Beers, Namibia
MFMR
[email protected]
Ministry
of
Environment
and
Tourism,
Namibia (MET)
MFMR
[email protected]
MET
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
Benedict
Dundee
Sea Birds
MFMR
[email protected]
John Bolton
Seaweeds
[email protected]
Deon Louw
Rudi Cloete
Phytoplankton
Zooplankton
University
of
Cape
Town,
South
Africa
(UCT)
MFMR
MFMR
[email protected]
[email protected]
Anja Kreiner
Ichthyoplankton
MFMR
[email protected]
Graca
d’Almeida
Peter Schneider
Pelagic fishes
MFMR
[email protected]
Demersal
Fishes
Crabs
MFMR
[email protected]
MFMR
[email protected]
Fabian Haufiku
117
5.2.
Insititutional capacity
Institution
Contact adres
Nature of Collection
National
Museum of
Namibia Windhoek
Alushe Hitula
[email protected]
Approximately 2 825
species, 124 genera and 54
families.
MFMR
(National
Marine
Information
and Research
Centre
(NatMIRC) –
Swakopmund)
NatMIRC
Bronwen Currie
[email protected]
Intertidal and shallow
benthic invertebra – about
300 specimens
Very bad state.
Not catalogued at
all.
Johnny Gamatham
[email protected]
ov.na
Starting with fish and
shrimp collections and
identification
Few samples of
juvenile fish and
shrimps for
testing methods
of preservation
Andre Goosen
andre.goosen@debeersgr
oup.com
Soft bottom benthos – 30
to 50 m deep core samples
?
De Beers
Marine
5.3.
State of
collection
Primarily
alcohol-preserved
specimens,
containing
marine
fishes
mainly
from
Southern Africa.
Documented in
EXCEL.
Biodiversity Resources
Sources used by Palomares and Pauly:
The list of commercial marine resources of Namibia by Bianchi et al. (1999) was used as a
starting point. Branch et al. (1994) and Sakko (1998) supplied a considerable part of the
marine invertebrate list. Birdlife International (2001; see www.birdlife.net) supplied almost
all information on seabirds. Information on fish groups was inferred from FishBase (Internet
version April 2003; see www.fishbase.org). CephBase (www.cephabase.org@) was used to
supplement Bianchi et al. (1999), notably on common names, feeding and predator
information for cephalopods. AlgaeBase (see www.algaebase.org), was used to supplement
the list provided by Bianchi et al. (1999) of important algae present or potential use in
Namibian marine waters.
118
The taxonomic list was expanded to include, when applicable, the names of the Order,
Suborder, Infraorder, Super Family and Family to which the species belong. These higher
hierarchy names were obtained largely through the ITIS Biological name search site (see
http://sis.agr.gc.ca/pls/itisca/taxaget?p_ifx=cbif) accessible through the Canadian Biodiversity
Information Facility (CBIF) (see http://www.cbif.gc.ca/home_e.php). The list of threatened
species was obtained from the Internet version of the IUCN (2002 and 1994; see
www.redlist.org) and the list of internationally protected species was obtained from CITES
(www.unep-wcmc.org/index.html? and www.unep-wcmc.org/CITES/redirect.htm~main).
6. Conclusion
lUCN's report on biodiversity in sub-Saharan Africa (1990), states that “Namibia's living
natural sources are generally well managed and tie pressures on its biodiversity are not too
great at present”. Certainly, the marine environment of Namibia is largely free of the extreme
levels of pollution, oceanic dumping, disturbance and increasing human urban pressures
found in the marine systems of many developed countries. In addition, there have been no
recorded extinctions of known marine species on a national scale, although the caveat
remains that a large proportion of species remain undescribed. Yet there is little room for
complacency. Over fishing is a major threat to African marine biodiversity and there is an
urgent need for protection of marine and coastal habitats.
Namibia's fish and crustacean stocks are renewable resources, which generate vital income
for the country. Healthy stocks are essential for a healthy economy. In the past, social and
economic reasons, rather than ecological considerations, motivated management decisions
concerning total allowable catches of resources. This has led to the over fishing of some
stocks and a need fur drastic measures to enhance their chances of recovery. As a
consequence of tie crash of pilchard stocks in 1996, a moratorium was placed on pilchard
catches for the subsequent season. The social and economic implications of such drastic
recovery measures are no more palatable than cutbacks in the TAG. Ultimately, the cost of
conserving biodiversity is far less than the penalty of allowing its degradation.
The Namibian marine environment is remarkable in many ways. It is exceptionally
productive, supporting abundant marine life, and its habitats are relatively pristine, without
threat of significant habitat degradation. The hyper-arid Namib Desert makes major urban and
agricultural pressures unlikely in the future. And lastly, the inherently variable nature of
processes within the system perhaps make its biota somewhat resilient to the vicissitudes of
human activities. These features make Namibia's marine environment immeasurably precious,
and worthy of protection, judicious use and careful management, both now and in the future.
Conclusions from Palomares and Pauly on Namibian marine biodiversity information include:
•
The first lesson was that online resources are presently still not sufficient to create
acceptable marine biodiversity lists for developing countries such as Namibia, i.e.,
those attempting to create biodiversity lists to meet the requirement of the
membership in the convention on biological diversity will generally have to rely on
119
published sources, in this case the key reference was the early work of Bianchi et al.
(1999);
•
Second, confirming an experience already observed in the process of creating
FishBase, we noted that it would be more straightforward for countries interested in
creating marine biodiversity lists to team up regionally in the creation of regional or
global lists by taxonomic groups as these can be more efficiently produced and their
species subsequently assigned to countries than by working country by country.
•
Third, the major deficiency, the major need, in this context, is for the creation of
global marine invertebrate databases, of which only one so far, ‘CephBase’, has a
global coverage.
7. References
Bianchi, G., Carpenter, K.E., Roux. J.P., Molloy, F.J., Boyer, D. and Boyer, H.J. 1999. Field
guide to the living marine resources of Namibia. FAO species identification guide for
fishery purposes. FAO, Rome. 265 p.
Birdlife International. 2001. Birdlife's online world bird database: the site for bird
conservation. Version 1.0 Cambridge, UK: Birdlife International. Available:
http://www.birdlife.net (accessed February 10, 2003).
Branch, G.M. Griffiths, C.L., Branch M.L. and. Beckley, L.E. 1994. Two oceans. A guide to the
marine life of Southern Africa. David Philip Publishers (Pty) Ltd. South Africa. 360 p.
Lawson, G.W., Simons, R.H. and Isaac, W.E. 1990. The marine algal flora of Namibia.
Bulletin of the British Museum of Natural History (Bot.) 20: 153-168.
Belyanina, T.N. and T.N. Stejker 1988. Contribution to the studies of ichthyoplankton from
the Benguela upwelling. Oceanology (MOSC>) 28:663-666.
Best, P.B. and G.J.B. Ross. 1989. Whales and whaling, p. 315-338. In: A.I.L. Payne and
R.J.M. Crawford (Eds.) Oceans of life off southern Africa. Vlaeberg Publishers, Cape
Town.
Bustamante, R.H., G.M. Branch, C.R. Velasquez and M. Branch. 1993. Intertidal survey of
the rocky shores at the Elizabeth Bay area (Sperrgebiet, Namibia). Report to CDM
(NAMDEB), 37 p.
Carola, M. 1994. Checklist of the marine planktonic copepoda of southern Africa and their
worldwide geographic distribution. South African Journal of Marine Science 14: 225253.
Coleman, C.O. and A. Leistikow. 2001. Supralitoral talitrid Amphipoda and oniscid Isopoda
(Crustacea) from the Southwest African coast. Org. Divers. Evol. 1, Electr. Suppl. 3:132.
Engledow, H.R. 1998. The biogeography and biodiversity of the Namibian intertidal seaweed
flora. Ph. D. Thesis. Botany Department. University of Cape Town.
Gosner, K.L. 1979. A Field Guide to the Atlantic Seashore. Houghton Mifflin Company.
Griffiths, C.L. and M.J. Blaine. 1988. Distribution, population structure and biology of
stomatopod crustacean off the west coast of South Africa. South African Journal of
Marine Science 7: 45-50.
120
Jefferson, A. and Leatherwood, S 1993. Marine Mammals of the World: Species
Identification Guide.
Karaseva, E.M. and T.A. Shiganov. 1993. Species composition and seasonal abundance
dynamics of ichthyoplankton over the shelf of Namibia in 1988-1989 [Vidovoj sostav
i sezonnaya dinamika chislennosti ikhtioplanktona na shel'fe Namibii v 1988-1989].
Okeanologiya/Oceanology (MOSC.) 33(2): 242-247.
Kruger, I. 1980. A checklist of southwest African marine phytoplankton, with some
phytogeographical relations. Fisheries Bulletin of South Africa 13:31-53.
Lambert, K. 2001. Sightings of new and rarely reported seabirds in Southern African waters.
Marine Ornithology 29: 115-118.
Lawson, G.W., R.H. Simons and W.E. Isaac. 1990. The marine algal flora of Namibia: its
distribution and affinities. Bull. British Mus. (Nat. History) Bot. 20: 153-168.
Macpherson, E. 1991. Biogeography and community structure of the decapod crustacean
fauna off Namibia (Southeast Atlantic). J. Crust. Biol. 11(3): 401-415.
Márquez M., R. 1990. FAO species catalogue. Vol.11: Sea turtles of the world. an annotated
and illustrated catalogue of sea turtle species known to date. FAO Fisheries Synopsis
No. 125, Vol. 11. Rome, FAO. 81 p.
Munilla, T. and J.H. Stock 1984. A new pycnogonida of the genus Pallenopsis off the
Namibian coast (SE Atlantic). Result. Exped. Cient. 12:31-37.
Nesis, K.N. 1991. Cephalopods of the Benguela upwelling off Namibia. Bull. Mar. Sci. 49(12):199-215.
Nielson, J.G. 1990/ Ophidiidae, p. 564-573. In : J.D, Quero, J.C. Hureau, C. Karrer, A. Post
and L. Saldanha (eds.) Checklist of the fishes of the eastern tropical Atlantic
(CLOFETA) . JNICT, Lisbon; SEI, Paris; and UNESCO, Paris, Vol.2.
Palomares, M.L.D. and D. Pauly, 2003. Biodiversity of the Namibian Exclusive Economic
Zone: a brief review with emphasis on online databases. 1 For submission to U.R.
Sumaila, S. I. Steinshamn, M.D. Skogen and D. Boyer (Editors) Ecological, economic
and social aspects of Namibian fisheries.
Peddemors, V.M. 1999. Delphinids of southern Africa: a review of their distribution, status
and life history. Journal of Cetacean Research and Management 1(2):157-165.
Olivar, M.P. and Barange, M 1989. Vertical distribution of fish eggs and larvae in the
northern Benguela region. Rapp. P. –V. Reun. CIEM. 191:454.
Olivar, M.P., P. Rubies and J. Salat. 1991. Horizontal and vertical distribution patterns of
ichthyoplankton under intense upwelling regimes off Namibia. South African Journal
of Marine Science 12:71-82.
Pillar , S.C., V. Stuart, M. Barange and M.J. Gibbons.1991. Community structure and trophic
ecology of euphausids in the Benguela ecosystem. South African Journal of Marine
Science 12:393-409.
Rose, B. and A.I.L. Payne. 1991. Occurrence and behavior of the southern right whale
dolphin s off Namibia. Marine Mammal Science 7(1): 25-34.
Rull-Lluch, J. and A. Gomez-Garreta. 2001. Contribution to the seaweed flora of Namibia:
new records of Chlorophyta and Phaeophyceae. Cryptogamie: Algologie 22(3): 297304.
121
Sakko, A. 1998. Biodiversity of marine habitats, p. 189-226. In: P. Barnard (ed.) Biological
diversity in Namibia: a country study. Namibian National Biodiversity Task Force,
Directorate of Environmental Affairs. Windhoek, Namibia.
Senn, D.G. 2000. Knowledge-based value addition to Africa’s seaweeds. Henties Bay
Coastal Resource Research Centre (http://www.unam.na/research/henties/valadd.htm).
Skinner, J. D. and R.H.N. Smithers. 1990. The mammals of the Southern African subregion.
University of Pretoria. Pretoria.
Sparks, C.A.J., E. Buecher, A.S. Brierley, B. E. Axelsen, H. Boyer and M.J. Gibbons 2001.
Observations on the distribution and relative-abundance of Chrysaora hysoscella
(Cnidaria, Scyphozoa) and Aequorea aequorea (Cnidaria, Hydrozoa) in the northern
Benguela ecosystem. Hydrobiologia 451: 275-286.
122
Table 1. Summary of data assembled in Appendix I for the Namibian EEZ ecosystem. @Data for all fish
groups to be completed later.
Functional group
Seabirds
Marine mammals
Turtles
Bathydemersal fishes
Bathypelagic fishes
Benthopelagic fishes
Demersal fishes
Pelagic fishes
Reef-associated fishes
Cephalopods
Lobsters
Crabs
Shrimps and prawns
Invertebrates: Ascidians
Invertebrates: Brachiopods
Invertebrates: Crustaceans, Cirripeds
Invertebrates: Crustaceans, Amphipods
Invertebrates: Crustaceans, Harpacticoids
Invertebrates: Crustaceans, Isopods
Invertebrates: Crustaceans, Mysids
Invertebrates: Crustaceans, Stomatopods
Invertebrates: Echinoderms
Invertebrates: Hexacorals
Invertebrates: Hydroids
Invertebrates: Mollusks, Bivalves
Invertebrates: Mollusks, Chitons
Invertebrates: Mollusks, Gastropods
Invertebrates: Polychaete worms
Invertebrates: Pycnogonid
Zooplankton: Crustaceans
Zooplankton: Jellyfishes
Primary producers: Macroalgae
Primary producers: Phytoplankton, Diatoms
Phytoplankton: Dinoflagellates
Plankton: Protozoa
Plankton: Bacteria
Sub-total: Non-fish groups
Number
58
35
5
97
160
102
111
70
12
66
10
43
48
2
1
3
14
2
20
1
1
5
1
7
11
4
37
31
1
10
7
41
26
7
3
1
501
Endemic
Commercial
3
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
8
4
4
1
17
4
24
27
25
3
8
4
9
14
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
3
0
1
1
0
0
0
3
0
0
0
0
52
123
IUCN
11
13
1
CITES
38
35
5
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
25
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
80
0-200 m
0
16
5
200-1000 m
0
30
0
1000-4000 m
0
23
0
Pelagic
0
0
5
27
3
11
7
2
1
3
14
2
20
1
1
5
1
7
11
4
37
31
0
3
7
10
0
0
0
1
230
28
3
14
23
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
3
2
0
0
0
0
0
104
5
0
1
3
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
33
30
0
0
10
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
10
7
0
26
7
3
0
100
Dem
National Report
Marine biodiversity in South Africa – the known and the unknown
Charles L. Griffiths, Zoology Department and Marine Biology Research Institute,
University of Cape Town, Rondebosch 7701, South Africa
1. Nature of the South African coastline
Detailed descriptions of the South African coast, its biota and associated fisheries can be
found elsewhere (e.g. Payne et al. 1989, Field and Griffiths 1991). The coastline is some
3100 km in length, very linear and wave exposed throughout. Other than this, it is one of the
most variable of any nation comprising distinct west, south and east coast sections, each of
which forms separate biogeographical provinces (Emanuel et al. 1992).
The west coast or ‘Namaqua’ Province is dominated by the Benguela Current system. The
coastal zone is arid, with very few significant rivers or estuarine systems, and supports a
very low human population, involved largely in the fishing and mining sectors. The marine
environment is cool-temperate in nature and characterized by intense upwelling, high
primary productivity and the presence of large stocks of pelagic and demersal fish, rock
lobster and other living marine resources. These form the basis of large industrial fisheries.
The south coast, from Cape Town to approximately East London, forms a warm-temperate
or ‘Agulhas’ Province. The climate here is more benign and supports a larger human
population and an economy based largely on agriculture and tourism. There are many
smaller estuaries, most of which are seasonally closed. The fishing industry is far less
dominant, but there are significant inshore trawl, line-fishing, rock lobster and squid
fisheries. The coast from East London northwards to the Mocambique border forms a
subtropical ‘Natal’ Province. This region supports a high population density that includes
both rural communities and dense urban ribbon development. There are many estuaries,
including some larger systems. Very little large-scale commercial fishing activity occurs in
this region, but recreational and subsistence fishing activity can be intense.
2. State of knowledge of marine biodiversity
Gibbons et al. (1999) give a comprehensive review of the state of knowledge of the South
African marine fauna and a summarised tabulation of their findings is presented in Table1.
At the time of the article 11 130 marine faunal species were recorded from South Africa
(clearly this figure increases with each new taxonomic publication), representing 5.45% of
known global marine species. More significantly, more than 31% of species recorded (3 496
species overall), were endemic to the region.
The seaweed flora is described by Bolton and Stegenga (2002), who report 803 described
species. As a result of recent discoveries the current flora is has reached approximately 850
species (Bolton, pers. comm.). Percentage endemism is highest at over 50% on the west
coast, but declines steadily to less than 20% in the east (note that this figure excludes
phytoplankton, for which we have no reliable biodiversity data).
In conclusion, the total number of confirmed marine species described from South Africa is
in excess of 11 980. This figure is, of course, well below the real number of species, as some
groups have never been studied in the region and the rate of discovery of new species, even
within relatively well-researched groups, still remains high (see Gibbons et al. 1999 for
further discussion). To give just two examples, it has been estimated that there may be
124
between1 000 and 10 000 free living species of Protista and as many as 1 000 species of
Nematoda around South Africa, whereas only 400 Protista and 358 Nematoda have been
described to date (Gibbons 2000).
3. Biogeographic distribution patterns
The biogeographic distribution patterns of coastal fish, seaweeds and 11 groups of marine
invertebrate around the South African coastline have been analysed. All studies used the
same technique, in which the coast was divided into 50 or 100 km units and the numbers of
species and rates of endemicity in each unit were compared. The data for fish (Turpie et al.
2000) indicate that species richness rises progressively from west to east, but that the
numbers of endemics are greatest along the south coast. Given the low species richness
along the west coast, however, the percentage of endemics is highest in this region.
The invertebrate data shows remarkable variation between groups, not only in distribution
pattern, but also in percentage endemicity. Some groups, such as the Bivalvia and
Gastropoda, show an increase in species richness from west to east, but others, such as
Amphipoda and Isopoda, show peak species richness in the temperate south-west. Rates of
endemicity also vary widely from 84% in Isopoda to 19% in Echinodermata, but rates of
endemicity are consistently highest along the south coast. The seaweed data of Bolton and
Stegenga (2002) shows maximal species richness of about 250-300 species per 50 km
section along the south coast and minima of about 140 species per section on the west coast,
with the east coast intermediate at around 200 species per section.
4. Threats to biodiversity
The effects of various human activities on the marine biota in the Benguela region have been
comprehensively reviewed by Griffiths et al. (in press). The following account is thus brief
and concentrates on expanding their analysis to include the south and east coasts of South
Africa.
a) Coastal development
With the exception of some estuaries and those bays in which harbours have been developed,
notably Saldanha Bay, Table Bay, Durban Bay and Richards Bay, development has had little
impact on the marine biota. This is largely because of the small number of urban centers
along the South African coastline and the exposed nature of the coast (which mitigates
against the construction of engineering structures).
b) Pollution
This takes two main forms – catastrophic events, particularly in the form of shipping losses
and consequent oil pollution, and the deliberate disposal of materials through outfalls.
Catastrophic events are an ongoing threat, as this region lies on a major shipping route, and
oil spills are a particular hazard to seabirds, such as African penguins. There are relatively
few marine outfalls along the South African coastline and the impact of these is thought to
be very localized. There is some justifiable concern as to the effects of storm water outfalls
and plastics pollution, but overall it is thought that pollution has only minor effects on the
biota as a whole, especially when compared to exploitation of resources (Griffiths et al. in
press), as described below.
c) Invasive marine alien species
Griffiths (2000) lists 22 marine species known or suspected to have been introduced to South
African waters. Five of these, all commercially cultured molluscs, were deliberately
125
introduced, but only one (the oyster Crassostrea gigas) has become naturalized and is found
in several estuaries along the south coast (Robinson and Griffiths, unpublished data).
Accidental introductions have been more common, but only two such species have become
truly invasive in the region - the European shore crab Carcinus maenas (Linn.) and the
Mediterranean mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis Lamarck .
Carcinus maenas was first recorded from Table Bay Docks in 1983 (Joska and Branch 1986)
and by 1990 had spread from Camps Bay to Saldanha Bay (Le Roux et al. 1990), a distance
of some 100 km. No subsequent expansion has been noted; indeed the one record from
Saldanha has not been followed by the establishment of a viable population. Notably all
existing records are from wave-sheltered shores, suggesting that C. maenas has difficulty
establishing populations on the exposed open coastline of South Africa. Although this
species has not spread widely since its introduction more than 20 years ago there is grave
concern that it could cause widespread damage if it established large populations in the
sheltered waters of Saldanha Bay, which is both the center of mariculture activities in South
Africa and the site of a major marine national park.
Mytilus galloprovincialis was first recorded in South Africa by Grant et al. (1984), by which
stage it had already established extensive populations along the west coast between Cape
Point and Luderitz, in Namibia. By the early 1990's it had spread as far east as Port Alfred,
in the south eastern Cape, and was the dominant intertidal organism along the entire west
coast, with an estimated biomass of some 194 t wet mass/km of rocky coast (van Erkom
Schurink and Griffiths 1990). The main ecological effects of the invasion have been to
increase the standing stock and vertical extent of mussel beds in the region. This has led to
the displacement of other primary space occupying species, particularly the limpet
Scutellastra angenvillei. The invasion has also increased habitat availability for infaunal
species and increased the amount and availability of food for predatory species, notably
oystercatchers (Griffiths 2000). There are proposals for the establishment of a small-scale
commercial fishery for the species (Robinson and Griffiths, unpublished).
d) Exploitation of resources
There can be little doubt that direct exploitation has been the most dramatic human impact
on the marine biota of South Africa. Despite this, no marine species has been recorded as
having been driven to extinction in the region (reports of the probable extinction of estuarine
pipefish in the Eastern Cape by Whitfield and Bruton 1996 have subsequently been found to
be in error).
The impacts of direct exploitation have, however, included dramatic declines in the
populations of some targeted species. For example, Southern Right Whales were estimated
to have been reduced from 20 000 individuals to as few as 35-68 mature females in the
1930’s, but have now recovered to over 3 000 individuals (Griffiths et al. in press). Similarly
the populations of a number of important linefish species have been reduced to a point where
population size and catch per unit effort are less than 10% of pristine value (Griffiths 2000).
Amongst invertebrates, populations of rock lobster and abalone are greatly reduced from
historical values, as are those of mussels in some areas (Griffiths and Branch 1997, Griffiths
et al. in press).
The ecosystem effects of this high level of exploitation have received little attention, despite
the fact that some 50 million tons of biomass has been extracted from the region over the
past 200 years (over 1 million tons per annum in the 1960’s and 1970’s, declining to
approximately 0.6 million tons per annum at present, Griffiths et al. in press). In the
intertidal zone, removal of mussels and other edible species has been shown to result in a
126
community dominated by algae and inedible invertebrates (Griffiths and Branch 1997).
Equivalent studies of the effects of fishing on ecosystem structure and function in the wider
marine environment are still in their infancy and the effects, specifically on biodiversity,
have not been investigated.
5. Conservation areas
The development of a network of marine protected areas around the South African coast
began long after that of terrestrial reserves, as has been the pattern worldwide. Indeed the
first such reserve, the Tsitsikamma National Park, was only established in 1964. Perhaps
surprisingly, South Africa currently has more than 112 marine protected areas, which
together make up 17% of the coastline (Robinson and de Graaf 1994). This might seem a
more than adequate coverage, but unfortunately most of the existing reserves are either
extremely small in size, still permit angling or other exploitative activities, or protect only
selected species (for example, some are simply abalone or rock lobster sanctuaries). Many
are also very poorly policed. As a result there are in reality only a handful of large, no-take
reserves that provide effective protection for significant areas of coastline. These also need
be distributed in such a way that they protect the rich diversity of the South African coast,
which incorporates at least three distinct bio-geographical regions: a subtropical east coast, a
warm-temperate south coast and a cool-temperate west coast region – each of which
harbours very distinct communities of both plants and animals. At present the subtropical
east coast is relatively well protected by the St Lucia and Maputaland reserves and the
warm-temperate south coast by the Tsitsikamma and De Hoop reserves. The cold west coast
is less well catered for, with a single large reserve, the West Coast National Park. However
this situation is due to improve with the soon-to-be-declared Cape Peninsula and
Namaqualand marine reserves about to come on line.
6. Museum collections
The main taxonomic collections held by natural history museums and marine research
organizations in South Africa are listed in Table 2. The largest general collection of marine
specimens is that of the Iziko Museums (formerly the South African Museum) in Cape
Town. This collection, which dates back over 150 years, incorporates the holotypes of many
marine invertebrate species described in South Africa over that period. The main collection
of non-cephalopod molluscs is housed at the Natal Museum and the National Fish Collection
(both marine and freshwater) at the South African Institute for Aquatic Biodiversity
(formerly JLB Smith Institute of Ichthyology) in Grahamstown. The largest marine mammal
collection, and those of otoliths and squid beaks, is at the Port Elizabeth Museum.
7. Taxonomic capacity
The history of marine invertebrate systematics in South Africa has been reviewed by Brown
(1999), that of marine malacology by Kilburn (1999), that of crustacean systematics by
Griffiths (1999) and that of seaweed systematics by Bolton (1999). The patterns in most
groups are similar, early research being carried out mainly by overseas specialists who
obtained much of their material from the great marine exploratory expeditions of the 19th
century. The early 20th century saw the appointment of the first resident marine specialists,
most notably Keppel Barnard, whose 200 publications span an astounding range of taxa and
who provided the inspiration and groundwork on which many later workers were able to
develop. Subsequent major contributions by South African authors who are no longer active,
127
or who have left the country, include those of JH Day (polychaetes), Millard (hydroids),
Kensley (isopods), Gosliner (nudibranchs), Kilburn (molluscs), Smith (fish) and Simons,
Papenfuss and Norris (seaweeds).
The presently active marine taxonomists in South Africa, their areas of expertise and contact
details are listed in Table 3 (zoologists) and Table 4 (botanists). Although the length and
coverage of these lists is quite gratifying, many of the researchers listed are either recently
retired, or close to retirement age. Also many of the remaining younger workers are either
postgraduate students, who are hence undertaking short-term thesis-based projects, or
occupy temporary postdoctoral positions. Indeed the few who do have permanent positions
are mostly at universities, where their job descriptions do not oblige them to undertake
taxonomic work. Only five of the animal workers listed are permanently employed as
systematists, of whom three work on fish and two on molluscs (not a single person is
professionally employed to undertake taxonomic work on any of the other invertebrate
groups). A similar situation pertains with the algal specialists, whose positions are mostly
temporary, or include only a limited component of taxonomic work. It is thus essential for
the future development of marine taxonomy in South Africa that permanent positions are
found for the workers currently undergoing training, or else the capacity they have
developed is likely to be lost or exported.
8. Literature resources
The principal identification resources used by South African marine taxonomists and
ecologists are listed in Appendix 1. Relative to other southern nations, the region is relatively
well-resourced in terms of both more general ‘field guides’ and specialist identification
guides to specific taxa. In the present context the general field guides are of limited value,
since they treat only the more common species within groups. Comprehensive identification
guides do, however, exist to South African birds, fish, molluscs, seaweeds, some cnidarian
groups, polychaetes, amphipods, isopods, shrimps and prawns, echinoderms and ascidians.
Unfortunately, some of these publications are long out of print and many others have
become severely dated by subsequent discoveries and/or taxonomic revisions. There thus
remains a critical need for:
- The production of user-friendly regional guides to important taxa for which no
comprehensive resources presently exist (most importantly Porifera, Nematoda,,
Copepoda, Bryozoa).
- Revision of guides which are now outdated, for example those to Polychaeta (1967),
Amphipoda (1976) and Echinodermata (1976).
- Taxonomic research into the numerous (usually ‘minor’) groups for which little or no
local taxonomic data presently exists (for detailed listing of group not yet worked on
see Gibbons et al. 1999)
The most effective way of achieving these aims would be to establish a comprehensive, webbased marine identification guide. This route offers numerous advantages over traditional
print media, most notably much lower cost, wider accessibility, greater capacity to include
photographs and/or electronic keys to species, but most importantly the ability to
continuously update and enhance the database as new information becomes available. Such a
system could be started using existing guides and then gradually enhanced and expanded
until comprehensive coverage is achieved. The system could, moreover, be expanded to
cover wider geographical regions (e.g. sub-Saharan Africa).
128
9. References
Awad, A, Griffiths, C.L. and Turpie, J.K. 2002. Distribution of South African marine
benthic invertebrates applied to the selection of priority conservation areas. Diversity
and Distributions 8: 129-145.
Bolton, J.J. 1999. Seaweed systematics and biodiversity in South Africa: an historical
account. Transactions of the Royal Society of South Africa 54: 167-177.
Bolton, J.J. and Stegenga, H. 2002. Seaweed species diversity in South Africa. South
African Journal of Marine Science 24: 9-18.
Brown, A.C. 1999. Marine invertebrate systematics and biodiversity in Southern Africa; an
historical overview. Transactions of the Royal Society of South Africa 54: 21-30.
Field, J.G. and Griffiths, C.L. 1991. Littoral and sublittoral ecosystems of southern Africa. In:
Intertidal and Littoral Ecosystems. P.H. Niehuis & A.C. Mathieson (Eds), Elsevier,
Amsterdam. pp 323-346.
Gibbons, M.J. et al. 1999. The taxonomic richness of South Africa’s marine fauna: a crisis at
hand. South African Journal of Science 95: 8-12
Gibbons, M.J. 2000. Protista and Animalia. In: Summary Marine Biodiversity Status Report
for South Africa. B.D. Durham and J.C. Pauw (eds). National Research Foundation
Pretoria, pp 32-40.
Grant, W.S., Cherry, M.I. and Lombard, A.T. 1994. A cryptic species of Mytilus (Mollusca:
Bivalvia) on the west coast of South Africa. South African Journal of Marine Science
2: 149-162.
Griffiths, C.L. and Branch, G.M. 1997. The exploitation of coastal invertebrates and
seaweeds in South Africa: trends, ecological impacts and implications for management.
Transactions of the Royal Society of South Africa 52: 121-148
Griffiths, C.L. 1999. Crustacean systematics in South Africa- status and historical overview.
Transactions of the Royal Society of South Africa 54: 53-52.
Griffiths, C.L. 2000. Overview of current problems and future risks. In: Best management
Practices for Preventing and Controlling Invasive Alien Species. G. Preston, G. Brown
& E. van Wyk (Eds). The Working for Water Programme, Cape Town pp 235-240.
Griffiths, C.L. et al. (17 authors). Human impacts on marine animal life in the Benguela – a
historical overview. Oceanogr. Mar Biol. Ann. Rev. (in press)
Griffiths, M.J. 2000. Long-term trends in catch and effort of commercial linefish off South
Africa’s Cape Province: snapshots of the 20th century. South African Journal of Marine
Science 22: 81-110.
Josca, M.A.P. and Branch, G.M. 1986. The European shore crab - another alien invader?
African Wildlife 40: 63-65.
Kilburn, R.N. 1999. A brief history of marine malacology in South Africa. Transactions of
the Royal Society of South Africa 54: 31-41.
Le Roux, J.P., Branch, G.M. and Joska, M.A.P. 1990. On the distribution, diet and possible
impact of the invasive European shore crab Carcinus maenas (L.) along the South
African coast. South African Journal of Marine Science 9: 85-93.
Payne A.I.L., Crawford, R.J.M. and Van Dalsen, A.P. 1989. Oceans of Life off Southern
Africa. Vlaeberg Publishers, Cape Town.380pp.
Robinson, G.A. and de Graaf, G. 1994. Marine protected areas of the Republic of South
Africa. Council for the Environment, IUCN 202pp.
Turpie, J.K., Beckley, L.E. and Katua, S.M. 2000. Biogeography and the selection of priority
areas for the conservation of South African coastal fishes. Biological Conservation 92:
50-72.
Van Erkom Schurink,,C. and Griffiths,,C.L. 1990. Marine mussels in South Africa - their
distribution patterns, standing stocks, exploitation and culture. Journal of Shellfisheries
Research 9: 75-85.
129
Whitfield, A.K., Bruton, M.N. 1996. Extinction of the river pipefish Syngnathus
watermeyeri in the Eastern Cape Province, South Africa. South African Journal of
Science 92: 59-60.
130
Table 1. Review of the state of knowledge of the South African marine fauna (after Gibbons
et al. 1999).
Phylum
Placozoa
Porifera
Cnidaria
Ctenophora
Nematoda
Platyhelminthes
Rotifera
Tardigrada
Gastrotricha
Kinorhyncha
Gnathostomula
Annelida
Mollusca
Crustacea
Chelicerata
Brachiopoda
Bryozoa
Echinodermata
Echiura
Priapula
Entoprocta
Loricifera
Sipuncula
Pogonophora
Phorona
Chaetognatha
Nemertea
Hemichordata
Chordata
Total
Number
Number
SA species SA endemics
0
0
289
10
842
238
11
0
338
30
28
17
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
766
161
3062
1592
2333
719
115
57
31
15
280
99
410
187
21
1
1
0
6
0
0
0
47
0
1
1
0
0
28
0
17
5
11
2
2492
362
11130
3496
131
Percentage
SA endemism
0
3
28
0
9
61
0
0
0
0
0
21
52
31
50
48
35
46
5
0
0
0
0
100
0
0
29
18
15
Average = 31%
Table 2. Principal marine natural history collections held by South African institutions,
including taxa held and contact details of collection managers.
Institution and
city
Iziko Museum,
Cape Town
South African
Institute for
Aquatic
Biodiversity,
Grahamstown
Natal Museum,
Pietermaritzburg
East London
Museum
Oceanographic
Research
Institute, Durban
Port Elizabeth
Museum
Transvaal
Museum,
Pretoria
Bolus Herbarium
Cape Town
Selmar
Schonland
Herbarium,
Rhodes
University
Grahamstown
Natal University
Herbarium
Pietermaritzburg
Main groups held
and approximate
collection sizes
Molluscs: 40 000
Cephalopods: 4 500
Other invertebrates:
20 000-30 000
Sharks: 1 600
Fish: >30 000
Marine Mammals: 1
500
Fish: ca. 50 000 lots
with 530 000
specimens
Comment Contact person and
email
Main national collections of
marine invertebrates except
molluscs (see below)
Ms Elizabeth Hoenson
[email protected]
Main national collections of
marine and freshwater fish
Dr Eric Anderson
[email protected]
Mollusca: (excluding
Cephalopoda): 70
000 lots
Mollusca: ca 16 000
Other invertebrates:
>1 000
Porifera: 275
Corals: ca 1 000
Other <100
Marine mammals:
3 055
Fish otoliths: 19 146
Squid beaks: 1 354
Crabs: ca 300
Other invertebrates:
<100
Seaweeds: 27 000
Largest collection of South
African molluscs
Dr Dai Herbert
[email protected]
Mostly local Eastern Cape
material
Mary Bursey
[email protected]
Mostly from local coral reef
surveys
Alke Kruger
[email protected]
Main local marine mammal and
otolith/beak collections
Gill Watson
[email protected]
Small collection from W Cape
and KZN
Klaas Manamela
[email protected]
Mainly South and west coasts
Seaweeds: ca. 32
000
South African
Terry Trinder-Smith
[email protected]
Tony Dold
T. [email protected]
Seaweeds: ca. 12
000
Mainly from KwaZulu-Natal
132
Prof. Trevor Edwards
[email protected] or
Christina Potgieter
[email protected]
Table 3. List of marine faunal taxonomists active in South Africa (as of 2003), with taxa
worked on, contact addresses and employment status. Researchers who have published on
South African taxa, but are resident outside the country, are not included.
Taxonomic
group
Foraminifera
Porifera
Cnidaria:
Hydromedusae
Nematoda
Researcher
Institution and email
Status
Ms Rashieda
Toefy
Dr Toefiek Samaai
University of the Western Cape
[email protected]
University of Durban-Westville
[email protected]
University of the Western Cape
[email protected]
[email protected]
University of the Western Cape
[email protected]
University of the Western Cape
[email protected]
Permanent staff
University of the Western Cape
[email protected]
Natal Museum
[email protected]
Iziko Museums, Cape Town
[email protected]
University of Cape Town
[email protected]
University of Cape Town
[email protected]
University of Port Elizabeth
[email protected]
University of the Western Cape
[email protected]
University of Durban-Westville
[email protected]
University of Durban-Westville
[email protected]
Iziko Museums, Cape Town
[email protected]
South African Institute for
Aquatic Biodiversity
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
Postgraduate student
Dr Emanuelle
Buecher
Prof Mark Gibbons
Mr Martin Hendricks
Platyhelminthes:
Monogean fish
parasites
Polychaeta
Dr Kevin Christison
Mollusca
Gastropoda
Mollusca
Cephalopoda
Crustacea:
Fish parasites
Crustacea:
Amphipoda
Crustacea:
Mysidacea
Bryozoa
Ms Tshifhiwa
Namgammi
Ms Martina
Roeleveld
Dr Nico Smit
Echinodermata:
Holothuroidea
Sipunculida
Prof Achmed
Thandar
Dr R Biseswar
Pisces:
Chondrichthyes
Pisces:
Osteichthyes
Dr Leonard
Compagno
Dr Phil Heemstra
Myctophidae
Mr Dylan Clarke
Prof Charles Griffiths
Prof Tris Wooldridge
Mr Wayne Florence
Dr Eric Anderson
Mr Ofer Gon
Dr Butch Hulley
133
Permanent staff
Postdoc
Permanent staff
Permanent staff
Postdoc
Permanent staff
Permanent staff
Postdoc
Permanent staff
Permanent staff
Postgraduate student
Recently retired but
active
Recently retired but
active
Permanent staff
Recently retired but
still active
Permanent staff
Permanent staff
Retired, still active
Table 4: Algal systematists active in South Africa, with their areas of interest and
employment status (adapted from a compilation by J. Bolton).
Researcher
Richard Pienaar
[email protected]
Grant Pitcher
[email protected]
Stuart Sym
[email protected]
Linda Joyce
[email protected]
Carlos Ruiz
[email protected]
Claudio Marangoni
[email protected]
Lizeth Botes
[email protected]
Research Area
All marine phytoplankton, with
special interests in
Prymnesiophyta, Dinophyta,
Chlorophyta, Chrysophyta and
Cryptophyta and those implicated
in harmful algal blooms
All phytoplankton, particularly
those that are involved in harmful
algal blooms
All groups of marine microalgae,
but with special interests in
prasinophytes (green algae) and
Prymnesiophyta
Interests in Dinophyta, particularly
cysts
Harmful microalgae
All marine microalgae,
specializing in Bacillariophyceae
and Dinophyta
Dinophyta
Employment status
Deputy Vice Chancellor,
University of the
Witwatersrand
Marine and Coastal
Management, Cape Town
Senior Lecturer, School of
Animal, Plant &
Environmental Sciences,
University of the
Witwatersrand
Postdoctoral Fellow,
MCM, Cape Town
PhD student, University of
Cape Town & MCM
Associate Researcher and
PhD student, University of
the Witwatersrand
Just completed PhD,
MCM, Cape Town
John Bolton
[email protected]
Seaweeds
Associate Professor, UCT
Rob Anderson
[email protected]
Seaweeds
MCM, Cape Town
Enrico Tronchin
[email protected]
Red seaweeds (Gelidiaceae)
PhD student, UCT
Gavin Maneveldt
[email protected]
Coralline red algae
Neil Griffin
[email protected]
Porphyra
Contract lecturer,
University of the Western
Cape
PhD student at UCT;
contact post at UWC
currently
134
APPENDIX 1
Key references used for the identification of South African marine biota
GENERAL WORKS
BRANCH, G. and BRANCH, M. 1981. The Living Shores of Southern Africa. C. Struik,
Cape Town. 272pp.
DAY, J.H. 1974. A Guide to Marine Life of South African Shores. A.A. Balkema, Cape
Town. 272pp. (out of print).
GRIFFITHS, C., GRIFFITHS, R. and THORPE, D. 1988. Seashore Life. Struik Pocket
Guide Series, Struik Publishers, Cape Town. 64pp. (out of print)
LUBKE, R.A., and DE MOOR, I. 1998. Field Guide to the Eastern and Southern Cape
Coasts. University of Cape Town Press, Cape Town. 559pp.
McNAE, W. and KALK, M. 1995. A Natural History of Inhaca Island, Moçambique.
Witwatersrand University Press, Johannesburg. (3rd ed). 395pp.
PAYNE, A.I.L., CRAWFORD, R.J.M. and VAN DALSEN, A. 1989. Oceans of Life off
Southern Africa. Vlaeberg Publishers, Cape Town. 380pp.
RICHMOND, M.D. 1997. A Guide to the Seashore of Eastern Africa and the Western Indian
Ocean Islands. SIDA, Dept for Research Cooperation, SAREL. 448pp.
GROUP IDENTIFICATION GUIDES
Porifera
SAMAAI, T. and GIBBONS, M.J. 2004. Desmospongiae taxonomy and biodiversity of the
Benguela region on the west coast of South Africa. Ann. S. Afr. Mus. (in press).
Cnidaria
CARLGREN, O. 1938. South African Actinaria and Zoantheria. Kungl. Svensk. Vet.-Akad.
Handl. (Series 3) 17(3):1-148.
KRAMP, P.L. 1961. Synopsis of the medusae of the world. J .Mar. Biol. Assoc. U.K. 40:1469.
MILLARD, N.A.H. 1975. Monograph on the Hydroida of southern Africa. Ann. S. Afr. Mus.
68:1-513.
PAGÈS, S., GILI, J.M. and BOUILLIN, J. 1992. Planktonic cnidarians of the Benguela
Current. Scientia Marina 56 (Suppl.1):1-144.
VERON, J.E.N. 1986. Corals of Australia and the Indo-Pacific. Angus and Robertson, North
Ryde, Australia. 644pp.
WILLIAMS, G.C. 1990. The Pennatulacea of southern Africa (Coelenterata, Anthozoa).
Ann. S. Afr. Mus. 99:31-119.
WILLIAMS, G.C. 1992. The Alcyonacea of southern Africa. Stoloniferous octocorals and
soft corals (Coelenterata, Anthozoa). Ann. S. Afr. Mus. 100:249-358.
WILLIAMS, G.C. 1992. The Alcyonacea of southern Africa. Gorgonian octocorals
(Coelenterata, Anthozoa). Ann. S. Afr. Mus. 101:181-296.
WILLIAMS, G.C. 1993. Coral Reef Octocorals. An illustrated Guide to the Soft Corals, Sea
Fans and Sea Pens Inhabiting the Coral Reefs of Northern Natal. Durban Natural Science
Museum, Durban. 64pp.
Unsegmented Worms
WESENBERG-LUND, E.1963. South African sipunculids and echiurids from coastal
waters. Vidensk. Medd. Dansk. Naturh. Foren. 126:101-146.
Polychaeta
135
DAY, J.H. 1967. A Monograph on the Polychaeta of Southern Africa. Trustees of the
British Museum (Natural History), London. 878pp. (out of print)
Pycnogonida
BARNARD, K.H. 1954. South African Pycnogonida. Ann. S. Afr.Mus. 41:81-159.
Crustacea
BARNARD, K.H. 1950. Descriptive catalogue of South African decapod Crustacea (crabs
and shrimps) Ann. S. Afr. Mus. 38:1-837.
BARNARD, K.H. 1950. Descriptive list of South African stomatopod Crustacea (mantis
shrimps) Ann. S. Afr. Mus. 38:838-864.
BERRY, P.F. 1971. The spiny lobsters (Palinuridae) of the East Coast of southern Africa:
distribution and ecological notes. Investl. Rep. Ocean. Res. Inst. S. Afr. 27:1-23.
BODEN, B.P. 1954. The euphausiid crustaceans of southern African waters. Trans. Roy.
Soc. S. Afr. 34:181-234.
DAY, J.A. 1975-80. South African Cumacea, parts I-IV. Ann. S. Afr. Mus. 66:177-220;
75:159-290: 76:137-189; 82:187-292.
DEBELIUS, H. 1999. Crustacea- Guide of the World. IKAN-Unterwasserarchiv, Frankfurt.
321pp.
DE FREITAS, A.T. 1985. The Penaeoidea of southern Africa 1. The study area and key to
the southern African species. Investl. Rep. Ocean. Res. Inst. S. Afr. 56:1-31.
GRIFFITHS, C.L. 1976. Guide to the Benthic Marine Amphipods of Southern Africa. South
African Museum, Cape Town. 106pp.
KENSLEY, B. 1972. Shrimps and Prawns of Southern Africa. South African Museum, Cape
Town. 65pp.
KENSLEY, B. 1978. Guide to the Marine Isopods of Southern Africa. South African
Museum, Cape Town. 173pp.
Brachiopoda
HILLER, N. 1991. The southern African recent brachiopod fauna. In: Brachiopods through
Time (Eds. D.I.McKinnon, D.E.Lee and J.D.Campbell), pp.439-445. A.A. Balkema,
Rotterdam.
JACKSON, J.W. 1952. A revision of some South African Brachiopoda, with descriptions of
new species. Ann. S. Afr. Mus. 41:1-40.
Mollusca
AUGUSTYN, C.J. and SMALE, M.J. 1989. Cephalopods. In: Oceans of Life off Southern
Africa (Eds. A.I.L. Payne, R.J.M. Crawford and A.P. van Dalsen), pp. 91-104. Vlaeberg
Publishers, Cape Town.
GOSLINER, T. 1987. Nudibranchs of Southern Africa- A Guide to Opisthobranch Molluscs
of Southern Africa. Sea Challengers, Monterey. 136pp.
KAAS, P. and VAN BELLE, R.A. 1985-1991. Monograph of Living Chitons (in 4
volumes). E.J.Brill.
KILBURN, R. and RIPPEY, E. 1982. Sea Shells of Southern Africa. Macmillan South
Africa, Johannesburg. 249pp. (out of print0
LILTVED, W.R. 1989. Cowries and Their Relatives of Southern Africa. A Study of the
Southern African Cypraeacean and Velutinacean Gastropod Fauna. Gordon Verhoef,
Seacomber Publications. 208pp.
NORMAN, M. 2000. Cephalopods- a World Guide. Conchbooks, Hackenheim. 318pp.
ROELEVELD, M.A. 1972. A review of the Sepiidae (Cephalopoda) of southern Africa. Ann.
S. Afr. Mus. 59:193-313.
136
Echinodermata
BALINSKY, J.B. 1957. The Ophiuroidea of Inhaca Island. Ann. Natal Mus. 14:1-33.
CLARK, A.M. and COURTMAN-STOCK, J. 1976. The Echinoderms of Southern Africa.
British Museum (Natural History), London. 277pp.
THANDAR, A.S. 1989. The sclerodactylid holothurians of southern Africa, with erection of
one new subfamily and two new genera (Echinodermata:Holothuroidea). S. Afr. J. Zool.
24:290-304.
THANDAR, A.S. 1990. The phyllophorid holothurians of southern Africa with the erection
of a new genus. S. Afr. J. Zool. 25:207-223.
Ascidiacea
MONNIOT, C., MONNIOT, F., GRIFFITHS, C.L. and SCHLEYER, M. 2001. South
African Ascidians. Ann. S. Afr. Mus. 108:1-141.
Fishes
COMPAGNO, L.J.V., EBERT, D.A. and SMALE, M.J. 1989. Guide to the Sharks and Rays
of Southern Africa. Struik Publishers, Cape Town. 160pp.
SMITH, M.M. and HEEMSTRA, P.C. (Eds.) 1988. Smith’s Sea Fishes. Southern Book
Publishers, Johannesburg. 1048pp.
VAN DER ELST, R. 1988. A Guide to the Common Sea Fishes of Southern Africa (2nd ed).
Struik Publishers, Cape Town. 398pp.
VAN DER ELST, R. 1990. Everyone’s Guide to Sea Fishes of Southern Africa. Struik
Publishers, Cape Town. 112pp.
Birds
GINN, P.J., McIlleron, W.G. and MILSTEIN, P. le S. 1989. The Complete Book of
Southern African Birds. Struik Winchester, Cape Town. 760pp.
NEWMAN, K. 2002. Newman’s Birds of Southern Africa. 8th Ed. Struik, Cape Town.
512pp.
MACLEAN, G.L. 1993. Robert’s Birds of South Africa. 6th Ed. Trustees of the John
Voelcker Bird Book Fund, Cape Town. 871pp.
SINCLAIR, J.C., HOCKEY, P.A.R. and TARBOTON, W. 2002. Sasol Birds of Southern
Africa. 3rd Ed. Struik, Cape Town. 447pp.
Reptiles and Mammals
BRANCH, W.R. 1998. Marine Reptiles. In: Field Guide to the Eastern and Southern Cape
Coast. (Eds. R. Lubke and I. de Moor). University of Cape Town Press. pp.156-159.
COCKCROFT, V.G. 1998. Marine Mammals. In: Field Guide to the Eastern and Southern
Cape Coast. (Eds. R. Lubke and I. de Moor). University of Cape Town Press. pp.160-169.
SKINNER, J.D. and SMITHERS, R.H.N. 1990. The Mammals of the Southern African
Subregion. University of Pretoria, Pretoria. 771pp.
Seaweeds
SEAGRIEF, S.C. 1967. The Seaweeds of the Tsitsikamma Coastal National Park. National
Parks Board, Pretoria. 147pp.
SEAGRIEF, S.C. 1980. Seaweeds of Maputaland. In: Studies of the Ecology of Maputaland
(eds. M.N.Bruton and K.H.Cooper), pp18-41. Wildlife Society of Southern Africa, Durban.
SIMONS, R.H. 1976. Seaweeds of southern Africa: guidelines for their study and
identification. Fish. Bull. S. Afr. 7:1-113.
STEGENGA, H., BOLTON, J. and ANDERSON, R. 1997. Seaweeds of the South African
West Coast. Contrib. Bolus Herbarium 18:1-655.
137
National Report
Marine biodiversity in Mozambique – the known and the unknown
António Mubango Hoguane1 and Marcos A M Pereira2
Department of Physics, Eduardo Mondlane University, P.O. Box 257,
Maputo, Mozambique
2
Centro Terra Viva - Estudos e Advocacia Ambiental, P.O. Box 2046,
Maputo, Mozambique
1
Abstract
The Mozambique coastline is about 2700 km long and is has relatively pristine and highly
diverse ecosystems. The major ecosystems include mangroves, estuaries, seagrass beds,
coral reefs and wetlands that support a diversity of species. Mozambique posses nine out of
twenty-one sites of recognised ecologically importance in the Eastern Africa region,
according to the WWF classification. The marine and coastal habitats of Mozambique hosts
endangered species such as dugongs, marine turtles, marine mammals and migratory birds.
The coastal and marine ecosystems sustain natural resources that underpin the economy of
the country and are the means of subsistence for coastal communities. About 40% of the
population of Mozambique live in coastal zone and obtain their living from natural
resources.
The major threats to the biological diversity in Mozambique are natural as well as
anthropogenic in nature. Natural factors include extreme floods and draughts, cyclones and
El-ñino events. Anthropogenic factors include the obstruction and alteration of natural river
flow, overexploitation of the natural resources, destruction and modification of habitats due
to inadequate land use planning and to use of inadequate harvesting techniques. Cyclones
often cause the siltation of seagrasses and of corals. Extreme floods and droughts place stress
on the estuarine and coastal ecosystems. The demand for alleviation of poverty, coupled with
the population growth, increases pressure on natural resources and associated ecosystems,
leading to a decline in biodiversity. The most overexploited resources are the fisheries and
mangroves.
1. Introduction
1.1 Location and general description of coastal environment
Mozambique is located on the southeastern coast of Africa between latitudes 10o20’S and
26o50’S (Figure 1). It has a total area of about 799 390 km2, of which about 4500 km2 is
maritime area. The shelf area up to 200 m depth comprises 104 km2. The Mozambican
coastline is about 2700 km in length and is characterised by a wide diversity of habitats
including sandy beaches, sand dunes, coral reefs, estuaries, bays, mangroves and seagrass beds
(Figure 2).
The coastal zone from Ponta do Ouro in the south to latitude 16° S immediately north of
Angoche is composed of unconsolidated Quaternary to recent sediments, mostly sand dunes
and sandy plains, but interspersed with heavier textured soils (alluviums) at the larger river
mouths. At latitude 16° S and at Macambo, Nacala and Memba bay areas, Tertiary basalt
138
occurs. From Angoche northwards heavily faulted Cretaceous to Tertiary sediments line the
coast (Figure 2).
Figure 1. Location map of Mozambique.
The sedimentary deposits occupy two distinct basins separated by the large area of crystalline
rocks of the Mozambique Belt (Precambrian). The southern basin, corresponding largely to the
present wide Mozambique plain, extends from the Maputo River to just north of the Zambezi
River. The Rovuma Basin occupies a narrow coastal belt of Nampula Province becoming larger
northwards from the Lurio to Rovuma Rivers, in the Cabo Delgado Province. The NorthMozambique basin constitutes a mesa-Cenozoic sedimentary succession with an age ranging
between the Lower Cretaceous and Mio-Pliocene (Kairu and Nyandwi, 1997).
The morphology of the coastal area is characterised by lowlands, rising inland to an altitude
of approximately 200 m above sea level. The coastline is characterised by beaches, recent
dunes and inland lagoons in the south; by mangroves, swampy depressions and a series of
low beach ridges in the center; and mangroves, small dunes alternating with cliffs in the
north (Figure 2).
The climate of Mozambique is tropical and humid, with two seasons: a dry winter season and
wet summer season. The climate in the region north of the Zambezi river is under the influence
of the equatorial low pressure zone with a NE monsoon prevailing during the warm season. The
climate south of Zambezi river is influenced by the subtropical anti-cyclonic zone. North Sofala
along the Zambezi river lies in a transitional zone with high rainfall (Sætre and Silva, 1979).
139
The winds in the northern part of Mozambique are influenced by the monsoon system, with NE
winds prevailing during the southern summer and SW winds during the southern winter.
Central and southern Mozambique are dominated by the SE trade winds.
The average annual precipitation is about 1200 mm. The rainfall is mainly restricted to the
warm season November to April. According to the classification of Köppen, the northern (Cabo
Delgado, Niassa, Nampula and Zambezia) and coastal region have a tropical rain savannah
climate. Ocean currents, particularly the warm Mozambique Current, may influence the rainfall.
Mozambique has over 100 rivers, the major ones being the Rovuma, Lúrio and Zambezi in the
north, Pungué, Buzi, Gorongosa and Save in the centre and Limpopo, Incomati and Maputo in
the south. These rivers drain about 208 km3 of nutrient rich water into the coastal waters each
year. About 80% of this water enters the ocean in the vicinity of the Sofala Banks, central
Mozambique. The Zambezi river, the largest river in eastern Africa, contributes approximately
67% of the total river discharge from Mozambique (Sætre and Jorge da Silva, 1982).
The tidal range is about 2 m in the south, 3.1 m in the north and about 6.4 in centre. The
higher range in the centre is related to the effects of the narrowing Mozambique Channel in
this region. Flood tides entering the Mozambique Channel from the south would, due to
Coriolis, induce an increment in the tidal range on the adjacent Mozambican coast.
1.2 Demography
The current population of Mozambique is estimated at more than 17.2 million. It is expected to
grow at an annual rate of 2.5%. About two-thirds of the Mozambican population lives in the
coastal zone, mainly as a result of the war when people migrated to safer areas (UNCED,
1992). Other reasons which attract people to the coastal zone are related to the easier access to
food and employment. The average population density in the coastal area is about 120 people
per km2, against overall population density of 2 people per km2.
1.3 Coastal and marine resources use
Fisheries
The fisheries resources are mostly located in two major shelf areas: the Sofala Bank in the
center and Delagoa Bight in the south (and associated bays). The major resources include
shallow water shrimp on the Sofala Bank, deep-water crustaceans on the slope, scad and
mackerel on Sofala Bank and Delagoa Bight, and demersal fish in the southern and northern
regions. In the coastal region there are large artisanal fisheries that harvest both fish and
molluscs and form the basis of subsistence for many local populations.
The fisheries sector employs between 50,000 to 60,000 people, and its contribution to the
economy is substantial, representing about 40% of the country’s total export earnings. The
estimated potential of fish in Mozambique is about 310 000 tons. Recorded marine fish
landings were about 80 000 tons in 1980 and about 120 000 tons in 1992. The artisanal and
semi-industrial sectors contribute with more than 50% of the total fish catches. The most
valuable fishery resource is the shallow water shrimp and its associated bycatch, deep-water
shrimp, scad and mackerel (Table 1). These resources represented about 54% of total exports in
1993. The shallow water shrimp resource alone contributed by about US$20 million in 197980.
140
Figure 2. Coastal environments. Dashed line represents the 200 m depth.
The current production of shallow water shrimp is about 7000 tons per year. Despite the
restrictions placed on fishing effort, shallow water shrimps show signs of overexploitation,
especially on the Sofala Bank where most of this resource is located. Environmental factors
such as artificial restrictions on the Zambezi flow regime brought by the Cahora Bassa dam
may be contributing to the reduction in the availability of shrimps on the Sofala Bank
(Figure 3) (Hoguane, 1997).
Other resources that are overexploited are those located in the Bays of Maputo and Inhambane.
The government policy is to encourage the fishing of other resources outside the traditional
fishing area. Scad and mackerel production stopped in 1990 due to the fall of the major fishing
company jointly owned by Mozambique and former Soviet Union government. This means that
the resource is underexploited and available for new fishing licenses to be issued.
141
Table 1. Fish catches (tons) according to type fishery type (Source: DAP, 1996).
Fishery type
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
Total
Shallow w. shrimp
Deep water shrimp
Demersal fish
Deep water lobster
By-catch (S. shrimp)
By-catch (D. shrimp)
Crabs
Prawns
Squid
Octopus
Tuna
Marlin
Sharks
Rock lobster
Other crustaceans
SEMI-INDUSTRIAL
FISHERIES
24951
7575
2412
12524
255
1689
21
381
46
49
25284
7513
2285
13416
136
1258
26
336
224
89
26735
7328
3726
13701
170
930
148
259
231
91
152
21585
5724
3154
10361
163
753
30
135
167
64
1033
23912
5957
2841
8276
237
780
190
207
57
5367
19050
7050
2350
7757
203
720
168
257
341
86
119
22701
6338
1652
5391
247
369
332
156
186
7338
19
12522
6698
1833
1756
292
741
260
309
443
140
51
17690
6321
2250
3341
294
603
262
328
261
36
3914
30
177217
7344
1770
2604
208
623
266
311
179
60
3347
29
312
165
16281
7043
1771
2503
7
1150
202
190
132
35
2461
36
358
21
194
178
Total
Shallow w. shrimp
Demersal fish
By-catch (S. shrimp)
Crabs
Squid
Fresh water fish
Other fish
ARTISANAL
FISHERIES
381
48
223
110
385
58
223
104
342
94
155
93
164
44
105
16
239
74
111
55
941
179
448
313
1
1271
184
516
5 65
3
3
2834
275
1053
809
3
5
689
2405
222
892
361
1
4
925
4184
157
561
293
0
0
3137
7123
396
584
1
5574
568
13338
143
13195
10653
96
10557
5108
14
5093
5811
135
5676
8767
832
7436
231
198
2
68
5544
469
4900
5
133
20
5
12
3835
237
3447
30
84
29
3839
375
3300
20
95
42
0
5
2
3362
102
3205
13
15
16
11
3512
199
3044
40
103
82
6
38
11511
567
9987
130
374
329
54
57
13
32917
6863
2841
15822
468
835
389
207
59
68
5367
-
25535
7698
2350
13105
209
1033
168
390
341
106
5
12
119
-
27807
6760
1652
9354
278
1237
369
418
156
218
9
7338
19
19195
7347
1833
6108
313
1550
260
406
443
188
0
5
689
53
23456
6645
2250
7437
307
963
262
345
261
106
11
3914
925
30
INDUSTRIAL
FISHERIES
Total
Shallow w. shrimp
Demersal fish
Lobsters
Crabs
Squid
Holothuria
Shell fish
Octopus
9
ALL FISHERIES
Total
Shallow w. shrimp
Deep water shrimp
Demersal fish
Lobsters
By-catch (S. shrimp)
By-catch (D. shrimp)
Crabs
Prawns
Squid
Holothuria
Shell fish
Tuna
Freshwater fish
Octopus
38670
7766
2412
25942
255
1799
21
381
46
49
36321
7667
2285
24196
136
1362
26
336
224
39
32185
7436
3726
18949
170
1023
148
259
231
91
27561
5903
3154
16142
163
769
30
135
167
64
1033
142
24913
7699
1770
6209
248
916
266
414
179
142
6
38
3347
3173
29
34915
8005
1771
12490
137
1734
202
364
132
366
54
57
2461
5574
49
Runoff
Catch rates kg hr-1
2000
1998
1996
1994
1992
1990
1988
1986
1984
1982
1980
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1978
Runoff (m3 s-1)
180000
160000
140000
120000
100000
80000
60000
40000
20000
0
Catch rates
Figure 3: Yields of shallow water shrimp on the Sofala Bank in relation to river flow
records.
Tourism
Coastal tourism is well developed in the southern part of the country, south of Save River.
This region is characterised by beautiful sand beaches and extensive subtidal rocky reefs
colonized to a varying extent by coral communities. Coastal tourism expanded rapidly after
the end of the civil war in 1992. Many areas in the southern Mozambique are now
experiencing tourist pressure due, in part, to uncontrolled growth in this sector. Tourism
activities include SCUBA diving and game fishing. Several fishing competitions occur each
year at Bazaruto, Inhambane, Maputo and Ponta do Ouro.
2. The Known
The number of marine species per taxonomic group is presented in Table 2. These figures
are based on the species found in the literature and are believed to be an understimate given
the difficulties in surveying and reporting. In general, Mozambique contains biologically
diverse habitats and according to the WWF classification possesses 9 out of the 21 sites of
highest biological importance in eastern Africa. Of these, 4 are of global, 2 are of regional
and 3 are of national importance. The sites of global importances are the Quirimbas
Archipelago, the Marromeu complex, the Bazaruto Archipelago and Maputo BayMachangulo Complex. The species included in these areas include marine plants
(mangroves, seagrasses), coral reefs, sea birds, marine mammals (whales, dolphins,
dugongs), marine reptiles (marine turtles), molluscs and numerous fish and crustacean
species.
143
Table 2. Summary table of the number of species reported in Mozambique by taxonomic
group.
TAXA
Marine plants
Macroalgae
Seagrass
Mangroves
Invertebrates
Corals
Hard corals
Soft corals
Echinoderms
Sea cucumbers
Sea urchins
Sea stars
Molluscs
Gastropods
Bivalves
Cephalopods
Crustaceans1
Ascidians
Vertebrates
Fish
Reef-associated fishes
Cartilaginous fishes
Total marine fish
Marine Reptiles
Marine turtles
Sea snakes
Marine birds
Marine mammals
Dolphins and whales
Dugong
Seals
1
NUMBER OF
SPECIES
SOURCE
224
13
9
Critchley et al. (1994)
Bandeira (2000); Bandeira et al. (2002)
Barbosa et al. (2001); Bandeira et al. (2002)
151
30
Riegl (1996)
Schleyer et al. (1999)
14
6
17
Fisher et al. (1990)
NBUM (1996)
Walenkamp (1990)
917
180
16
~150
100
NBUM (1996)
NBUM (1996)
Fisher et al. (1990)
Barnes (1997); Day (1974); Fisher et al. (1990);
Richmond (2001)
800
92
1734
Pereira (2000)
Fisher et al. (1990)
Froese & Pauly (2003)
5
1
25
Fisher et al. (1990)
Branch et al. (1995)
C. Bento (2003, pers. comm.)
15
1
2
Guissamulo & Cockroft (1996)
Guissamulo & Cockroft (1996)
Guissamulo & Cockroft (1996)
Crustaceans include the following groups: lobsters, shrimps, crabs and hermit crabs.
2.1
Marine plants
Mangroves
Mangroves predominate on the Sofala banks and in Maputo Bay. The common species are
Rizophora mucronata, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, Avicennia marina, Ceriops tagal, Sonneratia
alba and Xilocarpus granatum. Based on a survey conducted in 1992 Mozambique possesses
about 396,000 ha of mangrove forest, which represented a reduction of about 3,9% in
relation to the stands measured in 1972 (Saket and Matusse, 1994) (Table 3). The
degradation of mangroves results from extensive use of mangrove trees as fuel wood and in
building; and destruction of mangrove swamps for salt mining, aquaculture and other
developments.
144
Table 3. Changes in mangrove area in Mozambique between 1972 and 1990 (Source: Saket
and Matusse, 1994).
.
Province
Mangrove area (ha)
Degraded area (ha) New area (ha)
Alteration
(%)
1972
1990
15.2
211
2,217
12,599
14,605
Maputo
0
0
0
387
387
Gaza
1.2
0
246
19,848
20,094
Inhambane
4.9
1,654
6,334
125,317
129,997
Sofala
2.4
106
3,766
155,757
159,417
Zambézia
3.6
493
2,006
54,336
55,849
Nampula
0
106
0
27,836
27,730
C.Delgado
TOTAL
408,079
396,080
14,569
2,570
3.9
Seagrasses and algae
There are about 12 species of seagrasses in Mozambique. The common species is
Thalassodendron ciliatum, which occurs mostly in the southern Mozambique intertidal zone
(Bandeira, 1995). The main species found in the northern Mozambique, from Mecufi to
Rovuma River, are Halophila stipulacea and Enhalus acoroides (Bandeira, 1995).
Brown and green algae are common in the southern Mozambique (Sætre and Silva, 1979).
The red algae, Euchema denticulatum, occur mostly in the northern part of the country
(Bandeira, 1995). The main species are Padina boryana, Sargassum spp., Colpomenia
sinuosa, Anadyomene wrightii, Gellidiela acerora, Haliptylon subulata, Hormophysa
triquetra, Hypna spp. and Valonia macrophysa (Critchley et al, 1994). The potential
harvesting of algae is estimated to be about 3000 tons per annum (Sætre and Silva, 1979).
Corals
The corals are prolific in the northern part of the country, extending over 700 km from the
Rovuma river to Primeira and Segunda Islands (Quirimbas Archipelago). Coral reefs also
occur around the Bazaruto Islands, Inhaca and Ponta de Ouro in southern Mozambique.
There are about 181 species of both hard and soft corals in Mozambique (Riegl, 1996;
Schleyer et al., 1999). The most common species belong to the families Acroporidae,
Pocilloporidae and Favidae.
2.2
Crustacea
Shallow water shrimp occur mostly along the coast and are associated with mangroves. The
main areas of occurrence are the Sofala Bank and Maputo Bay (Brinca et al., 1984). The
most abundant shallow water shrimps belong to the family Penaeidae. There are also carid
shrimps but these are less abundant. The main species of penaeid in Mozambique are
Penaeus indicus and Metapenaeus monoceros (Silva, 1989; Palha de Sousa et al., 1995). The
annual potential of this resource is estimated to be about 19.1 tones (MAP, 1994).
The rock lobster occurs in the Quirimbas Archipelago in the north and in the Bazaruto
Archipelago, Inhassoro and Vilanculos in the south (Paula and Silva, 1984; Donato et al.,
1991; Anon, 1995). The mangrove crab Scylla serrata is also an important crustacean and is
closely associated with mangroves. The annual potential of this resource is estimated to be
about 13.3 tones (MAP, 1994).
145
2.3
Molluscs
Bivalves occur in shallow waters along the coast, including sandy beaches, rocks and
mangrove areas. The main mussel species is Perna perna on the southern coast of
Mozambique, mainly in Barra Falsa (22°55’S), Závora (24°30’S) and Xai-Xai (25°10’S)
(Ribeiro, 1984). Holothurians occur mainly at Inhaca and Inhassoro.
2.4
Fishes
The marine fish species of Mozambique include pelagic and demersal species (Table 5),
coral and seagrass dependent species, and mangrove and estuarine associated species.
Table 5. The main species of demersal and pelagic fishes found in Mozambique.
Category
Species
Local common name
Demersal fish species
Decapterus spp
Trachurus spp
Rastrelliger Kanagurta
Stolephorus spp
Sphyraena spp
Ariomma spp
Alepes spp
Carangoides spp
Caranx spp
Rastrelliger spp
Scomber spp
Dussumieria spp
Etrumeus spp
Hilsa kelee
Pellona ditchela
Sardinella spp
Thryssa spp
Stolephorus spp
Cheimerius nufar
Chrysoblephus puniceus
Lutjanus bohar
L. sanguineus
L. gibbus
Leiognathus equulus
Secutor insidiator
Katsowonus pelamis
Auxis thazard
Thunnus albacares
Carapau
Carapau
Cavala
Anchovetas
Barracudas
Peixe prata
Xaréus
Xaréus
Xaréus
Cavalas
Cavalas
Sardinhas
Sardinhas
Sardinhas
Sardinhas
Sardinhas
Sardinhas
Anchoveta
Robalo
Marreco
Pargos
Pargos
Pargos
Patanas
Patanas
Atum albacares
Judeu
Atum albacora
Small pelagic species
Large pelagic species
The annual potential of demersal fish species (less than 200 m depth) is estimated to be
about 51 000 tonnes (Sætre and Silva, 1979). The main families are Sparidae, with about 14
species that include Cheimerius nufar and Chrysoblephus puniceus. Chrysoblephus puniceus
is an endemic species in the south, mainly in the Delagoa Bight. Cheimerius nufar occurs in
146
the south along the shelf in water depths less than 160 metres. The main species of
Lutjanidae are Lutjanus bohar, L. sanguineus and L. gibbus, and occur off Angoche, Pebane
and the southern Sofala Bank.
The small pelagic species occur along the whole coast in water depths less than 200m. The
main fisheries are located at the Sofala Bank and Delagoa Bight between 20 and 100 metres
depth. The main species are presented in Table 5 (Sætre and Silva, 1979). The main species
are scad (Decapterus russelli) occurring in abundance between 20 and 90 metres depth; the
anchovy (Stolephorus spp.) occurring between 20 and 60 metres depth on the Sofala Bank
(Sætre and Silva, 1979); the sardines (Pellona ditchela and Thryssa vitrirostris) occurring
mostly on the Sofala Bank at depth less than 20 metres. Etrumeus teres occurs off Beira,
Hilsa kelee is captured by gillnets in the bays, mostly at Beira, Moma and Maputo.
Leiognathus equulus and Secutor insidiator occur on the Sofala Bank, Save river, Beira,
Pebane and Machese. Carangoides malabaricus occurs on the Sofala Bank between 10 and
100 metres depth. Ariomma indica also occurs on the Sofala Bank in depths greater than 50
metres.
Large pelagic species are most abundant in southern Mozambique, mainly in the Bazaruto
Archipelago, Vilanculos, Pomene, Inhambane, Závora and Inhaca, and also in the northern
part of the country around the Quirimbas Archipelago. Katsowonus pelamis is observed
along the whole coast with relatively higher concentrations in the Bazaruto area. Auxis
thazard is a coastal species that occurs between Inhambane and the Bazaruto Archipelago, as
well as north of Angoche. Thunnus albacares occurs both in coastal and offshore waters, as
well as the bays of Maputo, Inhambane, Mocambo and Pemba (Rato, 1985, Simões, 1984
and 1985).
2.5
Marine reptiles
A total of 5 marine turtle species, namely Caretta caretta, Dermochelys coriacea, Chelonia
mydas, Eretmochelys imbricata and Lepidochelys olivacea occur in Mozambique (Hughes,
1971). Caretta caretta and Dermochelys coriacea breed along the beaches between Ponta do
Ouro and the Bazaruto Archipelago. The main areas of occurrence of marine turtles are
Ponta do Ouro, MaputoEspecial Reserve, Inhaca Island, Bazaruto Archipelago (Gove and
Magane, 1996). Three species of marine turtles, namely Chelonia mydas, Eretmochelys
imbricata and Lepichelys olivacea occur in the northern part of the country (Hughes, 1971).
The green turtle (Chelonia mydas) breeds on the Primeiras and Segundas Islands (Hughes,
1971).
2.6
Marine birds
Mozambique has coastal wetlands and estuaries that support migratory birds. The Marromeu
wetland, Bazaruto Archipelago and Maputo Bay are breeding sites of some threatened bird
species. The main species include the white and pinkbacked pelicans (Pelecanus
onocrotalus, P. ruescens), various species of storks and the Caspian tern (Sterna caspia)
(Beilfuss and Bento, 1997).
2.7
Marine mammals
Table 4 presents the 8 major marine mammals observed in Mozambique waters. Of these, 6
occur in the shelf areas (Guissamulo, 1996). The main species of dolphins in Mozambique
are Turciops truncatus and Sousa chinensis and are found along the coast, mainly south of
the Zambezi river, in areas such as the Bazaruto Archipelago, Inhaca Island and Machangulo
147
Peninsula (Best et al, 1991; Coopinger and Williams, 1990; Guissamulo, 1996; Sætre and
Silva, 1979).
Dugongs (Dugong dugon) are found in the southern and northern Mozambique. In the
southern part of the country they occur in Maputo Bay (around Inhaca Island), in Inhambane
Bay (near Linga-Linga) and in the Bazaruto Archipelago, where the largest population in
Eastern Africa exists, about 130 individuals (Guissamulo, 1993). In the northern part of the
country they are found in the Quirimbas Archipelago, mostly at Ibo, Quirimbas, Matemo and
Quissanga (Guissamulo, 1996; Coopinger and Williams, 1990).
Table 4. Major marine mammals observed off the Mozambique coast.
Species
Whales
Balaenoptera acutorostrata
Megaptera novaeangliae
Eubalaena australis
Dolphins Turciops truncatu
Sousa chinensis
Dugongs Dugong dugon
3. Threats
The main threats to marine biodiversity may be grouped into two categories: (i) environmental
or natural factors and (ii) anthropogenic or human induced factors. Natural factors include the
adverse climate conditions such as extreme droughts and floods, cyclones and abnormal water
temperature increases that cause coral bleaching. Human induced factors include obstruction of
river watercourses and imposition of artificial river flows, overexploitation of natural resources,
use of destructive harvesting practices, and the destruction and modification of habitats due to
inadequate land use planning.
Mozambique is one of the poorest countries in the world. It has a higher population density on
the coast, and most of the people live in absolute poverty. Attempts to lift the country out of this
critical economic situation often results in extreme pressures being applied to natural resources.
Use of destructive fishing practices is primarily driven by the lack of means to acquire adequate
fishing gears. Furthermore, the poor development of other sectors such as industry, agriculture
and tourism leave fisheries as one of the few options for survival by the local communities, thus
placing even more pressure on the fish resources.
Major constraints limiting action to conserve resources is related to the lack of understanding of
ecosystem structure and functioning, and to an inadequate institutional and legal framework to
implement management decisions. Lack of qualified personnel is a key factor behind the
limited knowledge of ecosystem functioning and how each factor interacts and contributes to
the system as a whole. Institutional capacity problems arise from the lack of infrastructures for
research and monitoring to the lack of co-ordination among different institutions dealing with
marine issues. Lack of co-ordination often leads to duplication of actions with unnecessary
waste of resources. Sustainable exploitation of resources requires thorough research and
permanent monitoring, both of which are expenses that a developing country such as
Mozambique find difficult to meet. In addition to these limitations, the country’s legislation
148
does not promote sustainable resource exploitation because of the priority of free access to all
natural resources.
3.1
Maintenance of artificial river flow regimes
Most Mozambican rivers are shared with neighbouring countries. Water is being obstructed
upstream for irrigation, for urban and industry supply, and for the production of electricity.
The consequences are a lack of freshwater entering Mozambique estuaries and artificial river
runoff regimes that interfere negatively with coastal ecosystem dynamics.
Catch rates of shallow water shrimp on the Sofala Bank is decreasing (Figure 3) despite the
management measures based essentially on controlling the fishing effort applied (since
1987). The reason for this decrease in the abundance of shrimp is attributed to the damming
of the Zambezi river (Gammelsrød, 1992a,b; Hoguane, 1997). The rationale for this
argument lies in the fact that the fresh water stimulates shrimp recruitment and provides the
necessary nutrients to the coastal waters. The penaeids spawn at sea and the larvae develop
in sheltered areas of the mangrove swamps (Staples, 1985). The larvae enter the swamps
during the dry season and move away from the swamps during the wet season. Naturally, the
river runoff would be at a minimum during the dry season, enabling the successful inward
migration of the larvae to the swamps, and it would be at a maximum during the wet season,
stimulating the outward migration of juveniles from of the swamps. In the presence of
artificial runoff that is characterized by a quasi-uniform flow throughout the year, the runoff
would be too high in the dry season, thus prevent the inward movement of larvae, and too
low in the wet season to stimulate the outward movement of the juveniles.
3.2
Loss and modification of habitats
Mangroves
Mangroves are depleted due to unsustainable harvesting of trees, particularly around the
main cities, where mangrove trees are harvested for fuel wood, and for production of timber
for building. Wood is the cheapest and most readily available source of energy, both for
cooking and heating, for majority of people who cannot afford electricity.
The second most important cause is the clearing of mangrove for the construction of
saltpans, roads, urban and other developments. According to the last census, the growth rate
in the urban population is 2.7 % (INE, 2000). While more land for housing is needed,
industries will always develop close to the main urban centres. This is particularly important
for salt production and the most important sites are located near the cities of Maputo, Beira
and Nacala, where the main harbours are also located. Shrimp aquaculture is a developing
industry in Mozambique, with initiatives having commenced in the vicinity of Quelimane
and Beira. The shrimp ponds and tanks encroach on the mangrove forests that are located
around these cities.
Coral Reefs
Corals represent a very important asset to the country’s economy. Local communities have
an important dependency on corals – for fishing, lime production, curios and construction. In
addition, tourism growth is highest around the most important coral spots in the country and
diving is becoming an increasingly popular activity. However, corals have and are being
destroyed at a very high rate, particularly during the last decade.
149
Corals are threatened by damaging fishing practices, pollution, tourism, siltation and
extraction. However, one of the main reasons for the recent degradation of coral reefs is
natural. A survey on coral bleaching (Schleyer et al., 1999) showed that the effects of El
Nino on Mozambique were most extensive on exposed reefs in the north (up to 99% coral
mortality) and this diminished further south. However, in recent times serious bleaching
(90%) was also encountered at Inhaca Island.
Other causes of reef degradation include siltation as a result of human activities (soil
erosion) on land. This includes incorrect agricultural and forestry practices, exploitation of
the mangroves, removal of earth close to the coast, etc. The construction of commercial or
recreational infrastructures on or close to the coral reefs also has an immediate negative
physical impact.
Corals were exported to several countries including Portugal, Italy, Spain, United States of
America and Germany (Rodrigues and Motta, in prep.). The prices of corals in the
international market depend on species. Using an average value of US$5 per piece of coral at
point of export, and the official data on quantities being exported, it has been estimated that
Mozambique exported approximately US$5 million worth of coral between 1994 and 1997.
3.3
Overexploitation of fish resources
Overexploitation of fish resources has considerable environmental and socio-economic
impacts. The environmental impacts are associated mostly with the destruction of the
environment, harvesting of juveniles and of ‘keystone’ species, all which impact on the
biological diversity of the sites concerned. The socio-economy impacts are mostly associated
with the reduction in the income from the fisheries, reduction in employment and reduction
in the subsistence capacity of the local environment.
There are many factors that contribute direct or indirectly to the overexploitation of the fish
resources. These factors can be clustered into three major categories: (i) direct or technical
causes, (ii) sectoral pressures and (iii) root causes. In addition to the factors that contribute to
overexploitation of the fish resources there are factors that tend to alleviate fishing pressures.
The major technical causes of overexploitation of fish resources is increased effort and
decreased level of recruitment, contributing to the issues by approximately 40% and 50%,
respectively. The decrease in habitat or nursery grounds and shift in population distribution
contributes about 5% each.
Several studies on the state of the fisheries resources in Mozambique have been conducted
and indicate a major increase in fishing effort and at the same time a significant reduction in
the fishing yield. The shrimp fisheries, the most economic valued fishery, is the one that has
suffered most. For instance, on Sofala Bank and prior to 1980, the shrimp fishing effort was
low (approximately 100,000 hours) and catch rates were over 90 kg per hour of trawling. In
the mid 1980’s the effort level increased to 180,000 hours and the catch rates declined to 4045 kg per trawling hour. This corresponded to an increase in fishing effort of about 80% and
decrease in the shrimp yield of about 45-50% (Skagen et al., 1997). More recently the
fishing effort has increased by a further 90% and catch rates have decreased by an additional
20% (Palha de Souza et al., 1995).
Improved fishing technology
In addition to the increase in fishing hours, the fishing vessels have also improved. There are
three categories of shrimp fisheries; artisanal, semi-industrial and industrial. Until mid 1996,
150
almost all the semi-industrial vessels working on the Sofala Bank were stern trawlers, less
than 20 meters long, without freezing capacity and preserving the catches with ice. Their
available sea time was less than five days (de Sousa and Silva, unpublished).
After June 1996, new semi-industrial vessels entered the fishery with different
characteristics. These new vessels are mainly double outrigger trawlers, pull two or four
nets simultaneously, are equipped with cold storage and quick freezers, and have the
autonomy to stay at sea for more than 12 days if supplied with fuel, water and food by a
mother vessel. These vessels trawl along the Sofala Bank and land their catches either
directly or through the mother vessel (de Sousa and Silva, unpublished).
Decrease in habitat/nursery areas
This involves the loss and modification of habitats that sustain the fisheries resources. Some
of the key factors associated with the decrease in natural habitats and nursery grounds are as
follows:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
3.4
Depletion of mangroves - Mangroves are depleted mostly in the vicinity of
the big cities due to urban development, building of tourist resorts, conversion
into salt ponds, and development of shrimp farms. Mangrove poles are used
for building houses, artisanal boats and as firewood and charcoal. Apart from
these human actions, mangroves are also destroyed by the reduction in river
runoff, leading to excessive salinities in the associated mangrove swamps,
and by storms that cause siltation of mangrove creeks.
Destruction of corals - Corals are mostly depleted by overexploitation for
trading and for use in the building of houses. Some of the corals are destroyed
by fishing methods such as trawling, dynamite and inexperienced divers.
Corals are further destroyed by storms, siltation due to erosion of deforested
dunes, and by the anomalous warm water events that cause coral bleaching.
Destruction of seagrass beds - seagrass beds are mostly destroyed by siltation
due to erosion of the deforested dunes and by trawls.
Excessive reduction in river runoff - this action modifies the water quality of
estuaries and mangrove swamps, resulting in adverse changes in these
habitats. This has implications for fisheries, based on the fact that estuaries
and mangrove swamps are nursery grounds for many coastal fish species and
breeding grounds for others.
Inadequate fishing practices
Conflicts between semi-industrial and artisanal fishermen
There are conflicts within small-scale fisheries, between this sector and offshore industrial
shrimp fisheries, and between shrimp and fish fisheries. In Maputo Bay, where the artisanal
fisherman and semi-industrial fleet have fisheries that overlap, disputes over territorial rights
have emerged. On the Sofala Bank, the industrial and semi-industrial fleet often operates
within 5 nm from the coast, damaging the coastal/beach habitats, causing massive fish deaths
and forcing artisanal fishermen into shallow nursery areas where juveniles are then
harvested.
Conflicts between industrial, semi-industrial and artisanal fisheries may partly reflect
weakness of existing fishing laws. This is no clear delimition of fishing areas for each type
of vessel. In addition, there is weak institutional, financial and human resources capacity in
the fisheries sector to implement any legislation, especially along the entire coastline of
151
Mozambique. Artisanal fishermen should be informed about fishing regulations, as they are
key players in the sustainable development of coastal fish resources.
Conflicts also exist between industrial, semi-industrial and artisanal fisheries around the
fishing licence system. Licences for industrial and semi-industrial fisheries are issued by the
National Directorate for Fisheries (DNP) whereas the licence for artisanal fisheries is issued
by the Maritime Administration. Catch statistics for all type of fleets are controlled by the
DNP.
Destructive fishing practices
The most damaging fishing gears and practices used in Mozambique are as follows:
•
•
•
Use of mosquito nets in the code end of the trawling nets
Trawling in the corals and seagrass beds
Use of fish poisons and dynamite fishing
Mosquito nets are widely used by artisanal fisherman in beach seines, traps and hand
trawling in the estuaries, mangrove swamps and other coastal waters. These areas are often
spawning or/and nursery grounds. The consequences of using these nets to the fish resources
are enormous because these nets also catch fish larvae and eggs. No research has been
conducted to assess the impact of these nets on the fish stocks but it is believed to be high.
Trawling seems to be a fishing activity that yields higher catches than other fishing practices
and is thus the preferred method of fishing. Indeed most of the fishing in Mozambique, in
particularly the semi-industrial and industrial fisheries, operates using bottom trawling. The
problem rises when trawling is made in inappropriate areas such as seagrass beds and coral
reefs. Trawling results in the destruction of these habitats and hence the fish resources
supported by these ecosystems. Semi-industrial and industrial fishing vessels have also been
reported to entering shallow waters, with a main focus on estuaries and mangrove creeks,
mainly targeting the juveniles in the process of being recruited to the fishery ground. Such
activities have a negative impact on other non-target species that occupy these nursery areas.
152
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155
National Report
Marine biodiversity in Tanzania – the known and the unknown
Yunus D. Mgaya, Faculty of Aquatic Sciences and Technology,
University of Dar es Salaam, P.O. Box 35064, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
INTRODUCTION
Tanzania is a United Republic made up of two sovereign states formerly known as
Tanganyika (now Tanzania Mainland) and the People’s Republic of Zanzibar (now
Revolutionary Government of Zanzibar). The two former republics formed a political union
on 26 April 1964. The coastal plains of Tanzania Mainland are traversed by permanent and
seasonal rivers, as well as by numerous creeks. The rivers, including Pangani, Wami, Ruvu,
Rufiji, Matandu, Mbwemkuru, Lukuledi and Ruvuma, flow to the Indian Ocean, influencing
the coastal environment through creation of productive brackish water environments in
estuaries, maintenance of deltas, tidal flats and shorelines, as well as nourishment of
mangroves and seagrass beds.
Tanzania has 1,434 km of coastline. The coastal zone is characterized by a wide diversity of
habitats including sandy beaches, rock outcrops, coral reefs, estuaries, bays, seagrass beds,
extensive mangrove stands and coastal forests. The diversity of coastal and marine habitats
supports a wide variety of natural resources. The intertidal zone is mainly of sandy-muddy
flats or rocky reef platforms, while the sublittoral zone consists of extensive seagrass beds
and coral reefs. The continental shelf is generally narrow, dropping sharply below the 60 m
depth contour. The 200 m depth contour is about 2 km from the coast at the narrowest point
(latitude 9º30’S) and 80 km at the widest point (latitude 6º25’S). The continental shelf is
widest in the Zanzibar and Mafia Channels and off the Rufiji Delta (Francis et al., 2001).
The climate of Tanzania is controlled mainly by two major factors: (i) its geographical
location within 1ºS-12ºS latitude, which creates a truly equatorial setting, with high
temperatures, high humidity (60 to 80%), low wind speeds and absence of a cold season, and
(ii) its position on the eastern edge of Africa, exposed to the large seasonal changes brought
about by the general circulation of air over the Indian Ocean (Francis et al., 2001).
The monsoons have the dominant influence on wind direction and strength, temperature and
rainfall, among others. There are two monsoon seasons, namely the Northeast monsoon that
prevails from November to February and is characterized by higher air temperatures (>30ºC)
and weaker winds, and the Southeast monsoon, which lasts from April to September and is
marked by lower air temperature (approximately 25ºC) as well as stronger winds. The
months of March/April and October/November are the inter-monsoon periods and usually
are the calmest (McClanahan, 1988). The entire coastal area, which rises from sea level to
about 200 m, has a mean annual rainfall ranging from 900 to 2000 mm. Rainfall increases
northwards and it is highest on the islands. A bimodal type of rainfall regime composed of a
long rainy season (March-May) and a short one (November-December) prevails along most
coastal areas.
Ocean currents and tides are important features that strongly influence the distribution of
marine organisms and the availability of nutrients. The dominant major currents prevailing
156
in the coastal waters of Tanzania are the South Equatorial Current, which flows westwards at
around 12º S and the northward-flowing East African Coastal Current (EACC). The EACC
is strongest in the southern monsoon (April-October) with an average speed of about 2 m/s
and occasionally reaching 3.5 m/s and weaker during the northern monsoon (NovemberMarch), with an average speed of less than 0.5 m/s (McClanahan, 1988).
The tides along the Tanzanian coast are of semi-diurnal type, characterized by two
occurrences of both high and low waters within a day. These are the mean spring tide of
about 3.5 m and mean neap tide of about 2.5 m. Tides not only influence ecological
processes in the coastal waters but also play an important role in socioeconomic activities of
the coastal communities. In most of the coastal communities, tides determine amongst other
things, the fishing period, type of fishing gears to be used and market time.
The sea surface temperature of the coastal waters of Tanzania averages at 27º C but may
reach 25º C during July to September and rise to 28 to 29º C in shallow areas during January
to March. The depth of the upper mixed layer varies from 20 m (March and November) to
100 m (June/July), due to the seasonal variations in wind speed and direction. Temperature
variations, particularly offshore, are mainly diurnal as they are controlled by day heating
(solar radiation) and night cooling. In the nearshore waters, the temperatures are semidiurnal
due to effect of the tides.
Salinity values are lower during May following the peak freshwater outflow and highest in
November. The salinity values start to decrease in February before the beginning of the rainy
season. This is attributed to the advection of lower salinity water from the south. In the open
ocean, salinity values normally range from 34.0 to 35.5‰. However, the salinity is low
nearer the coast due to freshwater runoff.
As is generally the case with the Indian Ocean, the chlorophyll productivity in Tanzanian
waters is very low when compared with other areas of the tropics. Biomass as measured in
terms of chlorophyll-a, ranges from 0.04 to 1.4 mg/m3 (Francis et al., 2001). Chlorophyll
concentrations in the coastal waters of Tanzania are generally higher during the northern
monsoon and lower during the southern monsoon. The higher concentration during the
northern monsoon is attributed mainly to less mixing to depths of below optimal light
intensity, greater residence time in neritic conditions because of the slower coastal current,
greater runoff and nutrient input from rivers and greater availability of biologically
assimilable nitrogen. Consequently, phytoplankton biomass and fish catch and reproduction
are higher during this period (McClanahan, 1988).
A large portion of coastal people of Tanzania relies on the resources obtained from a variety
of productive marine biotopes. The fishery is typically small scale applying a variety of
fishing techniques targeting a large number of species. A large number of fishers (>20,000)
coupled with weak enforcement of fisheries regulations have led to overexploitation of
majority of these resources (JICA/MNRT, 2002).
This report examines the known and unknown in the context of marine biodiversity in
Tanzanian coastal waters and western Indian Ocean region in general.
THE KNOWN
Angel (1993) has observed that most marine species diversity is benthic rather than pelagic. The
pelagic province has an enormous volume compared with the inhabitable part of the benthic
province, yet there are only 3,500-4,500 species of phytoplankton (Sournia and Chretiennot157
Dinet, 1991). Over 265 species of phytoplanktonic algae have been reported in Tanzanian
coastal waters (Bryceson, 1977).
The work of various authors put the estimate of the marine macro-taxa occurring in the
intertidal and shallow seas of the western Indian Ocean at a minimum of 10,992 species
(Richmond, 2002 and references cited therein). Table 1 illustrates a summary of the
estimated number of species for major macroflora (including phytoplankton) and
macrofauna taxa from littoral and shallow sublittoral waters of the western Indian Ocean. It
can be seen that the Mollusca and the Pisces represent about half of the entire known marine
biodiversity of this region, with a clear domination by mollusks. A closer look at the
Mollusca reveals that the class Prosobranchia is the most species-rich taxon. However, it
should be stated that for many taxa the figures could be largely regarded as conservative
estimates of the true diversity of species for the WIO region.
Mangroves
Mangroves are most luxuriant around the mouths of large rivers and in sheltered bays.
Mangrove forests of Tanzania cover about 115,500 ha and those in Zanzibar cover 18,000
(Unguja Island 6,000 ha and Pemba Island 12,000 ha) (Semesi, 1991). There are nine species
of mangrove trees in Tanzania, though not all are found in every forest. The species include
Avicennia marina, Rhizophora mucronata, Xylocarpus molluccensis, Xylocarpus granatum,
Sonneratia alba, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, Heritiera littoralis, Ceriops tagal, and Lumnitzera
racemosa. X. molluccensis is very rare but Avicennia marina, Rhizophora mucronata and
Ceriops tagal are abundant.
Seagrasses
Seagrasses grow best in the quiet, protected waters of healthy estuaries and lagoons, often in
beds, or meadows that are easily delineated for classification as critical habitat areas. The
seagrass beds normally extend shoreward to the point where wave action prevents them from
rooting. In Tanzania, seagrass beds are widely distributed from high intertidal to shallow
subtidal areas. Twelve types of seagrass have been identified in the country (Richmond,
2001) including Enhalus acoroides, Cymodocea rotundata, Cymodocea serrulata,
Cymodocea sp., Halodule uninervis, Halodule wrightii, Halophila minor, Halophila ovata,
Halophila stipulacea, Syringodium isoetifolium, Thalassia hemprichii and Thallassodendron
ciliatum.
Seaweeds
Seaweeds or algae grow attached to rocks or other stable objects at various depths in the sea.
Traditionally, seaweeds include only macroscopic, multicellular marine red, green and
brown algae, which are also referred to as macroalgae. In Tanzania there are over 300
species of red, green and brown intertidal seaweeds. The species diversity of red seaweeds is
higher than the other two groups but the brown algae dominate in terms of biomass. Very
little can be said at present about the species diversity of macroalgae, given the lack of
comparative studies; however work in this field is ongoing. For example, Coppejans et al.
(2001) mentions a list of 91 records for the Indian Ocean region, of which 18 are new for the
Indian Ocean, 26 are new for the East African coast and 47 are new for either Kenya (23) or
Tanzania (24).
158
Table 1. Summary of the estimated number of species for major macroflora and macrofauna
taxa from littoral and shallow sublittoral waters of the western Indian Ocean. Data from
Richmond (2001, 2002).
Taxa
Microalgae1
Mangroves
Seagrasses
Macroalgae
Porifera
Ctenophora
Scyphozoa
Hydrozoa
Octocorallia
Ceriantharia
Actiniaria
Corallimorpharia
Zoanthidea
Scleractinia
Antipatharia
Platyhelminthes
Echiura
Sipuncula
Polychaeta
Oligochaeta
Cirripedia
Nemertea
Amphipoda
Isopoda
Stomatopoda
Dendrobranchiata
Total
1
Bryceson (1977).
Minimum
number of
species
265
10
12
1011
200
20
30
100
300
20
30
10
5
200
10
100
22
50
300
10
30
59
300
100
30
10
Taxa
Caridea
Palinura
Thalassinidea
Anomura
Brachyura
Scaphopoda
Polyplacophora
Prosobranchia
Opisthobranchia
Pulmonata
Bivalvia
Cephalopoda
Echinoidea
Holothuroidea
Asteroidea
Ophiuroidea
Crinoidea
Phoronida
Brachiopoda
Bryozoa
Hemichordata
Chaetognatha
Thaliacea
Ascidiacea
Pisces
Minimum
number of
species
150
20
20
50
465
10
39
2550
400
20
667
20
62
148
58
132
19
5
5
500
20
50
30
100
2000
11,257
Porifera
Marine sponges are poorly studied, consequently current accurate estimates for the diversity
of the Porifera in the western Indian Ocean are not available. An estimate of 683 species
including those from the Red Sea and Arabian Sea were described by van Soest (1994).
Much research is needed before the true diversity of sponges in this region is established.
Cnidaria
Hydrozoans have not been well studied throughout the western Indian Ocean though a
number of localized investigations have been conducted (Branch et al., 1994). The diversity
of Scyphozoans (jellyfishes) has been estimated at 30 species collected from the region
(Cornelius, 2002). Within the class Anthozoa, the order Scleractinia (hard corals) has
received perhaps the greatest attention. Sheppard (1987) reports 439 species of scleractinian
corals from the entire Indian Ocean with about 150 species reported in Tanzanian reefs.
159
Polychaeta
Polychaetes are important members of the soft bottom communities (Guerreiro et al., 1996),
yet very little taxonomic work has been conducted on this group in Tanzania.
Crustacea
Larger decapod crustacean groups, including lobsters, shrimps and crabs are well known
when compared to smaller groups such as ostracods, tanaids, mysids, cumaceans and
amphipods. Crustaceans are generally widely distributed due to their extended larval life and
there is little evidence for regional endemism. Hartnoll (1975) examined the Grapsidae and
Ocypodidae from Tanzania and Madagascar and concluded that there was a very limited
level of endemism, with the majority of the species at the two sites also found in the MalayIndonesia.
Mollusca
Richmond (1999) put together a checklist of molluscs in the western Indian Ocean region
that comprised a minimum of 2550 species of gastropod prosobranchs from 75 families; 39
species of polyplacophorans representing 6 families, and a minimum of 667 species of
bivalves from 49 families.
Echinodermata
Richmond (1999) reported a total of 419 echinoderm species for the western Indian Ocean
region, with over 100 species (25%) considered to be endemic. The monograph of Clark and
Rowe (1971) is still the most comprehensive echinoderm publication to date. However, some
156 new species have been documented since the publication of the monograph. Little
research is currently being conducted on echinoderms in the WIO region.
Bryozoa
Bryozoans are poorly known in the western Indian Ocean region. The work by Hayward and
Yonow (2002) put the estimate of bryozoans at a minimum of 500 species in the WIO
region.
Ascidiacea
Ascidians (sea squirts) contribute to the marine diversity of shallow and deep seas, but have
been ignored by taxonomists.
Pisces
Fish are well studied in the western Indian Ocean region and most species are widely
distributed throughout the Indo-Pacific region. Over 2,000 species of fish, from 150 families,
occur in the WIO region. However, much remains to be learnt about the fish of Tanzania.
Further taxonomic work could increase species checklists and reveal many new species,
especially from deeper water. Fish identification is aided by Smith and Heemstra (1995)
together with the identification guides for commercial fish and shellfish produced by the UN
Food and Agriculture Organisation (Fischer and Bianchi, 1984; Bianchi 1985).
Marine turtles
Five species of marine turtles are found in the waters of Tanzania: green turtle, Chelonia
mydas; hawksbill turtle, Eretmochelys imbricata, leatherback turtle, Dermochelys coriacea;
olive Ridley turtle, Lepidochelys olivacea and loggerhead turtle, Caretta caretta. The most
common turtle in Tanzanian waters is the green turtle followed by hawksbill and less
common loggerhead and leatherback turtles. The olive Ridley is very rare in Tanzanian
waters.
160
Sea snakes
There are more than 50 species from 14 genera of sea snakes, most of which occur in the
Australasian region. One species, Pelamis platurus (Yellow-bellied Sea Snake) has been
reported in East African coastal waters (Howell, 2002).
Coastal birds
There is a great diversity of birds that occur along virtually the whole coast of mainland East
Africa. For convenience these species can be grouped into three descriptive categories:
shoreline predators (such as herons and birds of prey), the true seabirds (such as gulls, terns,
boobies and gannets) and wading birds (plovers and sandpipers) (Bennun et al., 2002).
Latham Island is an important breeding site for birds, such as the sooty tern (Sterna fuscata),
noddy tern (Anous stolidus), crested tern (Sterna bergii) and masked booby (Sula
dactylatra). Fairy tern, frigate birds and gannets are commonly found along the coast.
Marine mammals
Whales, dolphins and porpoises are sighted as they frequent Tanzanian coastal waters.
Several species of dolphins have been reported in the waters of Tanzania and these include
rough-toothed dolphin (Steno bredanensis), bottlenose and spinner dolphins (Stenella
longirostris) and Indo-Pacific humpback. Humpback whales (Megaptera novaeanglia) also
frequent Tanzanian waters. Dugong (Dugong dugon) have also been sighted in Tanzania
although quite rare. Watson (1981) mapped cetacean distributions based on sightings at sea
as well as specimens, and provided an important reference in the form of a field
identification guide. Watson (1981) lists 26 species recorded from eastern Africa. These
species belong to the following families: Balaenopteridae (6 species), Ziphidae (4 species),
Physeteridae (4 species), Globicephalidae (5 species), Delphinidae (7 species).
THE UNKNOWN
The seagrasses, mangroves, macroalgae, scleractinian corals, prosobranch mollusks and
some of the bivalves, most decapod crustaceans, echinoderms and fish are reasonably well
known (Richmond, 2002). These account for about 75% of the total estimate of shallowwater taxa in the western Indian Ocean region (see Table 1). Taxonomic and biogeographical
studies are required for the lesser-known taxa so that new species/genera and new records
are revealed and taxonomic ambiguities are resolved. According to Sheppard (1998), the
taxonomy of Indian Ocean corals still requires considerable revision despite recent
improvements, a recommendation that may also apply to many other groups in the Indian
Ocean.
CURRENT THREATS
Reviews of threats to coastal systems have been published by various authors (e.g., Fluharty,
1994; Lundin and Linden, 1993; Suchanek, 1994; Sebens, 1994) who have identified threats
such as habitat loss, global climate change, over-exploitation, pollution (including direct and
indirect effects of inorganic and organic chemicals), eutrophication and related problems such
as pathogenic bacteria and algal toxins, species introductions/invasions, water-shed alteration
and physical alterations of coasts, tourism and marine litter. Policy deficiencies and inadequate
planning have also been cited as threats to aquatic biodiversity (Shumway, 1999). More often
than not, the threats are interlinked. Habitat loss is considered by all the reviews to be the most
critical threat. Specific threats are described hereunder for various taxa.
161
Mangroves
Threats: In recent years, the rate and variety of human influences have increased to the point
where a large proportion of the mangrove resource is threatened with destruction.
Mangroves severely affected are either close to urban centres, large villages, or have been
converted to aquaculture ponds or saltpans. Activities that are destructive include:
• Clearance for agriculture and aquaculture: Clearing of mangroves for rice farms has
taken place in some riverine mangroves such as Rufiji Delta. Shrimp farms are major
contributors to the destruction of mangroves in Southeast Asia and Latin America.
Developers are now moving to Eastern Africa although the environmental and social
problems related to shrimp farming are well known.
• Clearance for salt production: Some solar saltpans are located on the saline bare areas
behind mangroves, but others have been constructed on mangrove areas. In Tanzania,
saltpans cover about 3093 ha.
• Clearance for urban and industrial development: Only the mangroves found near
large towns such as Dar es Salaam are being filled in for house construction or for
other activities. Near towns, mangroves are also used as dumping places by
neighbouring residents and also receive untreated wastes. Small mangrove stands
near large towns are also being killed as a result of oil pollution, e.g. Dar es Salaam.
Others are cleared to provide a good view of the sea and this is causing beach erosion
as can be seen in Nunge, Bagamoyo.
• Diversion of freshwater due to dam construction.
• Overexploitation for firewood, pole and charcoal production: For example, 60% of
the mangroves at Kunduchi have been cleared.
Seagrasses and Seaweeds
Threats: Since seagrass beds are mainly found in shallow water close to shore and human
activities, they are very vulnerable to pressure from those activities. Major threats to the
survival of seagrass beds come from excessive sedimentation of coastal waters resulting
from different activities. Increased turbidity tends to cut down light penetration. Inshore
shrimp trawling and seine nets also destroy seagrass beds.
Coral reefs
Threats: Major threats to coral reefs include destruction by fishing with explosives, anchor
damage, destruction for construction material (coral mining), vessel grounding, trampling,
destruction of linked habitats such as mangroves and over-harvesting of fish, octopus, sea
cucumbers and shells. Others include sediment mainly brought in by rivers, sewage
discharges and chemical pollution, poison fishing and dredging. Abnormal nutrient
enrichment (eutrophication), particularly from sewage disposal, can alter the structure of
coral reef ecosystems through the overgrowth of algae and shade from increased algal
production.
Molluscs
Threats: Shell trade involving the most popular and colourful gastropods e.g. cowries
(Cypraeidae), helmet shells (Cassidae), cones (Conidae), volutes (Volutidae), and spider
shells and conch (Strombidae), has resulted in considerable conservation and environmental
concern. Since mollusks are collected live, it is feared that they are being over-collected and
their habitats damaged by shell collectors (Mgaya et al., 1999).
Pisces
Threats: The threat to fish diversity in Tanzania include over-fishing and the use of illegal
fishing gear (e.g. use of poison, small mesh size nets, and dynamite). One of the most
destructive fishing techniques is dynamiting. This practice has contributed to the degradation
162
of habitats and fisheries productivity. Other destructive techniques include beach seine
fishing and the use of dragnets as well as the use of sticks and spears. The use of poison
affects marine organisms indiscriminately, including larvae and juveniles. The most
commonly used poison is an extract from a plant locally known as “Utupa” (Derris sp.).
Trawling, though legal, is a highly unselective fishing technique. The trawlers may not only
damage the seabed, but large numbers of fish are caught along with targeted species and
discarded as by-catch.
Marine turtles
Threats: Turtle populations in Tanzania have declined, probably due to loss of nesting sites.
Development of hotels along beaches is one of the reasons for the decline. Turtles are
exploited for their meat and eggs and the hawksbill for the carapace, which is used for
ornamental purposes. Fishermen using gill nets for fishing also catch the turtles incidentally.
Coastal birds
Threats: (1) The major threat to both resident and migrant species of the western Indian
Ocean is the destruction of habitats on which they depend. Some of the problems include
cutting of mangrove forests, and development of the smaller offshore islands. (2) Pollution is
another threat facing seabirds. The type of pollutants include sewage from domestic sources
and from ships, petroleum and tar residues from ships; industrial wastes such as metals,
acids, paints, pesticides and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB’s), dyes, strong alkalies and
organic wastes from breweries. The effects of chemical pollutants may include thinning of
eggshells, lower reproductive success, etc. Oil spills from ships, pumping stations or
wrecked oil tankers and other vessels have disastrous effects on seabirds. (3) Human
exploitation and in particular egg collection on islands remains an important threat to
seabirds in eastern Africa (Howell, 1988).
Marine mammals
Threats: Because of its limited distribution and movements along the coast, the dugong is
especially vulnerable to both direct exploitation by man and to any change in water or
habitat quality, which might affect it or its food supply, such as pollution or siltation.
Dugong populations in Tanzania have almost been eliminated. They are killed for their flesh
and oil.
Success of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs)
There are two marine parks in Tanzania, namely Mafia Island Marine Park and Mnazi Bay –
Ruvuma Estuary Marine Park. Other marine protected areas include Chumbe Island Coral
Park (privately-run) and Menai Bay Conservation Area, both located in Zanzibar. Resource
exploitation in these marine protected areas is fairly well regulated. A study of 22 sites along
the coastline of Kenya and Tanzania found that the abundance and species richness of
commercially important triggerfish, surgeonfish, and parrotfish were higher in protected
areas compared to fished areas (McClanahan and Arthur, 2000). However, the effectiveness
of MPAs in countering threats to marine biodiversity and the sustainability to fisheries is still
debatable. The absence of baseline data from surveys undertaken prior to protection of the
area makes comparisons with adjacent unprotected areas difficult. One could argue that the
high diversity and productivity of protected areas compared to unprotected areas is attributed
to the fact that the most diverse and productive areas were chosen for protection in the first
place (Francis et al., 2002).
163
CAPACITY
Human Capacity
1. Dr. Marten Mtolera
Institute of Marine Sciences, Zanzibar
University of Dar es Salaam
P.O. Box 35064, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
(Seagrasses and Seaweeds)
2. Ms. Amelia Buryo
Department of Botany
University of Dar es Salaam
P.O. Box 35064, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
(Seaweeds, particularly Rhodophyta)
3. Dr. Charles Lugomela
Faculty of Aquatic Sciences and Technology
University of Dar es Salaam
(Microalgae, particularly Cyanophyta)
4. Dr. Jude Shunula
Institute of Marine Sciences, Zanzibar
University of Dar es Salaam
P.O. Box 668, Zanzibar
(Mangroves)
5. Ms. Blandina Lugendo
Faculty of Aquatic Sciences and Technology
University of Dar es Salaam
P.O. Box 35064, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
(Fishes)
6. Dr. Narriman Jiddawi
Institute of Marine Sciences, Zanzibar
University of Dar es Salaam
P.O. Box 668, Zanzibar
(Fishes)
7. Dr. Simon Ndaro
Faculty of Aquatic Sciences and Technology
University of Dar es Salaam
P.O. Box 35064, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
(Meiofauna)
8. Dr. Christopher Muhando
Institute of Marine Sciences, Zanzibar
University of Dar es Salaam
P.O. Box 668, Zanzibar
(Hard Corals)
9. Dr. Abdillah Chande
164
Tanzania Fisheries Research Institute
P.O. Box 9750 Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
(Portunid crabs)
Institutional Capacity
1. Department of Zoology and Marine Biology
University of Dar es Salaam
P.O. Box 35064, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
Holds various invertebrate groups and finfish.
Card catalogue
2. Department of Botany
University of Dar es Salaam
P.O. Box 35060, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
Holds mangroves, seagrasses and seaweeds.
Card catalogue/Herbarium records
3. National Museums of Tanzania
Marine Biology Section
P.O. Box 511, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
Holds various invertebrate groups and finfish.
Card catalogue
4. Institute of Marine Sciences
5. Faculty of Aquatic Sciences and Technology
University of Dar es Salaam
University of Dar es Salaam
P.O. Box 668, Zanzibar
P.O. Box 35064, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
Holds various invertebrate groups and finfish.
Card catalogue
Other regional organizations, which are active in marine biodiversity research, are listed in
Richmond (2002).
Biodiversity Resources
The extensive Bibliography by Richmond (2002) is relevant for this section and should be
consulted.
CD-ROM on Biodiversity and Taxonomy of the Indian Ocean for the following taxa: (1)
Mangroves and Seagrasses, (2) Corals, (3) Echinoderms, and (4) Crabs. The CDs are an
interactive tool for identification and distribution of the various taxa. Sida has produced
them in association with The University of Warwick, Stockholm University and Western
Indian Ocean Marine Science Association (WIOMSA).
165
REFERENCES
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Bianchi, G., 1985. FAO Species Identification Sheets for fishery Purposes.
Field Guide to the Commercial Marine and Brackishwater Species of
Tanzania. Prepared and published with the support of TCP/URT/4406 and
FAO (FIRM) Regular Programme. FAO, Rome. 199 pp.
Bennun, L., Knott, H., and Richmond, M.D., 2002. Class Aves. In: Richmond, M.D.
(Editor), A field Guide to the Seashores of Eastern Africa and the Western
Indian Ocean Islands. Sida/SAREC, Stockholm and University of Dar es
Salaam, Tanzania, pp. 386-397.
Branch, G.M., Griffiths, C.L., Branch, M.L. and Beckley, L.E., 1994. Two Oceans: A Guide
to the Marine Life of Southern Africa. D. Philip, Cape Town and
Johannesburg. 360 pp.
Bryceson, I., 1977. An ecological study of the phytoplankton off the coastal waters of Dar es
Salaam. PhD thesis, University of Dar es Salaam. 560 pp.
Clark, A.M. and Rowe, F.W.E., 1971. Monograph of Shallow-water IndoWest Pacific Echinoderms. The British Museum (Natural History), London.
234 pp.
Coppejans, E., De Clerk, O., Leliaert, F., and Dargent, O., 2001. Progress of the taxonomic
research on macroalgae (Chlorophyta, Phaeophyta and Rhodophyta) along the
east African coast. In: Richmond, M.D. and Francis, J. (Editors), Marine
Science Development in Tanzania and Eastern Africa. Proceedings of the 20th
Anniversary Conference on Advances in Marine Science in Tanzania. 28 June
– 1 July 1999, Zanzibar, Tanzania. IMS/WIOMSA, pp. 401-418.
Cornelius, P., 2002. Class Scyphozoa. In: Richmond, M.D. (Editor), A field Guide to the
Seashores of Eastern Africa and the Western Indian Ocean Islands.
Sida/SAREC, Stockholm and University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, pp. 132134.
Fischer, W. and Bianchi, G. (Editors), 1984. FAO Species Identification Sheets for fishery
Purposes. Western Indian Ocean (Fishing Area 51). DANIDA/FAO, Rome.
Vols. 1-6.
Fluharty, D.L., 1994. Coastal management: New global concern. Forum
Appl. Res. Public Policy 9: 53-58.
Francis, J., Mahongo, S., and Semesi, A., 2001. The coastal environment. In: Eastern Africa
Atlas of Coastal Resources: Tanzania. UNEP, Nairobi, Kenya, pp. 9-47.
Francis, J., Nilsson, A. and Waruinge, D., 2002. Marine protected areas in the Eastern
African region: How successful are they? Ambio 31: 503-511.
Guerreiro, J., Freitas, S., Pereira, P., and Paula, J., 1996. Sediment macrobenthos of
mangrove flats at Inhaca Island, Mozambique. Cah. Biol. Mar. 37: 309-327.
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Zool. Lond. 177: 305-328.
Hayward, P. and Yonow, N., 2002. Miscellaneous phyla. In: Richmond, M.D. (Editor), A
field Guide to the Seashores of Eastern Africa and the Western Indian Ocean
Islands. Sida/SAREC, Stockholm and University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania,
pp. 332-335.
Howell, K.M., 1988. The conservation of the coastal waterbirds of Tanzania. In: Mainoya,
J.R. (Editor), Proceedings of Workshop on Ecology and Bioproductivity of
the Marine Coastal Waters of Eastern Africa. Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, 18-20
January 1988. Faculty of Science, University of Dar es Salaam, pp. 162-173.
Howell, K.M., 2002. Class Reptilia. In: Richmond, M.D. (Editor), A field Guide to the
Seashores of Eastern Africa and the Western Indian Ocean Islands.
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Sida/SAREC, Stockholm and University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, pp. 380385.
JICA/MNRT, 2002. The Master Plan Study on Fisheries Development in the United
Republic of Tanzania. Main Report. Japan International Cooperation Agency
and Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism, Dar es Salaam.
Lundin, C.G. and Linden, O., 1993. Coastal ecosystem: Attempts to manage a threatened
resource. Ambio 22: 468-473.
McClanahan, T.R., 1988. Seasonality in East Africa’s coastal waters. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser.
44: 191-199.
McClanahan, T.R. and Arthur, R., 2000. The effects of marine reserves and habitat on
populations of East African coral reef fishes. Ecol. Applic. 11: 559-569.
Mgaya, Y.D., Muruke, M.H.S. and Semesi, A.K., 1999. The sea cucumber and mollusc
fisheries in Bagamoyo. In: K.M. Howell and A.K. Semesi (Editors), Coastal
Resources of Bagamoyo District Tanzania. Proceedings of a Workshop on
Coastal Resources of Bagamoyo, 18–19 December 1997, Bagamoyo. Faculty
of Science, University of Dar es Salaam, pp. 65-71.
Richmond, M.D., 1999. The biodiversity and biogeography of shallow-water flora and fauna
of the western Indian Ocean with special reference to the Polychaeta,
Mollusca and Echinodermata. PhD thesis. University of Wales – Bangor,
School of Ocean Sciences. 235 pp.
Richmond, M.D., 2001. The marine biodiversity of the western Indian Ocean and its
biogeography: How much do we know? In: Richmond, M.D. and Francis, J.
(Editors), Marine Science Development in Tanzania and Eastern Africa.
Proceedings of the 20th Anniversary Conference on Advances in Marine
Science in Tanzania. 28 June – 1 July 1999, Zanzibar, Tanzania.
IMS/WIOMSA, pp. 241-261.
Richmond, M.D. (Editor), 2002. A field Guide to the Seashores of Eastern Africa and the
Western Indian Ocean Islands. Sida/SAREC, Stockholm and University of
Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. 461 pp.
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34: 115-133.
Semesi, A.K., 1991. Management Plan for the Mangrove Ecosystem of Mainland Tanzania:
Vol. 11. Mangrove Management Plan of all Coastal Districts (Part 1: An
Overview of Mangroves and Strategies and Approaches Essential for the
Implementation of the Plan). Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism,
Tanzania and NORAD.
Sheppard, C.R.C., 1987. Coral species of the Indian Ocean and adjacent seas: A
synonymised compilation and some regional distribution patterns. Atoll Res.
Bull. 307: 1-32.
Sheppard, C.R.C., 1998. Biodiversity patterns in Indian Ocean corals, and effects of
taxonomic error in data. Biodiv. Conserv. 7: 22 pp.
Shumway, C.A., 1999. Forgotten Waters: Freshwater and Marine Ecosystems in Africa.
Strategies for Biodiversity Conservation and Sustainable Development.
Boston University, USA. 167 pp.
Smith M.M. and Heemstra, P.C. (Editors), 1995. Smith’s Sea Fishes. Southern Book
Publishers, Johannesburg. 1047 pp.
Sournia, A. and Chretiennot-Dinet, G., 1991. Marine phytoplankton: How many species in
the world ocean? J. Plank. Res. 13: 1093-1099.
Suchanek, T.H., 1994. Temperate coastal marine communities: Biodiversity and threats.
Amer. Zool. 34: 100-114.
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van Soest, R.W.M., 1994. Demosponge distribution patterns. In: van Soest, R.W.M., van
Kempen, Th. M.G., and Braekman, J.C. (Editors), Sponges in Time and
Space. Balkema, Rotterdam.
Watson, L., 1981. Sea Guide to Whales of the World. Hutchinson, London.
168
National Report
Marine biodiversity in Kenya – the known and the unknown
Esther Fondo, Kenya Marine & Fisheries Research Institute,
P.O. Box 81651, GPO 80100, Mombasa, Kenya
INTRODUCTION
The Kenyan coastline is about 600 km in length and forms part of the western border of the
Indian Ocean. It has an almost continuous fringing coral reef usually running parallel to the
coast. Kenya’s territorial sea and Exclusive Economic Zone extend 12 nm and 200 nm
respectively, with the total area of EEZ being 118 km2.
The Kenyan coast runs in a southwesterly direction from the Somalian border in the north
1o41’S to 4o40’S at the border with Tanzania. Climate and weather systems on the Kenyan
coast are dominated by the two distinct monsoon periods. From November to March, the
north-east monsoon dominates and is comparatively dry. End of March to September the
south-east monsoon dominates bringing heavy rains. Mean annual total rainfall ranges from
508 mm to1016 mm. Relative humidity is comparatively high all year round reaching its
peak during the wet months of April and July.
Living coral reefs occur all along the length of the Kenyan coast. A fringing reef colonizes
the shallow parts of the continental shelf along most of the Kenyan coastline to a depth of
around 45 km and at a distance of between 500 m to 2 km offshore, except where river
systems create conditions of low salinity and high turbidity which limit coral growth. The
estimated continental shelf area is about 19,210 km2. Two main rivers drain into the Indian
Ocean: the Tana River (850 km) and Sabaki River (650 km). The Tana River enters the sea
at Ungwana Bay and discharges 3 million tonnes of sediment per year, while the Sabaki
River enters the Indian Ocean north of Malindi and discharges about 2 million tonnes of
sediment per year. The sea surface temperature ranges from 24oC to 29oC depending on the
monsoon season. Salinities vary from a minimum of 34.5 ppt to a maximum of 35.4 ppt.
Coastal Ecosystems and Resources
Marine beaches and dunes: These are lightly vegetated by highly specialized colonizing
plants. There are approximately 27,000 ha of beach and dunes in Kenya.
Estuaries and other wetlands: These systems are sheltered from high energy waves and
colonized by mangrove trees and associated plants. The Sabaki Estuary contains an
important flood plain. Subsistence fisheries for cichlid fish and freshwater prawns are found
in coastal wetlands.
Mangroves: There are 9 species of mangrove trees and shrubs found along the Kenyan coast.
The mangrove swamps along the Kenyan coast cover 53,000 ha with the largest stands
occurring in the Lamu area (460 km2). Kenyans have traditionally exploited the rich natural
products of the mangrove swamp as well as various parts of the trees themselves. Mangrove
vegetation has also been cleared for solar salt works and prawn farms. Mangroves are
nursery grounds for fish and prawns and support diverse flora and fauna.
169
Figure 1: Map of Kenya showing the coastal resources and MPAs (source KeNODC)
Seagrasses and seaweeds: A total of 12 species of seagrasses have been recorded in Kenya,
none of which is endemic. Seagrass beds support variety of commercially important fish
species, and act as feeding grounds for turtles and dugong. There are more species of red
seaweeds than browns and greens combined. A survey of Kenyan coastal waters has shown
that there are no sites with significant stands of commercially important seaweeds. Only two
commercially important genera are found in Kenya: Gracilaria and Euchema.
170
Corals: Approximately 183 species of corals belonging to 59 genera have been recorded.
The total area of coral reef is approximately 50,000 ha; one of the best known reefs being
located at Malindi-Watamu. Corals support a variety of fauna and attract tourists.
Fisheries: Only 7.4% of the national total annual fishery production comes from marine
waters. Landings by about 5,000 coastal fishermen have remained consistent between 5,000
and 8,000 tonnes. Commercial prawn trawling also is also important.(Eastern Africa
Atlas,1998)
THE KNOWN
Both local and visiting researchers have conducted research on the marine biota of Kenya.
However, a lot still needs to be done. Among the taxa that have been adequately researched
include the marine plants under the following classes: Anthophyta, Rhodophycota,
Chlorophycota and Phaeophycota. Phyla from the animal kingdom that have been adequately
researched include Pisces, Crustacea, Mollusca, Aves, Cnidaria, Echinodermata and
Mammalia. The diversity of marine animals in Kenya is considerably more than this and a
lot more research needs to be undertaken. Coverage of the three major ecosystems
(mangroves, corals and seagrass beds) has been adequate, but studies on other habitats (such
as the benthic habitats) have been minimal. The total biodiversity in Kenya is unknown, as
are the levels of endemicity.
Estimates of marine species documented from Kenya, as recorded in databases that include
Fishbase (1998) and Marine Species Diversity of Eastern Africa (MASDEA), are listed
below:
Plants
Approximately 56 families (over 204 species) of marine plants are known, under the
following Classes:
Anthophyta
15
Chlorophycota
62
Cyanophycota
3
Magnoliophycota
1
Phaeophycota
32
Rhodophycota
82
Mangroves
9
Animals
About 345 families (over 1808 species) have been documented, under the following Classes:
Annelida
10
Arthropoda (Crustacea)
343
Pisces
662
Aves
173
Mammalia
25
Reptalia
3
Cnidaria
183
Echinodermata
93
Mollusca
297
Platyhelminthes
17
171
Porifera
2
Species list for Kenyan finfish are known to be incomplete. Only one biotope, the mangrove
swamps, has been studied in any detail. Studies in the Gazi mangrove creek identified 109
finfish species belonging to 44 families. Over 80 species of gastropods and bivalves find
their way into curio shops and fish markets. A total of 450 species of birds are found on the
coast and adjacent interior (Eastern Africa Atlas, 1998).
Twelve coastal and marine species are known to be endemic to Kenya:
Mammals
6
Birds
4
Fish
1
Plant
1
Endemic to Kenya and Tanzania:
Birds
6
Birds
2 (and Mozambique)
The coastal zone appears to be the habitat for the majority of Kenya’s Internationally IUCN
threatened species. Of the 159 species of threatened trees and shrubs, 38% come from the
coast; of the 71 threatened bird species 27% inhabit the coast, while of the 9 threatened
mammal species 55% are located on the coast (Eastern Africa Atlas, 1998).
Endangered marine species
Vulnerable
Rare
Commercially threatened
Green and Hawksbill turtles
Loggerhead turtle and dugong
3 bird species and a mollusc
2 molluscs and spiny lobster
The gaps identified in the information on marine biodiversity in the Eastern African region
led to the development of MASDEA, a taxonomic/geographical database on marine species
of the region. Data entry was started in1996 by Dr E. Van den Berghe at the Kenya Marine
& Fisheries Research Institute and was supported by the RECOSCIX-WIO Project (Regional
Cooperation for Scientific Information Exchange). The database is accessible on
http://www.vliz.be/vmdcdata/Masdea/about.htm and is hosted by the Flanders Marine
Institute, Belgium. In spite of the existence of a number of taxonomic databases, there is
still a lack of this important information specific for this region. Furthermore, these
databases cover mainly terrestrial species or are based on specific groups.
Consequently the database was developed with the following objectives:
1. Collect all available literature on the marine species of the region.
2. Enter data on the species into the database.
3. Seek the support of taxonomic experts (of different groups) of the region.
4. Search for more literature to be entered in the database.
5. Eventually make the database available to scientists in the region and beyond.
The database is useful in conservation in that it gives knowledge on the diversity of the
species in the region. One can keep track of extinct species and also keep track of old
information and literature. Current and valid names as well as synonyms of species are
clearly indicated as well as the authority (author who described the species) thereby avoiding
confusion. The database also includes accounts for newly discovered species. The database
has entries for 21 countries and regions within the Western Indian Ocean.
172
THE UNKNOWN
The coastal and marine environments of Kenya are very rich in biotic resources, yet they are
the least studied of Kenyan natural environments and there are a number of significant gaps
in baseline information.
Considerable research work on the Kenyan coast has been carried out by visiting scientists.
Local scientists are limited by financial support and lack of appropriate facilities. Expertise
is restricted to mostly the environmental and ecological fields, with taxonomy poorly
represented. This has led to limited taxonomical information on the marine biota of Kenya.
Taxa that have been neglected include Annelida and Porifera. Even among the adequately
covered classes (Crustacea, Cnidaria) some taxa have been poorly studied, e.g. Mysidacea,
Amphipoda, Ostracoda, Cirripedia and Pycnogonida. In addition, the Nudibranchia,
Bryozoa, Nemertea and Tunicata have also been largely ignored.
Adequate taxonomic keys are a major limitation. Among the seagrass beds and corals,
smaller fauna utilising these habitats and have been poorly researched. Benthic habitats have
received little attention despite their importance in the marine ecosystems.
173
CURRENT THREATS
Increased demands for marine resources have resulted in significant changes along the
Kenyan coast. These changes were brought about because of a number of threats that
include:
•
•
•
•
•
•
Overexploitation of marine resources: overfishing has resulted in declining fish
resources and disappearance of some species e.g. holothurians.
Destruction of habitats through cutting of mangroves and destructive fishing methods
such as seine nets and poisons as well as commercial trawling. Careless collection
methods in the corals are on the increase. Conversion of mangrove areas to prawn
farms, e.g. Ngomeni area.
Pollution: land and marine based pollutants, domestic effluents, chemicals and
eutrophication.
Sedimentation, resulting from the erosion of agricultural land. This has been on the
increase resulting in one of the major rivers (Sabaki) changing its course.
Urbanization and unplanned development.
Natural threats such as El Nino, and localised changes in sea temperatures have
impacted on the corals and mangroves.
MARINE PROTECTED AREAS IN KENYA
Kenya led Africa with the establishment of the continent’s first marine protected areas in
1968. These areas were primarily designed to conserve Kenya’s coral reefs and which form
biodiversity hot spots. There are five MPAs in Kenya and they are managed by the Kenya
Wildlife Service (KWS).
Malindi Marine National Park
The Malindi Marine National Reserve encloses Watamu and Malindi Marine National Parks.
These were set up in 1968. The area also includes several coral islets, notably Whale Island
at the entrance to Mida Creek in the Watamu Marine National Park. The reserve is 213 km2
forming a complex of marine and tidal habitats on Kenya’s North Coast. It extends 5 km into
the sea and stretches 30 km along the coast from Malindi town to beyond the entrance to
Mida Creek. Habitats include intertidal rock, sand and mud; fringing reefs and coral gardens;
beds of sea grass; coral cliffs, platforms and islets; sandy beaches and mangrove forests.
Mida Creek is a large, almost land locked expanse of saline water, mangrove forest and
intertidal mud protected in the Watamu Marine Reserve.
Watamu Marine National Park
Watamu National Park is part of a complex of marine and tidal habitats on Kenya’s North
coast stretching from Malindi town to beyond the entrance to Mida Creek. It is enclosed by
the Malindi Marine National Reserve that also encloses Malindi Marine National Park.
Habitats include intertidal rock, sand and mud; fringing reefs and coral gardens; beds of sea
grass; coral cliffs, platforms and islets; sandy beaches and Mida Creek mangrove forest. The
park was designated as a Biosphere reserve in 1979.
174
Mombasa Marine National Park & Reserve
The park is 10 km2 while the reserve is 200 km2. These were established in 1986. Both the
park and reserve are the most highly utilised among marine protected areas. Their coastline
is heavily developed with tourist facilities. The Coral gardens and the beach are the major
attractions.
Kiunga Marine National Reserve
Kiunga Marine National Reserve (set up in 1979) incorporates a chain of about 50
calcareous offshore islands and coral reefs in the Lamu Archipelago, running for some 60km
parallel to the coastline off the northern most coast of Kenya and adjacent to Dodori and
Boni National Reserves on the mainland. Composed of old, eroded coral, the islands mainly
lie inland around 2km offshore and inshore of the fringing reef. They vary in size from a few
hundred square metres to 100 ha or more. Their walls rise sheer from the surrounding seabed
and are usually deeply undercut on the landward side. The small outer islands provide nest
sites for migratory seabirds. The reserve conserves valuable coral reefs, sea grass meadows
and extensive mangrove forests, with their attendant biodiversity and is also a refuge for sea
turtles and dugongs.
Kisite Marine Park & Mpunguti Reserve
Kisite and Mpunguti Marine Parks (gazetted in 1973 and 1978 respectively) are located on
the south coast off Shimoni and south of Wasini Island in Kwale District on the south
Kenyan coast near the Tanzanian border. Kisite Park covers 11 km2 while Mpunguti reserve
covers 28 km2. The complex covers a marine area with four small islands surrounded by
coral reef.
Two more protected areas have been proposed: The Tana River Delta Wetland Reserve
and the Diani Chale Marine Reserve.
The World Wildlife Fund has made efforts to set up the Eastern African Marine Ecoregion
(EAME), which is part of the larger Western Indian Ocean Region. The ecoregion approach
recognises that the protection of biodiversity is an integral component of protecting
resources and the economies and social fabrics that depend on them. In Kenya the following
areas rich in biodiversity are included in the EAME: Lamu Archipelago, Mida CreekMalindi, Tana River Delta, Msambweni-Tanga, Tanzania (EAME Proceedings, 2001).
Kenya has made a number of International commitments to the protection of the coastal and
marine environment and its resources. Some of these include:
• Convention on the Continental Shelf, Geneva, 1958. Kenya ratified this convention
on 20 September 1969.
• Convention on the prevention of marine pollution by dumping of wastes and other
matters, London, 1972. Kenya ratified this convention on 17 January 1976.
• Convention for the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (1979).
• Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora
(1973).
• Convention on Biological Diversity (1992)
• Nairobi Convention for the Protection, Management and Development of the Marine
Environment and the coastal areas of the East African Region (1996).
• RAMSAR Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as
Waterfowl habitat (1971).
175
The Kenyan government has the responsibility of creating national legislation that ensures
the implementation of these agreements.
CAPACITY
Human Capacity (Taxonomists and Conservationists)
Kenyans
Name
Enoch Wakwabi
James Kairo
Agnes Muthumbi
David Olendo
Joseph Wakibia
Nyawira Muthiga
David Obura
Melckzedeck Osore
James Mwaluma
Renison Ruwa
Julius Okondo
Gerald Mwatha
Gladys Moragwa
Esther Fondo
Edward Kimani
Jacqueline Uku
Peter Wawiye
Helida Oyieke
Elizabeth Akinyi
Dalmas Oyugi
George Gatere
Paul Webala
Alfred Owino
Collins Handa
Nathan Gichuki
Patrick Gwada
Stephen Mwangi
Expertise
Prawns
Mangroves
Nematodes
Turtles
Algae
Corals, Echinoderms
Corals
Copepods
Copepods
Decapods
Benthos
Fish
Turtles
Decapods
Oysters
Seagrasses
Phytoplankton/algae
Sea weeds
Fresh water fishes
Marine fishes
Fresh water diatoms
Mammals
Water birds
Marine Snails
Water birds
Mangroves, seagrass
Microbiology
Contact
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
Visiting scientists
A number of visiting scientists have been active workers on the marine biota of Kenya and
the Western Indian Ocean region. Some of these scientists are listed below.
Name
Tim Mc Clanahan
Jan Mees
Tim Deprez
Tris Wooldridge
Didier V. Spiegel
Michel Jangoux
Yves Samyn
Claude Massin
Expertise
Corals
Mysids
Mysids
Mysids
Ophiuroidea
Asteroidea
Echinoderms
Echinoderms
Contact
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
176
Ahmed Thandar
Eric Coppejans
Marco Vannini
S. Cannicci
F. Dahdouh-Guebas
Leon Bennun
Charles Sheppard
Nest Schockaert
Yehuda Benayahu
Echinoderms
Algae
Decapods
Decapods
Mangroves
Birds
Corals
Flatworms
Corals
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
Warwick University
[email protected]
Institutional Capacity
The National Museums of Kenya keeps all specimen collections. Visiting scientists and
cruises also have collections and some of the holdings in other Institutions are shown in the
table below.
Institution
Collections
University
Museum of
Zoology,
Cambridge
The Natural
History
Museum
of London
Swedish
Museum of
Natural
History
Zoological
Museum
University of
Copenhagen
National
Museum of
Scotland
Smithsonian
Institution,
National
Museum of
Natural
History
Invertebrates (9)
Fish (3)
Zoological
Museum
Documentation
Status
Preparing
electronic
catalogue
Contact person
Algae
Others
Database
Ms. Jenny Bryant
[email protected]
Molluscs
Oligochaetes (4)
Not catalogued
e-database
Anders Waren
[email protected]
Rotifers
Mounted
Martin Sorensen
[email protected]
Ray Symonds
[email protected]
Molluscs
Card catalogue
Other invertebrates
Sankurie Pye
[email protected]
512
marine All online*
species:
Coelentrata
Arthropoda
Echinodermata
Mollusca
Sarcomastigophora
Porifera
Chordata
Annelida
Platyhelminthes
Nematoda
Sipuncula
Crustacea
e-catalogue in
Others
preparation
Chad Walter
[email protected]
177
Cheryl Bright
[email protected]
Bjarne Bisballe
[email protected]
Denmark
Puglia
Museum of
Zoology,
Italy
Rome
Museum
of Zoology
Australian
Museum
Oxford
University
Museum of
Natural
History
Australian
Museum
Zoology
Museum Tel
Aviv
University
Hungary
Museum of
Natural
History
Zoological
Museum,
University of
Florence,
Italy
Royal
Belgian
Institute of
Natural
Sciences
Molluscs
Card catalogue
Crustacea (8)
e-database
Crustacea
Not identified
Fish (8)
e-database
Soft Corals
Benthic
invertebrates
Sponges
Tunicates
Molluscs
e-database
A. Zilli
[email protected]
Penny Berents
[email protected]
Sammy De Graves
[email protected]
McGrouther
[email protected]
Prof. Hudi Benayahu
[email protected]
e-database
Zoltan Feher
[email protected]
Echinoderms
Cephalopods
Molluscs
Crustacea
Card catalogue
Cecilia Volpi
[email protected]
Echinoderms
Molluscs
e-database
Claude Massin
[email protected]
* http://goode.si.edu/mcs/iz/Query.php
http://www.mnh.si.edu/rc/db/colldb.html
List of institutions/organisations active in marine biodiversity research and
conservation
Kenya Marine & Fisheries Research Institution
Kenya Wildlife Service
National Museums of Kenya
Fisheries Department
Forestry Department
National Environment Management Authority
Coast Development Authority
Coral Reef Degradation in the Indian Ocean
178
Coral Reef Conservation Project
World Conservation Union (IUCN- East Africa Regional Office)
World Wildlife Fund for Nature
Kenya Sea Turtle Conservation Committee
East African Wild Life Society
Nature Kenya (East African Natural History Society)
PACT Kenya
National Oil Spills Response Committee
Beach Management Units (by local communities along the Kenyan coast)
United Nations Environment Programme
179
BIODIVERSITY REFERENCES
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Abbott, R.T.
Dance
Aleem, A.A.
&
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Cooper
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Anderson, D.T.
1994 Barnacles: Structure, function, development and evolution. Chapman & Hall
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1973 The Biology and Ecology of Tropical Holothurians. Biology and Geology of Coral
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Barnard, K. H.
1925 A Revision of the Family Anthuridae (Crustacea Isopoda), with Remarks on
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1950 Descriptive catalogue of South African decapod Crustacea. Ann. S. Afr. Mus 38:
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1955 Additions to the fauna list of South African Crustacea and Pycnogonida. Annals
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1966 Some 'sand fauna' Polyzoa (Bryozoa) from Eastern Africa and the northern
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187
National Report
The Marine Biodiversity of Mauritius
Dr Mitrasen Bhikajee
Department of Biological Sciences, University of Mauritius. [email protected]
INTRODUCTION
The Republic of Mauritius consists of the main island of Mauritius located in the Indian
Ocean at 20.17 o S and 57.33 o East and a number of smaller islands namely Agaléga, the
Cargados Carajos, the Chagos Archipelago, Rodrigues and Tromelin. The total land area
amounts to 2 040 km2 whilst the marine exclusive economic zone covers an area of about 1.9
million km2 extending from latitude10 o S to 20 o S and from longitude 55 o E to 75 o E
(Figure 1).
Figure 1: The Indian Ocean showing the EEZ of Mauritius and the islands forming the
Republic of Mauritius
The island of Mauritius is 1 865 km2 in area, volcanic in origin and consists of a central
plateau (mean elevation: 350 m) surrounded by mountain ranges and plains (Figure 2).
188
Figure 2: Map of Mauritius showing the relief
Mauritius enjoys a mild maritime climate with summer extending from October - April and
winter from May - September. Trade winds are prevalent throughout the year but are
stronger in winter when strong anticyclones pass to the south of the island. In summer, the
trade winds are weaker but the island is also under the threats of tropical depressions, which
can build up in cyclones. On average one cyclone passes within 100 km of Mauritius each
year. Mauritius receives an average of 2 100 mm annual rain with 70% of it occurring in
summer. Tropical depressions and cyclones bring abundant rainfall spread over a number of
days. Mean maximum temperature reaches 310 C in the coastal areas during the peak
189
summer months of January and February whilst the mean minimum temperature on the
central plateau reaches 140 C in July and August. (Ministry of Environment, 2002)
The coastline of the island of Mauritius is 322 km long and is almost completely surrounded
by fringing coral reefs enclosing a lagoon area totaling 243 km. The volcanic nature of the
island's origin, the existence of coral reefs and the access to the lagoons of more than 50
rivers and rivulets, determine the diversity of the coastal habitats, flora and fauna. The island
has several sandy beaches, protected bays and calm lagoons - factors that have favoured a
prosperous tourism industry.
Economically, the coastal zone is by far the most valuable segment of the Mauritian
territory. Located here are the tourist facilities, secondary residences, ports, fisheries
infrastructure and public beaches. Figure 3 gives the changes in coastal land distribution
from 1990 - 2000. In this zone billions of rupees are being invested in the form of hotels,
infrastructure, water sport facilities, biodiversity conservation, coastal protection and coastal
developments in general. Environmental problems which affect the coastal zone are
therefore of a very high priority. (Ministry of Environment, 2002)
DISTRIBUTON OF COASTAL AREA
4%
8%
3%
5%
3%
8%
3%
5%
6%
13%
3%
3%
Yr 1990
5%
9%
13%
Cliffs/grazing
Yr 1996
Cliffs
Coastal road
Under vegetation
16%
25%
25%
Yr 2000
33%
16%
Grazing
Agriculture
Other activities
Building sites
16%
8%
Campement sites
Hotel sites
5%
7%
9%
8%
8%
Public beaches
5%
4%
6%
4%
5%
9%
Figure 3: Changes in coastal land distribution from 1990 to 2000.
The shoreline varies in extent, shape and regime. Dune and ridge complex characterize most
of the beaches around Mauritius and the beach width varies from a few metres in the Eastern
and Southern regions to about 25 m in the north. In general the sediments are coralline
except at mouth of rivers, where they are muddy with a large component of silt and clay. In
many places and in particular in the southern regions there are scattered low-lying basaltic
rocks on the shoreline.
190
Mangroves covered a large part of the coastline in the past, but its area has decreased
markedly with the development over the last three decades. Nowadays they are to be found
at mouth of rivers and estuaries. The two species occuring in Mauritius- Bruguiera
gymnorhiza and Rhizophora mucronata are not exploited. A replanting programme is now in
progress in the areas where mangroves were thriving in the past.
There are some scattered pockets of coastal wetlands all around the island but most
particularly in the north, north-east and north-west regions. These ecologically important
ecosystems are under the constant threats of coastal developments. Much of this precious
natural filtration system has been reclaimed in the north of the island.
Coastal activities
Fishing, tourism, sand mining and recreation/sports are the main activities along the coastal
zone. The coastal fish catch has remained more or less constant with small annual variations
(Table 1)
Table 1: Coastal Fish Catch from 1993 to 2002
Year
1993 1994 1995 1996
Coastal 2 533 2 613 2 393 2 566
Fish
Catch
(tones)
Source: Central Statistical Office, 2003
1997
2 196
1998
2 179
1999
2 175
2000
2 310
2001
2 025
2002
2252
On the other hand tourism activities have increased significantly. The number of tourists
arriving in Mauritius in 2002 reached 681 600 with a room capacity of 9 623. (Table 2).It is
expected to increase further this year.
Table 2: Tourist arrival for Mauritius from 1993 to 2002
Year
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
Tourist
Arrivals 374630 400526 422463 486867 536125 558195 578085 656453 660318 681600
Source: Central Statistical Office, 2003
Sand mining has been going on in the lagoons for years. About 800 000 t of sand are
removed from the lagoon annually to be used in construction work. Twenty-five cooperative
associations using 310 boats and employing nearly 1 000 people run this business with a
turnover of US$8 million. Owing to the devastating effects of this practice to the lagoon
ecosystem, the government has banned sand mining with effect from 1st October 2001. The
workers of this sector are being financially compensated and alternative jobs including
training facilities are being offered to them.
Mauritius has witnessed a very rapid industrial and tourism development in the last two
decades. This development has increased the pressures on natural resources and negatively
impacted on the environment, especially the coastal zone. The problem is further aggravated
by the scarcity of land and the unplanned development of prime coastal land in
environmentally sensitive areas. Because of the size of Mauritius and the proximity of any
land point from the sea, the entire island can be considered as coastal zone. As such most
191
land-based activities have a direct or indirect impact on the marine environment. Some of the
activities directly affecting the marine environment include fishing, beach hotel activities,
wetland loss, tourism, sand mining, untreated sewage discharges and agrochemicals.
The 1992 report on the State of the Environment in Mauritius clearly identifies major
environmental problems in the marine environment as:
1. Deterioration of the water quality (fouling of the seas with industrial and domestic
effluents and agricultural run-off),
2. Disappearance of mangroves and sedimentation,
3. Destruction of coral reefs,
4. Erosion of shores,
5. Decrease in fish productivity and
6. Contamination of beaches and seafood.
Though much has been done to control and in some cases reverse the deterioration process,
the coastal zone is still under intense pressure from both sea based activities (fisheries and
water sports) and land based ones (construction, sewage, industry and agriculture). The rapid
increase in the number of hotels and the haphazard development against the shoreline has
exacerbated erosion of the beachfront due to the construction of inappropriate protection
structures and jetties. In many cases when land on the coastal strip was leased out, no special
provision was made to allow access of the public to the sea. In places where there are hotels
or extensive bungalow developments, people have to walk long distances to find an access to
the beach.
Priority issues
The priority issues identified in the National Environment Strategies (NES 1999) can be
summarised as:
• Beach erosion and overdevelopment resulting in a loss of quality of the coastal zone and a
threat to existing commercial interests;
• Poor lagoon water quality as a result of contamination from land, coastal and marine
sources; and
• Loss of biodiversity due to the destruction of wetlands, mangroves and corals. (WSSD)
The Known
The first formal compilation of marine organisms was recently done as a requirement for the
UN Convention on Biological Diversity.
The marine organisms described from Mauritius are given in Table 3.
Table 3: Marine animals and plants from Mauritius
GROUP
Mammals
Reptiles
FAMILY
Balaenopteridae
Delphinidae
Physeteridae
Zyphiidae
Chelonidae
SPECIES
5
8
1
2
2
192
Bony Fishes
Laticaudidae
Acanthuridae
Albulidae
Ambassidae
Anguillidae
Antennariidae
Apogonidae
Atherinidae
Aulostomidae
Balistidae
Belonidae
Berycidae
Blennidae
Bothidae
Bramidae
Branchiostegidae
Caesionidae
Caracanthidae
Carangidae
Chaetodontidae
Chanidae
Chirocentridae
Cirrhidae
Cirrhitidae
Clinidae
Clupeidae
Congridae
Coryphaenidae
Cynoglossidae
Dactylopterigae
Diodontidae
Echeneidae
Eleotridae
Elopidae
Engraulidae
Exocoetidae
Fistulanidae
Gempylidae
Gerreidae
Gobiidae
Grammistidae
Haemolidae
Hemiramphidae
Holocentridae
Istiophoridae
Kuhliidae
Kyphosidae
Labridae
Lactariidae
Leiognathidae
1
29
1
2
5
6
12
3
1
14
6
2
21
2
3
1
6
2
30
25
1
1
2
9
1
10
1
2
2
1
3
3
8
3
6
5
1
4
3
7
3
10
4
24
4
3
2
91
1
8
193
Lethrinidae
Lutjanidae
Malacanthidae
Megapolidae
Menidae
Microdesmidae
Molidae
Monacanthidae
Monocentridae
Monodactylidae
Moringuidae
Mugiloididae
Mullidae
Muraensoadae
Muraenidae
Nemipteridae
Nomeidae
Ophichthidae
Ophidiidae
Oplichthidae
Pampheridae
Pegasidae
Platacidae
Platycephalidae
Plesiopidae
Polymixidae
Polynemidae
Pomacentridae
Pomadasyidae
Pomatomidae
Priacanthidae
Psettodidae
Psedochromidae
Scaridae
Scombridae
Scorpaenidae
Serranidae
Siganidae
Soleidae
Soleidae
Solenostomidae
Sparidae
Sphyraenidae
Sphyrnidae
Syngnathidae
Synodontidae
Tetraodontidae
Theraponidae
Triacanthidae
Triachnoidea
11
28
2
1
1
6
3
20
1
1
7
3
12
2
27
3
2
2
1
8
2
4
1
2
3
1
5
36
1
1
5
1
1
26
13
20
51
6
5
5
2
7
2
3
13
8
19
2
1
1
194
Cartilaginous Fishes
Crustaceans
(Shrimps)
Crustaceans
(Lobsters)
Crustaceans (Crabs)
Molluscs
Trichiuridae
Triodontidae
Zanclidae
Carcharhinidae
Ginglymostomatidae
Lamnidae
Rhiniodontidae
Sphyrnidae
Stegostomatidae
Triglidae
Xiphiidae
Palaemonidae
1
1
1
14
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
7
Penaeidae
Palinuridae
5
4
Scyllaridae
Synaxidae
Portunidae
Xanthidae
Aceridae
Actaeonidea
Aplysiidae
Architectonicidae
Arcidae
Atyidae
Buccinidae
Bullidae
Bursidae
Calyptridae
Cancellariidae
Capulidae
Cardiidae
Carditidae
Cassidae
Caphalopodes
Cerithidae
Chamidae
Collummbellidae
Conidae
Coralliophilidae
Crytophthalmidae
Cymatidae
Cypracea
Cypracidae
Donacidae
Epitoniidae
Eulimidae
Fasciolariidae
Fissurellidae
2
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
1
1
4
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
3
1
7
1
2
29
2
1
11
6
8
1
1
2
7
1
195
Echinoderms
Haliotidae
Harpidae
Hipponycidae
Hydatinidae
Isogomontidae
Lanthinidae
Limidae
Littorinidae
Lucinidae
Magilidae
Mitridae
Modulidae
Muricidae
Mytilidae
Nassariidae
Naticidae
Neritidae
Neritoptidae
Octopodidae
Olividae
Ostreidae
Ovulidae
Pateliidae
Pectinidae
Pectunculudae
Phasianellidae
Pinnidae
Planaxidae
Pleurobranchidae
Psammobiidae
Pteriidae
Pyramidellidae
Spondylidae
Stiliferidae
Strombidae
Tellinidae
Terebridae
Tonnodae
Trapeziidae
Tridacnidae
Trochidae
Turbinidae
Turridae
Umbraculidae
Vanikorida
Vasidae
Veneriidae
Xenophoridae
Acanthasteridae
Archasteridae
1
3
2
2
1
1
1
4
2
2
24
1
12
4
8
4
4
1
1
1
2
1
3
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
3
3
1
8
2
6
4
1
2
2
2
5
1
1
1
5
1
1
1
196
Corals
Mangroves
Seagrass
Chlorophyceae
Phaeophyceae
Astriclypeidae
Cidaridae
Diadematidae
Echinasteridae
Holothuriidae
Laganidae
Ophiocomidae
Ophiuridae
Oreasteridae
Stichopidae
Stomopneustidae
Synaptidae
Toxopneustidae
Acroporidae
Agariciidae
Dendrophy
Faviidae
Fungiidae
Helioporidae
Merulinidae
Milleporidae
Mussidae
Oculinidae
Pectiniidae
PocilIoporidae
Poritidae
Siderastreidae
Rhizophoraceae
Hydrocharitacae
Alismatacea
Potomogetonacae
Ruppiaceae
Zannichelliaceae
Anadyomenaceae
Boodlaceae
Bryopsidaceae
Caulerpaceae
Chaetophoraceae
Cladophoraceae
Codiaceae
Cyanophyceae
Dasvcladaceae
Diatomaceae
Prasciolaceae
Siphonocladaceae
Ulvaceae
VaIoniaceae
Chordariaceae
Cornyophloeaceae
Dictyotaceae
1
1
4
8
6
1
6
2
1
2
1
2
2
29
5
2
29
1
1
1
2
3
1
3
6
8
3
3
4
1
3
1
4
5
7
4
16
5
24
25
5
6
2
1
4
10
4
1
1
19
197
Rhodophyceae
Ectocarpaceae
Encoliaceae
Sargassaceae
Spennatochnacea
Sphacelariaceae
Bangiaceae
Bonnemalsoniaceae
Ceramiaceae
Chaetangiaceae
Chantransiaceae
Chondrieae
Corallinaceae
Dasyaceae
Delesseriaceae
Gelidiaceae
Gracilariaceae
Grateloupiaceae
Helminthocladiaceae
Hypnaceae
Kallymeniaceae
Mychodeaceae
Nemastomaceae
Phyllophoraceae
Plomiaceae
Porphyridiaceae
Rhizophyllidaceae
Rhodomdelaceae
Rhodopbyllidaceae
Rhodymeniaceae
Sarcodiaceae
Solieriaceae
Spbaerococcaceae
Squamariaceae
8
6
22
2
5
3
1
33
21
5
11
22
4
4
8
16
3
19
15
2
1
6
2
4
2
2
39
4
4
4
15
3
2
Acanthuridae
Apogonidae
Balistidae
Bleniidae
Brancbiostegidae
Callionynidae
Chaetodontidae
Chaetodotidae
Cirrhitidae
Eleotridae
Gobiidae
Labridae
Malacanthidae
Microdesmidae
Monacanthidae
Monocentridae
198
Muraenidae
Nemipteridae
Ostraciidae
Platacidae
Pomacanthidae
Scorpaenidae
Serranidae
Tetraontidae
The Unknown
The literature search for the compilation of marine organisms of Mauritius appears to be
inadequate and several genera or entire families or phyla are not included. Also no
references to first descriptions are given. Most of the organisms described are coastal ones
and very few descriptions of open ocean and benthic species are listed.
Current Threats
•
Several coastal constructions are very close to the waterline and they interfere with
the normal feeding habits and habitat of coastal organisms
•
Fishermen looking for bait cause a lot of damage to seagrass meadows by digging
and overturning the beds.
•
Species which have been introduced for aquaculture have accidentally found their
way in natural water bodies and their impacts have yet to be determined
•
Trampling of corals by visitors and fishermen is a major problem especially in the
island of Rodrigues.
•
Anchor damage to corals by fishermen is also a major issue.
•
Bird egg collection on islets, although prohibited, is of concern.
•
Mangrove clearing for golf course creations and hotel construction is localized but
need to be better managed.
•
Impact of invasive species through ballast waters has not yet been determined
Conservation measures
•
There is now a total ban on lagoonal sand mining
•
Government has been able to control dynamite fishing by making it illegal for
anybody to handle or import dynamite apart from the police.
•
The use of underwater spear guns is illegal
199
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
No trawling allowed in the waters of Mauritius
There is a closed season for large net fishery during the spawning season of fishes.
There is a mesh size limitation for nets
There is control of fishing effort by the issue of licenses for fishing nets and when the
effort needed to be reduced further recently, a buy-back policy of fishing licenses
was introduced.
There is limit on the minimum size of certain fishes which can be caught.
A mangrove re-afforestation programme has been initiated
Two Marine Protected Areas (MPA) were declared in 1997, the Blue Bay MPA of
353 ha and the Balaclava MPA of 485 ha
One estuary (Terre Rouge) has been declared a Ramsar site
Five fishing reserves covering 60 km2 were declared in the forties
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Mauritius, 42p.
Cornic A (1987) Possons de l'ne Maurice Edition de l'Ocean Indien, Ile Maurice, 335p. .
Government of Mauritius. (1995) Annual Report 1995 - Albion Fisheries Research Centre,
Ministry of Fisheries and Marine Resources, 57p.
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Fisheries & Marine Resource Development, 68p.
Goorah D. and Naidoo D., 1987 - Aquaculture Development and Prospects in Mauritius,
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Parameswaran S. & Goorah D. (1981). Occurrence of the striped murrel, Channa striatus
(BLOCH), 1793 in Mauritius. Revue Agricole et Sucriere de 1"Ile Maurice,60, 117-124p.
Parameswaran S., Jehangeer M.I. and J.D. Ardill (1977) - Introduction of Indian and Chinese
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200p.
200
OFCF (1994) Survey Report on the Outer Lagoon Fisheries Development Project in
Mauritius Island, 93p.
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Scheer,-G. (1984 )The distribution of reef-corals in the Indian Ocean with a historical review
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trachys,
a
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Mauritius(Ostraciontidae). -Matsya, 1976 (no.1), 59-62
species
of
(subfamily
trunkfish
from
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National Report
Marine biodiversity in the Seychelles archipelago – the known and the
unknown
1
Bijoux, J.P1*, Adam, P-A2., Alcindor, R2. Bristol, R.3, Decommarmond, A.4, Mortimer,
J.A.2, Robinson, J.5, Rosine, G.2, Rowat, D.6, Talma, E.S6., Wendling, B2. and Zialor,
V.2,
1
Seychelles Centre for Marine Research and Technology - Marine Parks Authority,
P.O. Box 1240, Victoria, Seychelles.
2
Conservation Section, Ministry of Environment. P.O. Box 445, Victoria, Seychelles
3
Nature Seychelles. P. O. Box 1310, Victoria, Seychelles
4
Coastal & Hydrographic Unit, Division of Policy, Planning and Services. Ministry of
Environment. P.O. Box 1145. Victoria, Seychelles
5
Seychelles Fishing Authority. P.O. Box 449, Victoria, Seychelles.
6
Marine Conservation Society, Seychelles. P.O. Box 384, Victoria, Seychelles.
INTRODUCTION
The Seychelles archipelago consists of 115 small granitic and coralline islands, occupying a
terrestrial area of 445 km2 within an Exclusive Economic Zone of 1.3 million km2 in the
South Western Indian Ocean. The population was calculated at 81,177 in the last national
census in 2002 and the per capita GDP for that same year was estimated at US$ 9,100. The
economy of the country is based on tourism and fisheries.
The management of natural biodiversity in the Seychelles is governed by the Seychelles
National Biodiversity and Action Plan (NBSAP) of 1997. This document identifies the
country’s vision for biodiversity and its objectives as well as gaps and needs, and tools and
processes required to fill in the gaps. This document is the centre of Seychelles’ effort to
fulfil its obligations to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), being the second
country to ratify this convention. According to the CBD, the Seychelles pledges itself to
conserve biological diversity, and use biodiversity components sustainably and equitably
share benefits derived from genetic resources.
It is clearly recognised that biodiversity loss and degradation can also lead to a wide range of
costs both in bio-diversity dependent activities, such as SCUBA diving and as knock-on
effects and externalities in other sectors (Shah et al., 1997). As the country’s economy is
heavily dependant on tourism and sustainable use of marine resources it thus highly values
the protection of biological diversity. As a result of the small terrestrial areas of the islands
making up the Seychelles, the whole country could be considered as a coastal zone as many
adverse effects from land affects the marine environment (Gabriel et al., 2000). Tourism and
fisheries being the main source of foreign earning of the country exerts certain amount of
pressure on the government to adequately preserve the marine environment so that it could
be as productive as possible. The country continues to be an active participant in the
Subsidiary Body on Scientific, Technical and Technological Advice (SBSTTA) and
* Corresponding author
Email address: [email protected]
206
Conference of the Parties (COPs) of the CBD. As party to the convention Seychelles submit
reports on the implementation of the convention on a yearly basis.
Collection and classification of specimens from Seychelles is recorded in reports dating back
to the 1800s. However, many of the documents are not available locally and very little work
has been done (apart from the NBSAP) to bring together and review available information
on Seychelles marine biodiversity. Much of the information known about Seychelles marine
biodiversity was collected by the Dutch Expedition Programme of 1994.
The Known
Plant Kingdom:
Mangroves
Out of the 10 species of mangrove known from the East African region (Semesi, 1997), 8
occur naturally in the Seychelles and occupy a total area of 29 km2 (Spalding et al., 2001).
The 8 species are Rhizophora mucronata, Bruiguiera gymnorhiza, Ceriops tagal, Sonneratia
alba, Lumnitzera racemosa, Avecenia marina, Xylocarpus granatum and Xylocarpus
mulocuensis. Though all 8 species are fairly common on most of the Seychelles granitic
islands, there is only one location (Port Launay, Mahe) where all 8 species are found
together.
Mangroves once covered many shores of the granitic islands, especially close to river
mouths and marshland (Shah et al., 1997). Since men first settled in the Seychelles in the
late 1700s mangrove forests have been cleared to make way for coastal construction.
However, there is presently a proliferation of mangrove in the Seychelles. This is clearly
visible on the east coast of Mahe in the lagoons created by recent coastal reclamation and in
places such as Anse Souillac in the Port Launay Marine National Park, where the forest is
slowly extending seawards. Avecenia marina is often the most common species in new
mangrove areas with more mature mangrove forest being dominated by the Red mangrove,
Rhizophora mucronata.
The most extensive mangrove habitats in the Seychelles are found in the lagoons of Aldabra,
Cosmoledo and Astove Island groups, where they provide important seabird nesting and
resting habitats for a variety of seabird species in particular Boobies (Sula sula) and Fregate
birds (Fregata minor) (Shah et al., 1997) and nursery ground for fish. These 3 atolls are the
most outlying of the Seychelles archipelago and human presence there is minimal, thus
providing full protection to these important habitats. Mangroves are no longer used for wood
in the Seychelles and are not harvested in any way. There is therefore no immediate threat to
mangrove apart from a small degree of coastal reclamation that still goes on in mangrove
areas in the Granitic islands.
Seagrasses
There are 8 species of seagrasses in the Seychelles (Spalding et al., 2001). The species are
Enhalus acoroides, Thalassia hemprichii, Halophila ovalis, Thalassodendron ciliatum,
Cymodocea serrulata, Halodule uninervis and Syringodium isoetifolium and Zostera
capensis. Most of the outer islands have extensive seagrass beds, but these are more
noticeable in the shallow lagoons of Aldabra, Cosmoledo and Astove. One of the most
extensive seagrass bed is found on the Providence-Cerf Bank. Major threat to seagrass beds
207
in the inner island remains sedimentation, which may have originated from the extensive
land reclamation on the east coast of Mahe.
Macroalgae
The first inventory of macroalgae from the Seychelles was conducted in 1899-1900 by the
Sealark Expedition, in which a total of 120 macroalgal species were collected. There are
presently 316 known species of macroalgae from the Seychelles in 3 divisions, Chlorophyta,
Phaeophyta and Rhodophyta, from the Seychelles (Kalugina-Gutnik et al., 1992) cited in
Coppejans et al. (1994). Coppejans et al. (1994) collected a total of 209 species from a total
of 18 orders and 49 families on the 1992/93 Dutch expedition to the Seychelles. The two
major expeditions have together sampled around most of the Seychelles islands with that of
Kalugina-Gutnik et al. (1992) sampling mostly from the islands south of the Amirantes
group and that of Coppejans et al. (1994) sampling mostly from the Amirantes, the granitic
islands and the 2 coralline islands (Bird and Denis island) north of the granitics.
The best known of the macroalgae remain the Rhodophyta with a recorded total of 107
species from 23 families and 9 orders followed by the Chlorophyta with a recorded 75
species from 13 families and 4 orders. Twenty-five species of Phaeophyta from 6 families
and 5 orders are also known. In the Seychelles, the Phaeophyta are the more noticeable of
the macroalgae, with the large and conspicuous Sargassum sp. and Turbinaria sp. often
occupying large areas of the reef flats.
Coralline algae
No specific study on the coralline algae from the Seychelles has been undertaken. However,
these algae are common on reefs exposed to high wave action and low sedimentation.
Knowledge on coralline algae from the Seychelles is urgently required.
Phytoplankton
The phytoplanktons from the Seychelles have been little studied and knowledge is clearly
lacking. The largest phytoplankton bloom recorded in the Seychelles occurred in August
2003 and was visible at a 15 minutes flying distance from its main concentration in the Bay
of Beau Vallon on the north-western coast of the main island of Mahe. The large bloom
caused extensive deaths of fish and macrobenthos. A single species (Noctiluca scintillans)
appeared to be responsible for the bloom.
Animal Kingdom:
Zooplankton
Knowledge on zooplankton from the coastal waters of the Seychelles is relatively good. This
is the result of a Darwin Initiative sponsored project, aimed at establishing a long-term
zooplankton sampling programme that has been underway since October 2000. There are
129 species/groups that can be easily identified by a trained local taxonomist, including both
meroplankton and holoplankton. There are 78 identified species of copepod, of which 45 are
calanoids, 5 cyclopods, 5 harpaticoids, 22 poicillomastoids and 1 monstrilloid. Also
identifiable are 17 other crustacean groups, 5 polychaetes, 1 turbellarian, 1 echinoderm, 9
molluscs, 4 chaetognaths, 1 bryozoan, 8 coelenterates, 4 urochordates and 1
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cephalochordate. The Zuza cruise of 2001 sampled zooplankton between Seychelles and
Mauritius and found that most of the species collected were the same as those found in the
coastal waters of Mahe. However, the cruise path followed the Mascarene Ridge and data on
oceanic zooplankton are still lacking.
Sponges
The phylum Porifera has been relatively well studied in the Seychelles (Thomas, 1973, 1981;
van Soest, 1994). The last known extensive sponge survey was by van Soest (1994). The
present known number of species is 351. All four known classes are represented but the
majority of the known species are from the larger class of Desmospongiae with a recorded
342 species. There are 7 known species from the Calcarea and 1 species from each the
Hexactinellida and Sclerospongiae. In his analysis of specimens collected in the early 1970s
Thomas (1973, 1981) found a total of 9 completely new species. Collection has however
targeted the inner granitic islands and islands of the Amirantes group. No collections have
been undertaken from the three southerly island groups of Providence, Farquhuar and
Aldabra.
A total of 109 new sponge records were established after the Dutch expedition of 1992/93
(van Soest, 1994) and an estimated 11% of the total known species appear to be endemic to
the region. Many species have not been identified beyond the generic level, and it is believed
that the number of endemics will greatly increase once these identifications have been
completed (van Soest, 1994). An estimated 18% of sponges known to occur in the
Seychelles are regional endemics with 10% also found in around the Indian coast.
An interesting observation from the Seychelles is that fact that phototropic sponges are
common around carbonate islands but absent from the high granitic islands. These sponges
are also known to favour oligotrophic waters. They live in symbiosis with cyanobacteria in
much the same way as corals live with zooxanthellae.
Knowledge of deep-water sponges remains incidental as very little sampling has been done
in the vast expanse of deep sea around the Seychelles. It is now well known that the inner
granitic islands are more diverse that the Amirantes, with 135 species occurring in the inner
island but missing from the Amirantes and 95 species are occurring in the Amirantes and not
the inner islands. This has been attributed by van Soest (1994) to the geological base of the
inner island having both carbonate and granitic reefs as opposed to the Amirantes, which has
exclusively carbonate reefs.
Cnidaria
Of the Cnidarian, only the Scleractinian and Octocorallians have been relatively well
studied. More than 300 species of Scleractinian corals from 66 genera have been recorded in
Seychelles waters, a diversity which could be described as impressive as coral diversity
decreases westward from the Coral Triangle region and suddenly increase around the
Seychelles. Nevertheless, in recent years, coral reefs around the inner granitic islands of the
Seychelles have suffered significant reductions in live cover as a result of localised crownof-thorns starfish (Acanthaster planci) outbreaks as well as the most severe mass coral
bleaching event on record in 1998 (Engelhardt, 2001; Wilkinson et al., 1999). The 1998
mass coral bleaching event affected all coral reefs of the inner granitic islands. Many reef
suffered mortality in excess of 90% due to excessively high seawater temperatures that
exceeded 33°C for a period of several weeks. Two other minor bleaching events occurred in
April 2002, and March 2003 (Wendling et al., 2003). Presently, the most common hard coral
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genera are the Pocillopora, Acropora and Porites. A large scale coral reef monitoring
programme that has been undergoing since 2001 has brought to light a number of factors
affecting coral reef recovery (Engelhardt, 2001, 2003) which will need to be taken into
account when managing coral reef environment. There are a recorded 71 species of
Octocorallians and 55 species of sea anemones identified from the Seychelles (Shah et al.,
1997).
Worms
Marine worms from the Seychelles have been poorly studied and knowledge on their
biodiversity and distribution is still lacking. To date 50 species of serpulids and 21 species
of tuberllaria have been recorded from the Seychelles (Shah et al., 1997).
Crustacea
The most widely studied crustacean order in Seychelles waters are the caridean shrimp with
a recorded 165 different species (Bruce, 1984). It is however thought that the actual number
of species to be found is closer to 200 as many well known tropical Indo-West Pacific
species of wide distribution are yet to be reported from the Seychelles. Much information is
also available on Brachyuran decapod crustacea (Garth, 1984) but more time is necessary for
the compilation of a list and calculation of number of known species. There are a recorded
22 species of sea spiders (Pycnogonida) and 2 types of lobsters (Spiny lobsters (Palinuridae)
and Slipper lobsters (Scyllaridae)). There is a local aquaculture business involved in the
cultivation of the Panaeid prawn (Panaeus monodon). In 2002, 218 Mega tons of prawns
were produced; aimed mostly at the international market.
Molluscs
To date there has not been any in depth study on most of the molluscan phylum from the
Seychelles. Much of what is known are about species harvested for consumption or the curio
trade and are limited to the larger more conspicuous species. There has lately been an
intense survey on the bivalve molluscs from the Seychelles as part of the Shoals of
Capricorn Programme (Oliver, 2001).
Current list of bivalve molluscs from the Seychelles represents mainly larger species from
the reef, intertidal and lagoonal environments and number around 200 species (Oliver,
2001). It has been argued that the bivalve fauna of the Seychelles are under represented. It is
apparently much less than numbers found in the Red Sea (420 species) and East Arabian Sea
(430 species) (Oliver, 2001).
The survey was done in intertidal, lagoonal, reef and offshore environments to depths of
100m. The near shore sampling confirmed the majority of larger species cited by Taylor
(1968) and Jarrett (2000). A number of unusual smaller species were also found along with
an oyster that was found only on other oysters, which is believed to be undiscribed (Oliver,
2001). Offshore sampling off Le Constant Bank at 100m identified 55 bivalve species of
which 26 were new to the Seychelles and 10 were new to science (Oliver, 2001). Samples at
Le Constant Bank were dominated by a new species of Limopsis. New species from the
genera Elliptotellina, Ervilia, Dimya, Limea, Cadella have also been recognised. The major
indication from this survey is that Seychelles bivalve fauna have been underestimated
through a lack of comprehensive survey.
210
In the greater Mascarene Ridge region it has been found that the composition of the bivalve
fauna is usually uniform but taxonomic richness at individual island is highly variable. The
cause of variation is not well understood but it is believed that size of the island and
variability of habitats are important and that neither geological age nor latitude is significant.
Only preliminary data about the work undertaken by Oliver (2001) has been published to
date.
The Natural History Museum holds the most extensive collection of Gastropod mollusc from
the Seychelles with a total of 376 specimens. An interesting observation is the diversity of
cone shells and cowries with a recorded 53 species of cowries and 58 species of cones. The
53 cowrie species are all from the genus Cyprea with the other 15 genera not represented.
Some common species such as Erosaria annulus fails to appear in the list. This indicates to a
large gap in our knowledge on Gastropod mollusc from the Seychelles. Information in field
guides such as Debelius (2001) approximate range distribution of particular species and as
such cannot be used in compilation of a national species list.
Echinoderms
The most comprehensive document on echinoderms in the Seychelles is that of Clark (1984).
More than 150 echinoderms have been positively identified from Seychelles waters (Clark,
1984; NBSAP, 1997). However most of these species come from depth of less than 20 m,
with greater depths relatively unexplored. Many of the samples that have been collected
come from the vicinity of Mahe and Aldabra, with the reefs of the Amirantes and Providence
group relatively unexplored. The Dutch Expedition of 1992/3 collected exhaustively in the
Amirantes group; however there was no echinoderm specialist on the trip and hence no data
on this phylum were collected. Many of the common species known from East Africa,
Madagascar and the Mascarene Islands are currently unknown from the Seychelles but are
likely to be recorded as more samples from diverse localities are collected. It is doubtful
whether any species are endemic to the Seychelles (Clark, 1984).
The Echinoidea are often the first class to be observed in the inner islands as a result of
population explosions by Diadema sp. and Echinotrix sp. (Engelhart, 2001). Echinocyamus
grandis is believed to be endemic to the Seychelles. Recent studies have shown that these
sea urchins play an important role in the rate of recovery of degraded reefs. High numbers
increase the grazing pressure and, since sea urchins graze indiscriminately, they have
adverse effect on coral spats. However, in very low numbers they also have adverse
ecological effect, as they then fail to keep the algal population in check and thus allow the
reef to become overpopulated with algae.
The Holothuroidea are usually very abundant on reef flats, seagrass beds and shallow sand
flat. A total of 35 species were recorded from the Seychelles more than a decade ago and
new species might have been recently discovered. The most popular species is Holothuria
atra, which is found in the sand close to beaches. Recently, a fishery for holothurians has
commenced, with 6 species (Holothuria nobilis, Holothuria scabra, Holothuria fuscogilva,
Thelonta annas, Actinopyga mauritiana and Actinopyga lecanora) being exploited.
However, the exploitation is being regulated by new quotas imposed by the Seychelles
Fishing Authority.
A total of 32 species of Asteroidea have been recorded from the Seychelles. The most
conspicuous taxa in the Seychelles are the Linckia sp. with their bright colours. Unlike the
holothurians, the distribution of Asteroidea is patchy (Clark, 1984). In 1998 there was an
explosion in the crown of thorns (Acanthaster planci) starfish population but this situation
211
returned to normal some months later. Crown of thorn starfish have not been observed
around the inner granitic islands but a few individuals were observed around the atoll of
Aldabra and Cosmoledo in 2002 (Richmond, pers. comm.). In low abundance, Acanthaster
planci forms a natural part of the reef ecosystem and has no adverse effect on the reef.
Forty-four species in the class Ophiuroidea are known from the Seychelles (Clark, 1984). In
the Seychelles, as with the rest of the Indo-Pacific, the family Ophicomidae is the most
dominant. Nine out of the twelve Indo-Pacific species of Ophiocoma, one of the three
Ophiarthrum, and the single species of Ophiocomella, but only three of the fourteen of
Ophiomastix, have been recorded and most of them are common in their chosen habitat
(Clarck, 1984). Most Ophiuroidea of the Seychelles live under blocks on sand, most
particularly in seagrass beds (Clark, 1984).
When compared to other classes in this phylum, the Crinoidea are poorly represented in
Seychelles waters with only 9 recorded species. This is a relatively small class with only
625 species known globally (Barnes et al., 1993). The nocturnal feeding habits of the
crinoids make them difficult to see during the day as they are often hiding in cracks and
crevices. These habits may contribute to the lack of discovery of these species.
Reef fishes
Numerous ichthyological collections have been undertaken over the last 150 years (Playfair,
1867; Smith & Smith, 1969; Polunin & Lubbock, 1977; Polunin, 1984; Randall and van
Egmond; 1994) with close to 1000 species having been recorded from Seychelles, some 400
of which are reef associated (Jennings et al., 1999). However, collections were largely from
shallow water habitats and deepwater fish faunas (> 100 m) have not been adequately
studied or described, such that current estimates may underestimate biodiversity
considerably. Endemism amongst the fish fauna is low and stands around 1 – 2% (Shah et
al., 1997) of which examples are the Seychelles clown fish (Amphiprion fuscocaudatus) and
the controversial Seychelles bamboo shark (Hemiscyllium ocellatum).
However, since 1969 there has been much revision of Indo-Pacific fishes and there are many
misidentification and duplication of names in the list of Smith and Smith (1969) of which
(van Egmond and Randall, 1994) attributed to sexual dichromatism that Smith and Smith
(1969) were not aware of, resulting in overestimation of the fish population. Only around
300 species of fish were recorded in the Seychelles prior to 1954, the year in which the
Smith’s started work in the Seychelles. In the Dutch expedition to the Seychelles in 1992/3,
100 new records were made (Randall and van Egmond, 1994).
Community-level diversity is high in Seychelles with variation often ascribed to differences
in habitat and fishing effort (Jennings et al., 1995; Jennings et al., 1996). This level of
biodiversity also manifests itself across the large latitudinal gradient (3° 41' to 10° 17' South)
that encompasses the varied archipelago (MRAG, 1996). Genetic structuring at the
population level is also an important component of local biodiversity that is currently being
researched, with increasing evidence of a major break in population structure between the
Pacific/east Indian Ocean and the Western Indian Ocean, which in some cases suggests that
it may be necessary to partition a number of widespread species into different taxa
(J.H.Choat, pers.comm.).
The large diversity of commercially exploited fishes in Seychelles and the effects of fishing
on multispecies communities have important implications for fisheries management and
212
ecosystem approaches are increasingly viewed as the most appropriate tools to ensure
sustainability.
Eighteen toothed sharks are known from the Seychelles and it is estimated that there is
between 50,000 and 56,000 Mega tons of shark biomass on the Mahe Plateau with an
additional 34,000 Mega tons on the other banks (Shah et al., 1997). Recent longline trials on
the slopes (300 – 1000 m) around the Mahé Plateau yielded a possible new deepwater shark
species and first records for other cartilaginous and teleost groups (Boullé, 2002).
The whale shark is also common in Seychelles waters. The earliest report of whale sharks,
Rhincodon typus, in Seychelles dates back to 1868, some 40 years after the species was first
described by Dr Andrew Smith from a specimen caught in Table Bay, Cape of Good Hope,
South Africa. E. Perceval Wright is quoted as having described the sharks as being common
in Seychelles and was able to dissect two sharks while on the islands. Unfortunately, Wright
did not publish all of his findings and the preserved specimens he sent to Dublin, Ireland, for
analysis were never recovered. The presence of whale sharks, known locally as ‘Sagren’, in
the coastal waters of Seychelles was therefore well known but little research has been done
on their population dynamics or life history. In view of this, a pilot project was set up in
November 1996 to tag and monitor whale sharks in Seychelles. Mostly juveniles have been
observed around the Seychelles, using the area as a feeding ground. To date more than 100
whale sharks have been tagged.
Sea Turtles
Four species of sea turtles forage in Seychelles waters. Two of these, the hawksbill
(Eremochelys imbricata) and the leatherback (Dermochelys coriacaea) are listed as
Critically Endangered by IUCN (Baillie & Groombridge, 1996), while the green turtle
(Chelonia mydas) and loggerhead (Caretta caretta) are listed as Endangered. Of the 4, only
the hawksbill and green turtle nest in Seychelles. Hawksbills nest mainly in the inner
islands, and green turtles mainly in the outer islands. Seychelles hosts one of the largest
remaining nesting populations of hawksbill in the world (Meylan & Donnelly, 1999) and
also significant nesting populations of green turtles (Seminoff, 2002). Recent research
however indicates a continuing and alarming decline in the numbers of nesting females at
many of the most important rookeries in Seychelles despite turtles having been fully
protected by law since 1994. Factors behind this ongoing decline include: increased coastal
development and the resulting destruction of nesting habitat; the impact of historical
exploitation upon current population demographics; on-going poaching at some sites and
accidental mortality from various sources, possibly including fishery by-catch.
Hawksbill populations are particularly vulnerable. The numbers of nesting female hawksbill
turtles in Seychelles may have declined by as much as 50% during the past 20 years and are
expected to decline significantly more in the next five years (Mortimer, 1984). (Data
analyses in progress under the GEF SEYMEMP project will yield more precise estimates of
population size (Mortimer, in prep.).) Observed and predicted population declines are
attributed to intense over-harvesting for shell of nesting females during the 1970s, 1980s and
early 1990s. This intense harvest effectively prevented successful reproduction at most
hawksbill nesting sites throughout the Seychelles. The Government of Seychelles has
effectively stopped all domestic trade in hawksbill shell (Mortimer, 2000), and currently,
hawksbills are well protected in almost all of the Seychelles nature reserves. But, poaching
to produce meat for domestic consumption and shell for the international black market
continues at some other sites in both the inner and outer islands.
213
The Marine National Parks of Ste. Anne and Curieuse, the two Special Reserves of Cousin
and Aride, and the islands of Cousine and Bird remain among the most important hawksbill
nesting sites in Seychelles. A number of interesting nesting trends have been observed with
respect to the hawksbills. Those sites in Seychelles with a long history of excellent
protection show increased nesting activity. Relatively stable levels of nesting activity have
been recorded at sites where some degree of long term protection has been afforded. But,
sites where exploitation has been heavy during most of the past three decades (e.g. Mahe,
Praslin, and La Digue) have suffered serious recent declines in nesting activity.
Aldabra atoll is both a Special Reserve and a UNESCO World Heritage site and hosts the
largest population of nesting green turtles in the Seychelles. Numbers of green turtles nesting
at Aldabra were drastically reduced during the last century by intense harvesting in the
vicinity of Aldabra. From an estimated 6,000-8,000 females nesting annually in the early
1900s (Mortimer, 1988) the Aldabra population declined to fewer than 1,000 in the late
1960s and early 1970s (Hirth & Carr, 1970; Frazier 1976, 1984; Gibson, 1979). Fortunately,
turtles have been completely protected at Aldabra since 1968. In an apparent response to the
protection afforded them, nesting activity at Aldabra has increased significantly--more than
doubling during the past 35 years (Mortimer, 1988; Mortimer et al., in press). It is of interest
that this apparent increase in numbers of nesting turtles has occurred despite the fact that
some Aldabra turtles are harvested at distant feeding grounds located in other countries,
mainly on the East African coast (as evidenced by the return of flipper tags by fishermen)
(Mortimer, 2001). These data demonstrate that key to conservation of sea turtle populations
is to protect turtles in the vicinity of their nesting beaches.
Sea Birds and Waders
An important feature contributing to the high ornithological profile of Seychelles is its vast
numbers of breeding seabirds. Some colonies host regularly more than one million birds and
are among the largest in the Indian Ocean and the world for some species (e.g. Frigate spp.).
It is likely that prior to the arrival of man, seabird populations were more limited by the
availability of nesting sites than by the availability of food. Seabird conservation is essential
to the maintenance of both national and international biodiversity.
Historically 20 species bred but since human settlement in 1768 seabird numbers have
undergone huge declines, and 2 species have become locally extinct. The very rare Abbot’s
booby, Sula abbotti, used to breed on Assumption and a Pink-backed pelican Pelicanus
rufescens population has been lost from St Joseph Atoll. Historical declines have been
attributed to habitat loss from land use changes and guano harvesting, introduction of alien
predators and large scale human exploitation for food. A more recent and, as yet,
unquantified threat is the massive expansion of the commercial fishery within the Seychelles
EEZ. Seychelles is not situated along any important migratory route, however many
migratory species, especially waders, occur regularly. Some of these migratory waders show
site-fidelity to Seychelles as wintering or stopover grounds e.g. Arenaria interpres (Ruddy
turnstone). Very few species of waders occur in concentrations of international importance,
except for Arenaria interpres and Dromas ardeola (Crab plover). The granitic islands and
the outer islands may be considered as two distinct biogeographical regions.
Granitic islands
Among waterbirds, the presence of Ixobrychus sinensis (Yellow bittern) on Mahé, Praslin,
La Digue and Curieuse is of particular interest. The Seychelles islands are the only place in
the African and Western Indian Ocean regions where this Asian species can be found. Two
214
subspecies of waterbirds, Butorides striatus degens (Green-backed heron) and Bubulcus ibis
sechellarum (Cattle egret) have been described in the granitics.
Seabird colonies of regional or global importance are found in the granitic islands on Aride,
Cousin, Cousine and Bird Island: Puffinus pacificus (Wedge-tailed shearwater)(c. 60,000
pairs between Cousin, Aride, and Cousine which holds the largest colony), Puffinus
lherminieri nicolae (Audubon’s shearwater) (c. 60,000 pairs, mainly on Aride), Anous
tenuirostris (Lesser noddy)(300,000 pairs in total on Aride, Cousin and Cousine), Anous
stolidus (Brown noddy)(> 15 000 pairs between the four islands, mainly Bird), Gygis alba
monte (White tern) (11,000-15,000 pairs mainly in the four islands but also at low densities
in the other granitics), Phaethon lepturus (White-tailed tropicbird)(minimum 2,500 pairs
between Cousin, Cousine and Aride, but also at low density in other granitics), Sterna
fuscata (Sooty tern)(c.700,000 pairs on Bird, and c. 300,000 pairs on Aride), Sterna
anaethetus (Bridled terns)(4,000 pairs, mainly on Recif) and Sterna dougallii (Roseate
terns)(1,255 pairs on Aride).
Outer islands
Among the waterbirds, the Near-Globally Threatened Ardeola idae (Madagascar pond
heron) found in Madagascar is also present at Aldabra in small numbers (probably 20-50
pairs only). Egretta dimorpha (Dimorphic egret), which is restricted to the western Indian
Ocean, is common on Aldabra (possibly several thousands of pairs). There is also a small
population of 25-50 Phoenicopterus ruber roseus (Greater flamingo).
Important heron colonies of Ardea cinerea (Grey heron) are found at Providence (> 1,000
pairs in total). The subspecies Butorides striatus crawfordii is endemic to the outer islands.
Important non-breeding concentrations of Arenaria interpres (up to 700 birds) and Dromas
ardeola (up to 1,500 birds) are observed regularly at Cosmoledo, Aldabra, and St François.
The outer islands host apparently a significant proportion of the world population of the
latter for which the breeding range is restricted to islands off the northern coasts of the
western Indian Ocean, Red Sea and Persian Gulf.
Seabird species of interest include Puffinus lherminieri on Aldabra (50-100 pairs), Puffinus
pacificus (thousands of pairs on Desnoeufs and Boudeuse), Sula sula (Red-footed
booby)(minimum 24,000 pairs between Cosmoledo and Aldabra), Sula dactylatra (Masked
booby)(8,000-11,000 pairs between Cosmoledo and Boudeuse), the rare and endangered
Sula leucogaster (Brown booby)(c. 60 pairs on Cosmoledo), Fregata minor (greater
frigatebird) (4,000 pairs on Aldabra; plus 10-20 pairs on Cosmoledo), Fregata ariel (Lesser
frigatebird)(6,000 pairs on Aldabra), Phaethon rubricauda (Red-tailed tropicbird)(2,000
pairs between Aldabra and Cosmoledo), Phaethon lepturus (mainly Aldabra, 2,500 pairs),
Sterna caspia (Caspian tern)(4-8 pairs on Aldabra), the rare Sterna sumatrana (Black-naped
tern)(max. 500 pairs, mainly on Aldabra, Cosmoledo, Farquhar and Providence), Gygis alba
(several thousands of pairs, mainly on Aldabra, Marie-Louise, Providence), Sterna dougallii
(180-280 pairs between Etoile and African Banks), Sterna fuscata (c. 2.000.000 pairs in
total, mainly on Cosmoledo, Desnoeufs and Farquhar, with smaller numbers on African
Banks and Etoile), Sterna albifrons (Little tern) (max. 800 pairs on Aldabra), Sterna bergii
(Greater crested tern) (260-700 pairs, mainly on Aldabra, Cosmoledo and Providence), and
Anous stolidus (7,000-15,000, mainly on Aldabra, D’Arros, Desnoeufs, Marie-Louise and
Boudeuse).
Marine Mammals
215
Two orders of marine mammals occur in the waters around the Seychelles: Sirenians
(dugongs) and Cetaceans, which include odontocetes or toothed species (dolphins, beaked
whales and sperm whales) and mysticetes or baleen whales. Seychelles waters harbour an
abundance of cetaceans. Over 26 species have been observed to date: 7 dolphin species of
which 4 are common 19 whale species of which examples are fin whales, sperm whales,
beaked whales, and small toothed whales. Some of these are regularly sighted while others
are rarer. Some have not yet been identified with certainty.
Dugongs (Dugong dugong) have been reported around Aldabra but they have not been
studied and therefore little is known about their status despite the fact that they are an
endangered species worldwide and probably close to extinction in this area. Dugongs were
previously extinct from the Seychelles and it is believed that those found on Aldabra
originates from Madagascar or the Comoros. This remains enigmatic as dugongs are not
known to do oceanic migrations.
The Unknown
Plant Kingdom:
In this Kingdom much is known in relation to the mangrove forests and seagrass beds.
However, there is a need to fully explore the infaunal mangrove communities and the
diversity of fungi that the mangrove plants host, especially more so now that there has been
the immergence of fungal diseases in 2 major woody plants in the country which is being
spread around by an insect vector (e.g. Hill et al., 2003). Nobody knows what type of fungi
mangrove plants are susceptible to or what will be the effect of large scale death of
mangrove trees.
With respect to the seagrasses much is known about the species found in Seychelles waters
however only their distribution around the inner islands is known. There is a need to map
these important habitats around the outer islands and to fully understand there role in
maintaining marine biodiversity and in fisheries.
It is believed that there are still large gaps in our knowledge of macroalgae from the
Seychelles as only species of the 3 main divisions are known. There is a need to record and
describe species from other algal divisions including phytoplanktons that can severely
impact tourism and fisheries as a result of blooms. A manual of phytoplankton from the
region would be of great help to marine biologist and local taxonomists.
Animal Kingdom:
Zooplankton: The coastal zooplanktons of the Seychelles are relatively well known however
very little data has been gathered on oceanic and deep sea species. It is believed that
evidence of climate change in marine communities will first appear in the zooplankton with
respect to species range and population. Hence, there is a need to closely follow species
diversity in the zooplankton as it may have repercussion on fisheries and on many other
marine habitats.
Sponges: Extensive collection of sponges from the Seychelles has been carried out by a
number of expeditions, however most of the collection has been made around the granitic
islands and the Amirantes group with very little collection undertaken in the other island
216
groups. The sponges of the other island groups south of the Amirantes remain relatively
unstudied to date including deep sea species that have been only opportunistically studied.
Cnidarians: Marine Cnidarians of the Seychelles remains relatively unknown apart from the
Scleractinian and Octocorallians. Cnidarians appears to be very susceptible to increase in
water temperature and there is a need to fully explore their diversity in Seychelles waters
before any possible climate change related extinction occurs.
Crustacea: Much of what is known on Crustacea from the Seychelles is on those organisms
from the class Malacostraca and Copepoda. Information is still lacking on many of the other
crustacean classes. As for the Branchiopoda, many organisms are caught in the zooplankton
programme, as has been previously described, and there is a need to better identify these
animals. Very little information is also available on organisms from the class Ostracoda and
Thecostraca. Despite the fact that much is known on the class Malacostraca, knowledge is
limited to a few families and there is a need to expend the knowledge on other families from
this class.
Mollusc: Knowledge on mollusc from the Seychelles is limited to only a few species which
are commercially harvested for consumption or the curio trade and what is available from the
Natural History Museum. There is a need to carry out extensive surveys on the other classes
(Gastropoda, Scaphopoda and Polyplacophora.) as have been undertaken by Oliver (2001)
on the bivalves.
Echinoderms: The phylum Echinodermata is probably the best known marine macro-benthic
phylum in the Seychelles, mostly due to the large size of organisms belonging to it and
extensive surveys that have been undertaken with respect to these animals. There is however
a need to keep on updating the species list as more organisms are discovered and study the
cause that cause some organisms in this phylum to explode. As with most other phylum,
information on deep sea species is still lacking.
Fish: It is possible that many cryptic reef fishes are yet undiscovered in Seychelles waters.
Recent exploration has targeted deep sea species (Boullé, 2002) adding new species to the
Seychelles list. There is a need to continue with these deep sea explorations so that we could
have a more thorough knowledge on the deep sea environment. Information is lacking on
most elasmobranches species apart from pelagic and reef sharks species. There is a need to
fully explore and record the elasmobranches from the Seychelles. Migratory behaviour of
large species such as the whale shark is only presently being researched. Increase knowledge
on migratory behaviour will help us to better preserve these highly vulnerable animals.
Sea turtles: Baseline surveys of sea turtle nesting and foraging populations have been
conducted in the vicinity of most of the islands of Seychelles (Mortimer 1984, 1998), and
long term monitoring has been underway at some sites for more than two decades
(Mortimer, 2003). Overall, however, a better understanding is needed of developmental
migrations and habitat utilization of all sea turtle species at each of the various stages in their
life cycles throughout the western Indian Ocean. There is evidence that sea turtles play
significant ecological roles in maintaining the health of coral reef and sea grass ecosystems
(Jackson et al., 2001; Leon & Bjorndal, 2002). It follows that effective long-term
management of these valuable ecosystems, may depend, at least in part, on a better
217
understanding of the ecological roles of sea turtles in them. How the hawksbill, a species
usually associated with coral reefs, will be affected in the long term by the reef degradation
brought about by increasing occurrences of coral bleaching events is yet unknown.
Sea birds and waders: The status of knowledge of seabirds and waders for the granitic
islands is generally very good, but for the outer islands, due to remoteness and difficulty of
access, the quality of data is much lower and in many cases out of date. Seabirds are
potential indicators of fish stocks and several species feed on the same fish as commercially
important fish species and they are increasingly being advocated as potential and cost
effective monitors fish stocks. Trans-disciplinary research with fishing authorities could aid
with fish stock prediction and management. A priority must also be to conduct a complete
seabird and wader census of all the outer islands to gain accurate baseline information on
seabird and wader populations
Marine mammals: Little is known on marine mammals from the Seychelles apart from
which species have been observed. There is no detailed information on population size or
what the animals are doing in the Seychelles. Many dolphin schools appear to be territorial
and are spotted recurrently in the same area. As for the dugongs seen in the lagoon of
Aldabra atoll, there is only speculation on where they originate from. Genetic tests are
required to resolve this.
Threats to Marine Biodiversity
The most severe coral bleaching event in recorded history occurred in 1998. Since then,
there have been 2 minor bleaching events, one in April 2002, and the other in March 2003.
This reduced live coral cover to less than 5% on many shallow reefs (Wilkinson et al., 1999)
as well as reef biodiversity as a whole. The reefs are now slowly recovering from the effects
(Engelhardt, 2003). Reef degradation brought about by coral bleaching, which is caused by
warm water event resulting from climate change, is thus the principal threats to marine
biodiversity in the Seychelles. Reef degradation is already impacting certain species such as
fish by reducing the 3-dimensional complexity of reefs and thus limiting the amount of
suitable micro-habitats. As many other animals are often associated with particular corals
(e.g. Garth, 1984) and other zooxanthellate animals, low coral cover and overall reef health
are having large impacts on coral associated fauna. As the reef structure breaks down in
many places it is expected that there will be significant reduction in the amount of stable
substrates for the meio-benthos and seaweeds to attach to. This may have major
repercussion on some icon species such as the hawksbill turtle that are often associated with
and grazes on coral reefs.
Chronic sedimentation off the East coast of the main island of Mahe since the 1960s has had
major negative impacts on coral reefs and associated ecosystems such as seagrass beds off
the Mahe east coast and the Ste. Anne Marine National Park. Sedimentation has been found
to cause partial mortality in many coral species and to reduce recruitment rate (Robinson et
al., 2001). Diseases in corals and coral reef associated fish have been lately observed (U.
Engelhardt, pers. comm.).
Outbreaks of sea stars (e.g. Culcita sp. and Acanthaster sp.) for example the Crown-ofthorns outbreak in 1998, which caused the death of large colonies of hard corals in the inner
granitics remains a possible threat to marine biodiversity, especially now when most reefs
are slowly recovering. High sedimentation levels have been hypothesized to provide
suitable environment for the settling of crown-of–thorn larvae. The outbreak of 1998 was in
218
relation to the El Nino effects and once the food source was exhausted the population
numbers dropped drastically (B. Wendling, pers. comm.).
Tourism related activities such as snorkeling, diving, coral picking could also be considered
as a threat, despite the fact that their impact may not be as disastrous or immediate as other
previously mentioned factors. Coral picking on the other hand is a major concern since no
corals are protected under Seychelles legislation in areas outside marine parks. Recent
studies show that there are a few sites outside Marine Protected Areas which are important
for reef restoration as well as sites high in species richness (Engelhardt, 2003). However, the
export of some coral species is regulated by CITES which to some extent controls the
amount of coral picking.
Anchor damage has been a major concern for some time. A Dutch Trust Fund sponsored
programme is now remedying the situation with the placement of mooring buoys in marine
protected areas and other sensitive areas that are frequently used by boaters.
A certain degree of fish poaching still occurs in marine protected area, reducing the ability of
these areas to fully attain their role in marine biodiversity conservation. Turtles and dolphins
are to some extent still taken despite the fact that these species are fully protected by
Seychelles’ law. The youths are educated and do not support such acts. Educating older
members of the community is one avenue, which should be pursued as it has great potential
for success.
Poaching of brown noddy’s (Anous stolidus) and sooty tern’s (Sterna fuscata) eggs on some
islands during nesting season remain a problem which could prove disastrous to seabird
populations, most particularly in the inner islands as it is not known how much is being
taken. Commercial fishery has been previously suggested to have possible impacts on sea
bird populations as many commercially exploited fish feeds on the same fish species as the
sea birds.
Unwise land use practices have also been documented (Gabriel et al., 2000) to have severely
impacted reefs in the vicinity of the main island of Mahe by allowing large quantities of red
earth to be washed away by the rain. Improper use and handling of pesticide has in the past
also been linked to deaths of marine organisms (Shah, 1995). Little is known about the
effects of chemical pollution (petroleum, heavy metals) on the metabolism of marine
organisms. However, it is known that mangroves are sensitive to massive hydrocarbon
pollution (oil Spills), which usually kills them. Large scale oil spills are one of the increasing
potential threats that the Seychelles is facing as a result of the increasing number of oil
tankers that are docking in Victoria harbour. Measures are being taken by the Ministry of
Environment to devise a protocol in case of oil spills.
Lately natural occurrences of large scale plankton blooms has received much attention as a
result of a large bloom that occurred in the middle of 2003 causing death in fish and macrobenthos. Such large scale blooms are natural phenomenon that may become more common
as a result of climate change and changes in local oceanic circulation.
Shark fin fishery has been growing in the Seychelles in the last 5 years. The fishery is only
making use of the shark’s fins and discarding the rest of the animals. The Ministry of
Environment is presently working with the Seychelles Fishing Authority to ban shark
fisheries, which only make use of the fins.
The sea cucumber fishery is one that has increased significantly since the 1990s as a result of
high value (up to US$6 equivalent per piece) in the South East Asian market that increased
219
the catch and posed a threat with uncontrolled fishing. The Seychelles Fishing Authority is
presently managing the fishery on a precautionary approach as a result of a lack of capacity
and knowledge to develop management and monitoring plan for this fishery. Knowledge on
exploited species spatial abundance in relation to exploitation is critical.
Possible introduction of alien invasive species to the Seychelles in ballast water is a threat
which is yet to be quantified. It is possible that there are invasive alien species that has
already been introduced but as yet negative impacts are unknown. The effects of the
introduction of alien invasive has been quantified in some parts of the world (Bax et al.,
2003) and in many cases have been found to replace native species and affect many
commercial enterprises. The Seychelles Port Authority in collaboration with the Ministry of
Environment keeps a close look at what ships are discharging. If there is any de-ballasting
to be done, ships are advised to do it outside the 12-mile limit designated by the local
authorities.
Marine Protected Areas of the Seychelles and roles in biodiversity conservation.
There is a total of 9 Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) in the Seychelles covering an area of
412.75 km2. Seychelles’ MPAs are managed by a number of actors, namely the government,
NGO, quasi-NGO and until recently International NGO. Out of the 9 MPAs 6 (total area of
61.77 km2, ~15% of the total national MPA area) are Marine National Parks managed by the
Seychelles Centre for Marine Research and Technology – Marine Parks Authority (SCMRTMPA) which is a parastatal company of the Government of Seychelles. The MNPs are IUCN
category II protected areas and are extensively used for recreation as well as conservation of
biological diversity.
The 3 other MPAs are designated as Special Nature Reserve (SNR) with primary objective
for the conservation of nature and natural biodiversity. The Special Nature Reserves are all
managed by NGOs of some form. The island of Aride SNR (0.7 km2) was until recently
managed by the Royal Society for Nature Conservation (RSNC). It is now managed by the
Island Conservation Society (ICS) a locally registered NGO. Cousin Island SNR (0.28 km2)
is managed by Nature Seychelles another locally registered NGO. Large colonies of
seabirds, some of which are of global significance, nest on the island of Aride and Cousin.
Aldabra SNR (350 km2, ~85% of national MPA area) has been a UNESCO Natural World
Heritage Site since 1982 and is the largest MPA in the Seychelles. It is a raised atoll and has
an extensive lagoon lined with thick mangrove forest, extensive areas of seagrass beds and
shallow coral reefs. Its boundaries extends 1 Km all round the atoll. Aldabra has one of the
richest and most diverse marine community in the South Western Indian Ocean region with
high coral cover, large population of fish and seabirds.
Management of the Special Nature Reserves is good. With respect to the Marine National
Park management has been difficult due to their close proximity to centres of population and
“openness” which has resulted in numerous conflicts. A certain degree of fish poaching still
goes on but compliance is gradually improving.
Museums and specimen collection
In the Seychelles the Natural History Museum has a small collection of 429 marine
specimens or parts thereof which is mainly comprised of Gastropod Mollusc as a result of
them having hard shells which helps in the collection. The Natural History Museum (NHM)
220
is at the moment focussing only on display and not the collection site. There is a lack of
space and trained personnel for the museum to venture into the collection of specimens (MM.Tirant, pers. comm.). Researchers collecting specimens in the Seychelles are now
encouraged to collect specimens to be deposited at the NHM. There is a need to expend the
NHM and move into the collection side of specimen and to train marine taxonomist. Apart
from the collections at the NHM the SCMRT-MPA has a small collection of hermatypic
corals and jointly with the Marine Conservation Society of Seychelles (MCSS) has
zooplankton samples which have been extensively collected on a weekly basis since 2000.
Capacity assessment
Capacity to undertake marine biodiversity study is relatively low in the Seychelles.
However, a good thing is that people are tending to specialise in certain fields. The
Seychelles Fishing Authority has a total of 6 biologists at BSc and MSc level and mostly
deals with fisheries management and fisheries research. The Ministry of Environment
currently has 2 units that deal with certain marine issues. The Marine Unit of the
Conservation Section in the Ministry of Environment mainly focuses on reef related issues
whilst the Wetland Unit mainly focuses on mangroves and other wetland areas. The
Conservation Section has 4 staffs with BSc’s and 1 with MSC in environment related field,
but not necessarily marine. The Wetland Unit has one PhD and a staff of around 4
technicians.
The SCMRT-MPA has only one graduate staff working in marine research with a group of
bout 25 marine parks rangers. A number of NGOs are also involved in marine issues. There
is Nature Seychelles and Island Conservation Society, which manages the Special Nature
Reserve of Cousin and Aride respectively and has a number of graduate staff and technicians
that are mostly involved with seabirds’ conservation.
The Marine Conservation Society (established in 1997) is the only non-governmental agency
in Seychelles that focuses purely on marine research and management. MCSS currently
employs 2 graduate staff, with input from various associate members who are experts in their
fields and a network of local and international volunteers. The MCSS conduct research on
whale sharks and sea turtles and they are the local expert in the installation and management
of Environmental Mooring Buoys. The Natural History Museum has one graduate staff and
number of technicians.
Conclusion and Recommendations
Clear gaps in knowledge have been found to exist in marine biodiversity of the Seychelles.
As a small developing state this is expected as knowledge of our local marine biodiversity is
often dependent on international researchers and taxonomists that choose to work here.
Marine macro-fauna such as birds, turtles, whales and echinoderms are better known as a
result of their larger size and clearer inter-species distinguishing features. There is a need to
explore the meio-benthos as it is there that the major knowledge gaps exist. Marine
biodiversity assessments should be undertaken in the near future as the climate is slowly
changing and this alone could lead to possible local extinction by creating unfavourable
conditions for certain species.
This manuscript has been the beginning of a process to compile available biodiversity
information for the Seychelles. A recurrent problem encountered during the compilation of
this report is that many documents on marine biodiversity in the Seychelles were not
221
available locally. There is a need to construct a national species database that is to be
updated as new information becomes available.
Much information and specimens are now held in various museums and institutions across
America, Africa and Europe. Efforts should be made to bring all of the known information
together and construct an up to date species list.
Museums should be encouraged to diversify their activities and start curating a more diverse
set of specimens. There is presently great interest to do this. Funds should be identified to
train marine taxonomists so that we will be able to rely less on external expertise. Regional
Biodiversity workshop as the one held in Rodrigues in 2001 is a good way of training a
larger number of people.
As the country develops it is expected that there will be more pressure on the marine
environment. Increased measures should be taken at an early stage to reduce present and
potential threats to the marine environment and thus biodiversity. Management of the marine
environment should be flexible and be multi-layered to deal with ecosystem as well as
species and genetic issues. It is important to educate the population on the need of having a
healthy and diverse marine environment and what are its benefits and potential.
Acknowledgement
The authors are grateful to their respective organisation for the interest that they have shown
in compiling this report and to all that has given information in one form or another. Our
specials gratitude goes to all that has taken time to review the manuscript and provided
invaluable suggestions.
222
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227
Thematic
reports
228
Related initiatives
Seaweed diversity patterns in Sub-Saharan Africa
John J Bolton1, Olivier De Clerck2 & David M John3
1
Botany Department, University of Cape Town, Rondebosch 7701, South Africa:
[email protected]
2
Ghent University, Research Group Phycology, Biology Department, Krijgslaan 281
S8, 9000 Ghent, Belgium: [email protected]
3
Department of Botany, The Natural History Museum, Cromwell Road, London SW7
5BD, UK. [email protected]
Note: Names of the authors of this paper are in alphabetical order
Abstract
A proper understanding of inshore marine ecosystems cannot be obtained without a thorough
knowledge of marine vegetation. This paper summarises our knowledge of species diversity
patterns of marine macroalgae in Sub-Saharan Africa, highlighting gaps. In Tropical East
Africa the seaweed floras of Somalia and Mozambique are not well known. In Tropical West
Africa, only a small number of countries are well-collected, although recent advances,
including web-based systems, are ensuring that the information which is available can be
more easily accessed. South Africa and Namibia have quite well documented seaweed floras,
although detailed collections, especially in the subtidal, or detailed studies of taxa,
particularly using molecular methods, anywhere in the region are likely to bring up new
records and lead to the discovery of species new to science. South Africa has a very rich
seaweed flora (ca. 850 species), due to the presence of species from three of the four major
biogeographic regions in sub-Saharan Africa occurring within its borders. Figures for
reasonably well-studied countries in Tropical East Africa are more than 400 species, whereas
much of Tropical West Africa has lower numbers (e.g. 200 species in well-studied Ghana).
Factors which may account for these major differences in seaweed diversity patterns are
discussed. Training workshops in Africa are necessary to recruit a body of local scientists
able to identify and work with seaweeds, and to make the wealth of information in the
international literature available to African marine scientists. A network of national herbaria
should contain a collection of correctly identified seaweed species.
Introduction
Seaweeds are particularly useful organisms for studying diversity patterns and planning the
conservation and sustainable use of inshore marine resources, and are also useful as
indicators of climatic change (see John & Lawson, 1997; Van der Strate et al. 2002; Bolton
et al. in press). They are relatively easy to collect, fixed to the substratum, often form
relatively stable assemblages, and have relatively similar species numbers in richer
temperate and tropical regions. There are four major seaweed floras represented in subSaharan Africa. The distinctive but depauperate Tropical West African flora is separated
from the species-rich North African temperate flora by a transitional zone extending from
about Cap Vert in Senegal to Cap Blanc in Mauritania. South of the equator the West
African Flora is very depauperate and only abruptly changes to a temperate flora in northern
Namibia (John & Lawson, 1991). The Tropical East Africa flora is more species-rich, and
represents only a portion of the much larger flora of the Indo-West Pacific. The latter
229
represents the largest marine biogeographical region on earth, with the greatest diversity of
inshore benthic organisms. At the southern tip of the continent are two distinct temperate
regions. The west coast of South Africa and the entire coastline of Namibia represent the
‘Benguela Marine Province’, described as cool-temperate by recent authors (Bolton &
Anderson 1997; Stegenga et al. 1997). A distinct and species-rich ‘Agulhas Marine
Province’ is confined to the south coast of South Africa, and has warm temperate affinities.
For the purpose of this review, ‘seaweeds’ comprise macroscopic marine algae belonging to
the Chlorophyta (green algae), Phaeophyta (brown algae) and Rhodophyta (red algae).
These phyla are not separated here, although throughout the region around two-thirds of
species are red algae, with brown and green algae in relatively similar amounts (although
there is a relative increase in green algae going from temperate to tropical South Africa,
Bolton et al., in press).
Species diversity patterns will be described in three sections: Tropical East Africa, Tropical
West Africa, and South Africa/Namibia. Species numbers are collated on a country basis, as
well as on a regional basis within South Africa. The status of our knowledge is summarized,
and gaps highlighted.
Tropical East Africa
Documentation
For this review, this comprises the coasts of Somalia, Kenya, Tanzania and Mozambique,
with the extreme north of South Africa also having a predominantly tropical flora (see later).
The documentation of our knowledge of the seaweeds of this coast received an enormous
boost with publication of a comprehensive catalogue of the benthic marine algae of the
Indian
Ocean
(Silva
et
al
1996,
also
accessible
online
http://ucjeps.berkeley.edu/rlmoe/tioc/ioctoc.html). This remarkable document is not entirely
tropical in its coverage, since it includes the temperate floras of western Australia and the
south coast of South Africa. Reasonable lists of the recorded seaweeds in any country in this
enormous region can be extracted. One should, however, always keep in mind that although
nomenclaturally and systematically sound (i.e. in each and every case the nomenclaturally
correct name of a taxon is used following the most recent systematic opinions at the time of
publication), the catalogue is based solely on literature data. Hence, mistakes due to
misidentifications are not omitted from the catalogue. This is demonstrated for the brown
algal genus Dictyota, of which 41 taxa were listed in Silva et al. (1996). In a recent
taxonomic revision of the genus by De Clerck (2003) only 23 species are recognized, two of
which are new to science and an additional two are reported for the first time for the Indian
Ocean. This enormous discrepancy can be attributed to several factors, of which misapplied
names resulting from misidentification is the most important one. Other factors include
recently proposed synonymies, whereas differing taxonomic opinions are only of minor
importance. The problems relating to misapplied names and synonymies are partly related to
the enormous size of the Indo-Pacific biogeographical region. As a direct consequence,
taxonomists and more floristically-based researchers along the East African coast have to
consider research from countries as far as the Hawaiian Archipelago (ca. 15 000 km to the
east). Several taxa described from the central Pacific have recently been reported for the
western Indian Ocean (e.g. Dictyota hamifera Setchell, Gibsmithia hawaiiensis Doty, and
Reticulocaulis mucosissimus Abbott). The vastness of the Indo-Pacific biogeographic region
also hampers efforts to produce of a flora covering the East African coast.
230
A recent bibliometric survey (Erftemijer et al. 2001) analysed a total of 97 publications on
seaweeds of the region, that appeared between 1950 and 2000. Tanzania is by far the most
important player, whereas several countries contributed not a single publication (Somalia,
Reunion, Comores). Applied research made up 43% of all publications (extractable chemical
compounds, anti-microbial characteristics, farming, economic potential), whereas 16% was
based on experimental work (physiology: particularly from the SAREC Programme SwedenTanzania: photosynthesis, pH tolerance, oxidative stress, etc.). A further 19% concerned
floristics and distribution of seaweeds, often in relation to exploitation and cultivation, with
8 % taxonomic research and nothing on ecosystem relationships (e.g. nutrient cycling,
hydrology, impacts on associated fauna). When broadened to Eastern African marine
botanical research as a whole (including mangroves, seagrasses and phytoplankton reseach)
the same pattern is evident, with 77% of all research in East Africa being classified as
descriptive.
Broader Diversity Patterns
Total seaweed diversity in the region (based on Silva et al. 1996, plus recent additions) is in
Table 1.
Table 1.
Seaweed diversity by country in Tropical East Africa
Somalia:
Kenya:
Tanzania:
Mozambique:
211 species
403 species
428 species
243 species
Total for these four countries from Silva et al. (1996) = 678 taxa (species and subspecific
taxa).
It is likely that in reality these countries have similar species diversity. Differences in total
species number are mainly due to sampling effort. The diversity of Somalia and
Mozambique is seriously underestimated (see Bandeira 1998; Carvalho & Bandeira 2003).
As these countries form part of the same large Marine Province, there are great similarities in
their marine floras. A comparison of seaweed genera between countries in the Indo-Pacific is
presented in Table 1.
231
Table 2.
Percentage similarities (based on Euclidean distance values) between the seaweed genera in
selected countries of the tropical Indian Ocean.
AUS
AUSTRALIA
INDIA
INDONESIA
KENYA
MOZAMBIQUE
SOMALIA
SOUTH AFRICA
SRI LANKA
TANZANIA
INDIA INDO KEN
83.7
83.4
83.8
83.8
83.5
84.0
84.1
84.0
88.2
88.6
87.6
87.9
85.6
89.8
89.0
90.1
89.2
90.1
85.2
90.0
89.5
MOZ
90.6
91.5
85.5
91.5
92.8
90.5
85.8
89.5
90.5
SOM
84.7
90.4
91.0
RSA
85.7
85.4
SRI
90.6
Only South Africa and Australia have slightly lower similarity coefficients compared to the
other countries included. This difference can be attributed to the significantly lower sea
surface temperatures near the southern borders of the Indian Ocean.
The homogeneous sea surface temperature’s in the main body of the tropical Indian Ocean,
together with a continuous coastline, ensure wide dispersal of marine macroalgae, resulting
in a rather homogenous Indian Ocean marine benthic flora.
Flora’s become radically different with different temperature regimes. South Africa’s east
coast (Kwazulu-Natal Province) represents a transition region between a tropical Indian
Ocean flora and a warm temperate South Coast flora (Bolton et al., in press, see later).
Western Australia represents a similar example.
Detailed Diversity Patterns
The seaweeds of Somalia are poorly studied, and potentially very interesting. On parts of the
coast of Somalia and the Southern Arabian Peninsula there is monsoon induced upwelling of
cold nutrient rich water, with sea surface temperatures <20°C during the SW monsoon.
These cooler water temperatures are reflected in the biogeography of many algae in the
Southern Arabian Peninsula (Schils & Coppejans 2003). A common biogeographic pattern
includes presence in South Africa, Oman and Australia and absence in the tropical Indian
Ocean. Species with this distribution include Ecklonia radiata, Dictyopteris macrocarpa,
Halimeda tuna, Chauviniella spp., Padina boergesenii, Neurymenia nigricans etc. Although
hardly studied, the Somali flora may exhibit the same features.
Studies in these regions, as in most others in Africa, generally are based on collections of
larger seaweeds. Many intertidal and subtidal regions are dominated not by these larger
seaweeds, but by ‘turfs’ of smaller species. The latter are ecologically very important, as
they may represent a considerable amount of primary production in tropical regions (e.g.
Adey & Goertemiller 1987; Larkum et al. 2003 and references therein). A study of these turf
communities on the tropical coast of South Africa (Anderson, McKune, Bolton & De Clerck,
unpubl.) was carried out by carefully analysing 25 quadrats (25x25cm) at 5 depths at
Sodwana. The total sampled area was 1.56 m2 And 105 species of seaweeds were identified,
more than the recorded seaweed floras of many countries in West Africa! (see below).
232
Tropical West Africa
Documentation
It was only possible to begin to analyse algal diversity patterns in West Africa once all the
published data had been critically assessed. This mammoth task began in the 1960’s, and the
first part of a critical assessment of the seaweeds of tropical West Africa was published by
Lawson & Price (1969). Other parts appeared at irregular intervals (Price et al. 1978, 1986,
1988, 1992; John et al. 1979, 1994; Lawson et al. 1995) until the series was completed with
publication of the last on the red algal genera (Woelkerling et al. 1998). Underway is a
project to update these critical assessments and make the data available early in 2004 as a
searchable database on websites at The Natural History Museum, London and the National
Herbarium of the Netherlands, Leiden. The searchable database will cover the whole
mainland coastline from the northern boundary of Western Sahara southwards to the
southern boundary of Namibia, the oceanic islands from Madeira and the Salvage Islands
southwards to Ascension and St Helena, and all other islands close to the African mainland
coast. The web sites will include a complete bibliography of references to West African
algae, compiled by George Lawson.
Lawson and John published, in1982, a book on the coastal environment and marine algae of
tropical West Africa with a second edition appearing 5 years later (1987). A more userfriendly identification guide ‘The Marine Algae of the Tropical West African Sub-region' is
to be published in October 2003 (John et al., 2003). A version was released in 2001 as one of
the four reports arising from the project 'Marine Biodiversity Capacity Building in the West
African Sub-region', sponsored by the UK Darwin Initiative.
Broader Diversity Patterns
For the purpose of this review, the northernmost limit of sub-Saharan Africa is taken to be
Mauritania. The algal floras of the coasts of Mauritania and Senegal are considered
transitional between the Temperate West African Flora to the north and the Tropical West
African Flora that extends from Gambia southwards to Angola. The diversity of the
distinctive West African Flora is significantly lower to the south of the Equator and remains
low along the entire length of the Angola coast (Lawson & John, 1991). An abrupt change to
a temperate flora takes place in northern Namibia where many cooler water algae are at the
northernmost limit of their range. The distribution of the West African Marine Flora bears
little relationship to mere latitude but is governed by the movement and cooler water current
along the coast. The cooler Canary and Benguela currents run along the western coast of
Africa from the north and south respectively thus restricting the occurrence of truly warmwater algae to a relatively narrow band. Even within this narrow tropical band there is local
upwelling of cooler and nutrient-rich subsurface water that leads to the surface water falling
to as low as 19º C between July and September.
The tropical West African Flora is very impoverished in striking contrast to the richness of
the Caribbean region of the eastern Atlantic or the tropical coast of east Africa. Like the
western shores of other continents, coral reefs are absent and consequently so is the rich and
varied life associated with these structures. As a result of the absence of protecting coral
reefs or shallow offshore shoals, much of the West African coast is very wave exposed.
Seagrass meadows are not present except in more sheltered parts of the Mauritania coast and
the shallow tidal inlets south of Luanda in Angola. Seasonal upwelling, seasonal inflow of
turbid, silt-laden water, seasonally lowered inshore salinity, absence of suitable shallow
233
water substrata, low habitat diversity and heterogeneity are all factors contributing to the
absence of coral reefs and the low species diversity of algae n tropical West Africa. An
especially important cause of the low diversity is likely to be a historical one. There is now
much evidence to show that during the Pleistocene glaciations the 20º C winter isotherm
moved laterally during winter about 15-20 degrees of latitude towards the Equator thus
eliminating the tropical zone. Since that time, the West African region would have become
recolonized by species from the tropical eastern Atlantic that remained unaffected during the
Pleistocene. The recolonization of tropical West Africa would explain its poverty, low
endemism and floristic similarity to the eastern Atlantic.
Detailed Diversity Patterns
The figures for algal species diversity for each of the countries and inshore islands in the
West African region (Table 3) are based on the web-site database, prepared by John,
Prud’homme van Reine, Lawson, Price and Kostermanns.
Table 3.
Seaweed species diversity for the West Africa Sub-region including the Gulf of Guinea
islands as well as St. Helena and Ascension (based on data compiled by John, Prud’homme
van Reine, Lawson, Price and Kostermanns).
Western Sahara
Mauritania
North Sénégal
Gambia
South Sénégal
Guinea -Bissau
Guinée
Sierra-Leone
Liberia
Côte d’Ivoire
Ghana
Togo
Benin
Nigeria
Cameroun
Bioko
Principe
São Tomé
Equatorial Guinea
Gabon
Republic of Congo
Cabinda
Zaire
Angola
Namibia
Ascension
St. Helena
Annobon
81
212
274
62
33
12
21
112
88
86
200
37
16
49
86
31
25
95
0
83
18
2
9
117
196
65
47
37
234
Species
totals:
Angola to Gambia (includes Gulf of Guinea islands) = 382 species
Angola to Mauritania
= 583 species
Many reasons account for the considerable variation in species diversity within tropical West
Africa. One of the more obvious is intensity of collecting. The algal lists for many countries
are based on collecting visits of less than one week (often by Lawson and John). One of the
coastal regions for which there is no modern data is that of 'Loango', the name used
especially by 19th century collectors for what is known as the Republic of Congo, Zaire as
well as Cabinda. There are little data for adjacent Gabon and Cameroun with the most recent
collecting visits made by Lawson and John who just spent a few days in each country in
1974. Angola has been relatively well covered thanks to a 5 weeks collecting visit by John,
Lawson and Price; they surveyed its coast in January and February 1974. In November 1975
Lawson and John spent 5 days collecting algae in both Gambia and Liberia although three
years earlier John had spent a day in southern Liberia and several days collecting along the
coast of Côte d'Ivoire.
Islands in the Gulf of Guinea have rocky shores and remain undercollected. Lawson spent a
week collecting in Bioko, and in the 1950s several collections were made along the coasts of
São Tomé and Principe, including during a visit by the research vessel 'Calypso' in 1956.
The countries with the highest algal diversities ('hot spots') tend to be those most intensively
investigated and these include Sénégal, Ghana and Sierra Leone. There have been almost 40
research publications dealing with the algal of these three countries, whereas the large
majority of countries in the region have less than 3 publications mentioning their algae (John
& Lawson 1997).
Sampling intensity and the competence of those identifying the material are factors
accounting for West African algal diversity patterns (Table 3). There is no doubt that
Sénégal, Ghana and Sierra Leone represent 'hot spots' of algal diversity and have often
attracted attention only because rocky shores suitable for attached algae are present. There
are many other countries where the coast is characterized by long sandy beaches, and
extensive mangrove areas fringing deltas, estuaries and lagoons dominate. Not unexpectedly
the diversity of algae is low in such countries, and they represent 'cold spots' of algal
diversity. Further collecting, however intensive, is unlikely to significantly increase the low
numbers of recorded algal species. . The absence of suitable shores probably accounts in
large part for the low algal diversity of countries such as Nigeria, Guinea Bissau, Guinée,
Togo and Benin. Often the only significant algal development in these countries is on manmade structures (e.g. breakwaters, oil rigs). Subtidal algae are also under-represented with
the only SCUBA-diving collecting having taken place in Ghana, Angola and, possibly,
during the visit of the 'Calypso' to the Gulf of Guinea islands in 1950’s. The importance of
subtidal collecting has been demonstrated by John & Lawson. (1997) who found that 60%
of the algae collected in Ghana were predominantly intertidal, and the remainder subtidal.
This clearly demonstrates the need to SCUBA-dive in order to obtain a meaningful picture of
marine algal diversity. Otherwise for many countries the only subtidal records of algae are
based specimens cast up on the beach or dredged.
Future Priorities
A future priority is to conduct further basic shore survey work in order to fill the many gaps
that exist in our knowledge of marine diversity patterns in tropical West Africa. The focus of
235
future work should be on those countries known to have rocky shores, which have been
under-collected in the past. Seasonality has to be taken into account with visits taking place
during the ‘wet’ and ‘dry’ seasons, as well as during any period of upwelling. SCUBAdiving is crucial, since remote sampling of submarine rocks frequently gives a misleading
impression of marine algal diversity.
Of paramount importance is the accurate identification of the algal samples. This is a very
real problem in West Africa, despite the availability of a new user-friendly identication guide
covering at least part of tropical West Africa (John et al. 2001). In the virtual absence of any
indigenous expertise in algal taxonomy there is an urgent need to run training courses. These
courses in algal identification should be given by competent algal taxonomists, and based in
Africa. All such courses would need to include training in sampling, preservation of
material, as well as curation and databasing of specimens, since material collected during
shore surveys needs to be deposited in national herbaria for future reference and study. The
setting up and/or strengthening national herbaria should be another regional priority.
.
Namibia/South Africa
Documentation
Namibia and South Africa can logically be discussed together as ‘temperate southern
Africa’. The seaweeds of these two countries are becoming increasingly well documented in
the last few years. South African west coast seaweeds were documented in detail in Stegenga
et al. (1997). Recently there have been two Ph.D. theses on the seaweeds of Namibia
(Engeldow 1998; Rull Lluch 1999), the former mostly ecological and biogeographic (e.g.
Engeldow & Bolton 2003), and the latter primarily taxonomic. The thesis of Rull Lluch
(including some additional information from the thesis of Engledow) has been published
recently in English, as a Flora of the seaweeds of Namibia (Rull Lluch 2002). The known
seaweed diversity of South Africa has increased from 547 species in 1984 to around 850
today, making it one of the richest regions globally for seaweed species. Detailed studies of
the distribution patterns of South African seaweeds are under way (Bolton & Stegenga
2002).
Broader diversity patterns
These two countries can be divided into a number of biogeographical regions, with differing
seaweed floras (Bolton & Anderson 1997; Bolton et al. in press). The West Coast (or
Benguela Marine Province) includes the entire coast of Namibia, and the west coast of South
Africa as far south as the Cape Peninsula. This region is dominated by upwelling of cool
water (often around 10ºC) from the Benguela current. The west coast flora is relatively
species poor in comparison with other temperate floras, and with the south and east coast
floras of South Africa (see Table 4).
Thus Namibia, with almost 200 species recorded, is a fairly rich flora in the context of West
Africa, but this is a low number in relation to the rest of southern Africa.
236
Table 4
Seaweed species numbers in various regions of temperate southern Africa
Namibia
(Lluch 2002)
196 spp,
South Africa (total)
850 spp.
South African regions:
West coast
(Orange River to Cape Peninsula)
West coast plus West/South coast overlap
(Orange River to Cape Agulhas)
South coast
(Cape Agulhas to Port Edward)
East Coast
(Port Edward to Kosi Bay)
213 spp.
421 spp.
471 spp.
507 spp.
The known seaweed flora of South Africa has risen from 547 species in 1984, to around 850
today, following a number of detailed collections and taxonomic studies by Richard Norris
on the east coast, Stegenga, Bolton & Anderson on the west and south coasts, and a recent
collaboration on the east coast between Bolton & Anderson and a group from the University
of Ghent, Belgium (Coppejans, De Clerck and colleagues) (Bolton 1999; Bolton et al. 2001).
It is now known to be one of the world’s richest seaweed floras. The richness of the South
African seaweed flora arises from the fact that it inhabits a large section of predominantly
rocky coastline where three distinct biogeographical regions overlap.
Both the west and south coast floras have high levels of endemism, with 327 seaweed
species present in South Africa being endemic to South Africa and Namibia (38.5% of the
South African flora).
Local diversity patterns
The distribution of South Africa seaweeds is being analysed in detailed in a series of 58 x 50
km coastal sections (see Bolton & Stegenga 2002). The number of species present in each
coastal section is around 150 on the west coast, but 250-300 species per section on the south
and east coasts. This diversity pattern is also shown in Table 4 (calculated from the same
data set), with a total of 213 species on the west coast proper, but 471 species on the south
coast, and 507 species on the east coast. While percentage endemism is similar at any point
on the west and south coasts, most endemic species occur in the richer south coast flora. A
50km coastal section on the south coast can contain up to 300 species of which around 125
species are endemic to temperate southern Africa. The east coast of South Africa (KwazuluNatal Province) consists, from the seaweed data, of a gradual overlap between the south
coast flora and the tropical East African flora. In a recent study (Bolton et al. in press) is has
been shown that the region of most rapid change is in the extreme east of the South African
coastline. The flora of the two easternmost 50km coastal sections (containing Sodwana Bay
and Kosi Bay) is predominantly tropical. The next section, moving southwest (St. Lucia/
Cape Vidal), has relatively equal numbers of temperate south coast and tropical species.
Thus the extreme easternmost portion of the South African coast is considered the limit of
the tropical Indian Ocean flora.
237
Concluding comments
As mentioned in the Introduction, a proper knowledge of seaweed diversity is essential for
an understanding of the ecological functioning of inshore marine systems. In addition,
seaweeds have both current and potential direct economic benefits. A large coastal industry
is based on the aquaculture of Eucheuma/Kappaphycus (material originally introduced from
the Philippines) for carrageenan in Tanzania, more recently Mozambique, and with a pilot
project in Kenya. Other significant seaweed industries exist in South Africa and Namibia
(Gracilaria and Gelidium for agar; kelp, Ecklonia and Laminaria, for alginate, abalone feed,
etc.) (Anderson et al. 2003). As well as these traditional industries, there is a large literature
on the potential uses of seaweeds, much of it concentrating on a wide array of chemicals
which seaweeds produce. For example, of the 357 seaweed genera, which have been
recorded in South Africa, no less than 127 (36%) occur in the literature as containing
documented bioactive compounds (AJ Smit, unpublished).
A good basis for the study of the seaweeds of Sub-Saharan Africa exists. There is clearly a
great need for efforts to make this information available in many of the countries in subSaharan Africa. Seaweeds are difficult to identify correctly without a compound microscope,
and a body of trained personnel is required in each region for this purpose. While websites
are very useful at disseminating information, they seldom include the required information to
identify species – many consist of lists, sometimes with a photograph. Funding agencies
have not, in the recent past, generally supported the detailed documentation of taxonomic
diversity, and because of this the numbers of trained seaweed (or indeed algal) taxonomists
in the region are very few.
238
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241
Thematic report
Fish diversity in sub-Saharan African estuaries – a preliminary analysis
A.K. Whitfield
South African Institute for Aquatic Biodiversity, Private Bag 1015, Grahamstown
6140, South Africa. [email protected]
A preliminary biogeographic grouping of sub-Saharan African estuaries, based primarily on
available coastal and estuarine water temperatures, was undertaken. Four broad categories
were recognised for the purposes of this assessment; namely tropical, subtropical, warmtemperate and cool-temperate regions. The only cool-temperate estuarine region was that in
southwestern Africa between 25oS and 35oS. There were two warm-temperate regions, one
in southern Africa between 32oS and 35oS, the other on the southwestern coast between 20oS
and 25oS. This latter region has no estuaries and the coastal interior comprises the Namib
Desert. There are two sub-Saharan subtropical regions, one located on the southwestern
coastline between 10o and 20oS, the other in the southeastern region extending from 25o to
32oS. Whilst the former region is associated with a mainly arid interior and contains few
estuaries, the latter contains numerous estuarine systems, ranging in size from <1 ha to >30
km2. The eastern and western African tropical regions are also well endowed with a wide
variety of estuaries and are bounded by latitudes 15oN-25oS on the east coast to 15oN-10oS
on the west coast.
Indigenous fish species lists from each biogeographic region were compiled from both
published and unpublished data. Comparisons are made at the species and family level
between the fish assemblages recorded in the different biogeographic regions. These results
showed that both species and family diversity declined between tropical and temperate subSaharan estuaries (Figure 1). Eastern and western tropical estuaries have similar numbers of
species and families. The ratio of species to families increased as one moves from temperate
to tropical systems. In terms of the top three most diverse families, Mugilidae and Gobiidae
featured in all biogeographic regions (Table 1).
Comparisons in both species and family composition between the different biogeographic
regions were undertaken using the Bray-Curtis (BC) similarity coefficient. Results indicated
that although family similarities between the different biogeographic regions were generally
high, this was often not the case at the species level, e.g. family similarities between the
tropical east and west coasts of Africa were considerable but species composition between
the two regions were very different (Table 2). Temperate regions along the southern and
southwestern coast of Africa probably prevent mixing of east and west coast tropical fish
species, thus causing the low species similarities between the ichthyofauna in the two
regions.
Fish species sampled in cool temperate, warm temperate, subtropical and tropical African
estuaries were divided into guilds based upon their life histories and degree of association
with estuarine environments (Table 3). For some of the species there is detailed life-history
information available and placing them in a particular guild was relatively easy. However,
there were also a large number of species whose allocated guild may change once further
biological and ecological information on those taxa becomes available. Preliminary results
show that marine taxa (marine immigrants and marine stragglers) provided between 67% and
242
75% of the fish species diversity recorded in sub-Saharan estuaries. Estuarine taxa (estuarine
residents and estuarine migrants) accounted for between 10% and 30% of the fish species
recorded. Freshwater taxa (freshwater immigrants and freshwater stragglers) comprised <7%
of fish diversity on the east and south coasts of Africa compared to 20% in the west.
200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Total families
Tropical
western
Tropical
eastern
Subtropical
southeastern
Warmtemperate
southern
Total species
Cooltemperate
southwestern
Number
Fish diversity in sub-Saharan African estuaries
Biogeographic regions
Figure 1. Total numbers of fish families and species recorded in estuaries in the different
sub-Saharan biogeographic regions.
Table 1. The five most diverse families in each of the African biogeographic regions
(numbers in brackets refer to the number of species in each of the families).
Southwestern Southeastern
warmcooltemperate
temperate
Southeastern Eastern
tropical
subtropical
Western
tropical
Sparidae (6)
Mugilidae (11)
Gobiidae (21) Gobiidae (21)
Mugilidae (4)
Sparidae (10)
Gobiidae (3)
Gobiidae (8)
Mugilidae
(13)
Sparidae (10)
Carangidae
(13)
Mugilidae (7)
Clinidae (2)
Carangidae (5)
Soleidae (2)
Syngnathidae
(4)
Carangidae
(8)
Gerreidae (5)
243
Mugilidae
(12)
Carangidae
(8)
Syngnathidae
(8)
Haemulidae
(7)
Gobiidae (7)
Sciaenidae
(7)
Cichlidae (7)
Table 2. Bray-Curtis similarity coefficients between estuarine fish assemblages (family
figures above diagonal line; species figures below diagonal line) based on presence/absence
data from the different biogeographic regions of sub-Saharan Africa.
Family
Species
Southwestern Southeastern
warmcooltemperate
temperate
Southwestern
cool-temperate
0.59
Southeastern Eastern
subtropical
tropical
Western
tropical
0.41
0.31
0.34
0.73
0.65
0.55
0.81
0.66
Southeastern
warmtemperate
0.45
Southeastern
subtropical
0.23
0.59
Eastern
tropical
0.05
0.34
0.71
Western
tropical
0.03
0.02
0.06
0.70
0.05
Table 3. Categorization of the major fish groups (guilds) utilizing sub-Saharan African
estuaries.
Categories
Description of categories
Marine immigrants
Marine fish species that usually breed at sea with the juveniles and/or
adults making extensive use of the estuarine environment. The juveniles
of many of these species show varying degrees of dependence on
estuaries as nursery areas.
Marine fish species that breed at sea with only a small proportion of the
overall population ever entering or making use of estuaries. Most
marine stragglers are confined to the lower estuarine reaches where they
occur in low numbers.
Fish species, usually of marine origin, that breed and are able to conduct
their entire life cycle within the estuarine environment. Some estuarine
species may also have marine or freshwater breeding populations.
Fish species, usually of marine origin, that breed in estuaries but have a
marine or freshwater aspect to their life cycle. Estuarine migrants often
have marine or freshwater breeding populations.
Freshwater fish species that are often recorded in estuaries, retreating
into catchment rivers when conditions become unfavourable. Some of
these species may also breed in estuaries when conditions are suitable.
Freshwater fish species that sometimes enter estuaries when conditions
are favourable. Freshwater stragglers are usually confined to the upper
Marine stragglers
Estuarine residents
Estuarine migrants
Freshwater
immigrants
Freshwater
stragglers
244
Catadromous
migrants
estuarine reaches where they occur in low numbers.
Species that spawn at sea but use freshwater catchment areas during the
juvenile and subadult life stages. Semi-catadromous migrants are those
taxa that can successfully occupy estuaries during these life stages when
riverine areas are inaccessible.
245
Thematic report
Western Indian Ocean Programmes, the Coelacanth as an icon for marine
biodiversity and conservation
Dr A. J. Ribbink
South African Institute for Aquatic Biodiversity, Private Bag 1015, Grahamstown
6140, South Africa. [email protected]
There are several active Western Indian Ocean and East African Marine Programmes.
Important amongst them are the East African Ecoregion Programme supported by WWF and
the revision of the fishes of the area, being produced by more than 50 experts. This revision
is being edited by Dr P Heemstra. A number of other programmes are in the planning stage;
namely the South Western Indian Ocean Fisheries Programme (SWIOFP) and Large Marine
Ecosystem (LME). This paper focuses on a recently initiated programme, which might
develop productive synergies with the above-mentioned programmes and others. It also
seems fairly closely aligned to the objectives of the Census of Marine Life (CoML). The
African Coelacanth Ecosystem Programme (ACEP) was launched in April 2002 following
the discovery of a coelacanth population in the relatively shallow head of a canyon in the
Greater St Lucia Wetland Park (GSLWP), South Africa. Given the prohibitive costs of
offshore, deep reef work in the ocean, an immediate decision was made to use the coelacanth
as an icon for an integrated, biophysical approach to conservation of biodiversity. It was
anticipated that the high profile of the coelacanth would attract international attention and
encourage sponsorship that might build on the core supplied by African countries. The
coelacanth was to become an aquatic Panda, and the programme was billed as a ‘Flagship
Programme’ by Minister Dr B. Ngubane, South African Ministry of Arts, Culture, Science
and Technology. The programme has also been aligned to the NEPAD initiative and
partnerships have been developed with Mozambique, Tanzania, Madagascar and the
Comoros. Kenya, Seychelles, Mauritius and Reunion have also expressed interest in the
programme, but the costs of getting the research to those countries has been out of range in
the first two years of activity. In the following text the word “national” refers to activities
within any particular country, and “regional” refers to the region, including Comoros,
Madagascar, Mozambique, South Africa and Tanzania.
This paper discusses the manner in which ACEP is contributing to focus areas of the CoML.
Known and unknown
No one questions the fact that the marine environment is poorly understood and inadequately
researched. In comparison to the moon and the nearest planets it is often argued that we
know more about the surface of these bodies than we do about the floor of the ocean (with
less than 1% of the ocean floor being properly mapped), but perhaps the latest coelacanth
discovery can be used as a wake-up call to emphasise the point. The South African
coelacanths were discovered in a national park, which is a World Heritage site and no one
knew that they were protecting these big fish. So, if we did not even know that we were
protecting coelacanths in our park at only 100m depth, we have to question what other
treasures, of possible great value to humans, are there? The need for a Census of Marine
Life is intense.
The deeper we go, the costlier it becomes and the less we know
Marine research is expensive. Most work has been done in the inter-tidal zone and to a
depth of about 3 m because this is the most accessible and hence most affordable zone. The
246
inter-tidal area is, of course, fascinating scientifically and rich in diversity. It is also most
accessible to communities who live along the shores and has been harvested for thousands of
years. Recently, however, harvesting pressures have increased inordinately, more than
justifying the need to research this zone.
The next zone, to about 30 m, is considerably more expensive, usually requiring boats,
SCUBA and specialised equipment. Use of ships and oceanographic equipment to work
beyond the depth to which SCUBA divers can conveniently and safely operate may be
several orders of magnitude more costly, depending upon the nature of the research. The
prohibitive costs of deep water research have retarded work on the eastern seaboard of the
African continent until the world’s second largest coelacanth was discovered in the Greater
St Lucia Wetland Park (GSLWP). The high international profile and the charisma of the
coelacanth offered an opportunity to fund offshore research associated with the coelacanth.
However, so much of great relevance in terms of understanding offshore ecosystems remains
untouched that it was apparent from the outset that the programme should build itself around
the coelacanth, but focus on biophysical interactions and processes while exploring the
coasts and oceans of the South Western Indian Ocean.
The focal area in South Africa is the GSLWP, which ACEP is developing as a model for
which the programme would promote a conservation strategy and develop environmental
education and public awareness programmes. This model might then be useful for the
existing and proposed protected areas for the partner countries. Parks and other protected
areas are the focal areas of ACEP, but the focus is not be restricted exclusively to parks,
given that some of the most obvious monitoring sites for oceanographic processes would be
outside of parks.
Initially the programme was called the South African Coelacanth Conservation and Genome
Resource Programme, indicating the South African origin and the focus on the coelacanth,
conservation research and the opportunity to probe an ancient genome to seek answers to the
questions regarding the possibility of coelacanths having given rise to tetrapods. However,
at the official launch of the programme, Minister Ben Ngubane, reiterated his desire to see
the programme become more closely aligned to NEPAD. As the partnerships developed, the
need arose to change the name to reflect the multinational African initiative and the
ecosystem approach. The African Coelacanth Ecosystem Programme has a catch phrase: ‘A
window to the past, a door to the future’. The window to the past captures the exceedingly
important aspect of probing the past, as directed by the genome resource group. The door to
the future reflects the opportunities for the partner countries to use the high profile of the
coelacanth to not only learn about coelacanths, but also to better understand their overall
offshore ecosystems and the processes that drive them.
Determining conservation status of coelacanths and finding clues to their apparent
evolutionary stasis depends upon a thorough appreciation of the biophysical habitat.
Accordingly, there was a necessity to define their structural habitat and their dependence on
the topographic environment. Data from the Comoros suggested that coelacanths are
particularly sensitive to aspects of the watery medium in which they live, especially an
avoidance of currents and a narrow temperature tolerance range.
Accordingly,
oceanographic data were required.. Coelacanths live with a variety of other organisms and
these communities are dependent upon communities in shallower and deeper water. Such
communities needed to be defined and their relationships, particularly with respect to
processes, need to be recorded.
247
The relationship of the South African population to those elsewhere needs to be established
through population genetics. All the data are geo-referenced and placed on different layers
of the GIS to integrate the relational databases and provide tools for scientific modelling and
environmental education.
Funding
Initial funding was from the Department of Arts, Culture, Science and Technology, which
assumed responsibility for the science and some running costs on the ship (primarily fuel).
The Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, through its Marine and Coastal
Management Branch, provided the FRS Algoa, which it modified to a) be able to deploy and
retrieve the German manned submersible, Jago and b) for work in the tropics. The costs of
the Jago, and the team led by Prof. Hans Fricke, were met by the German Government under
the German-South Africa collaboration agreement in Science and Technology. Corporate
sponsors also provided support; the Anglo-American Chairman’s Fund in particular gave
considerable support to the Environmental Education sub-programme. Other generous
sponsorship partners during the first 18 months of the programme were: AFROX, AVIS,
Dimension Data, Dynasty Marine, Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife, Grahamstown Side Bar,
National Ports Authority, NRF, Royal Society of Southern Africa, SAIAB, Sasol SciFest,
Triton Diver Charters and WWF-SA.
Strategy
The strategy for the programme was to conduct five successful expeditions, develop the
international NEPAD partners and then attract major sponsors on the basis of a track record
of success. The initial five expeditions have been completed, partnerships have been
developed between the Comoros, Madagascar, Mozambique, South Africa and Tanzania and
some encouraging progress with respect to international funding has been made.
International funding,, however, is dependent upon the assurance that the core funding and
facilities are provided by the African nations.
Geosurveys
The first expedition of the programme was to map the canyons in which coelacanths were
found in the GSLWP. More than 30 canyons were mapped using a multibeam echosounder.
These maps provided the GIS base on which to build the biophysical data. The maps were
prerequisites to defining coelacanth topographic habitats and for guiding the submersible in
the search for coelacanths. The submersible, in turn, provided detail for the maps and
assisted in honing interpretation of the acoustic bathymetry. Though the coelacanth is the
focal animal for the studies, it should be clear that maps of bottom habitat are important
indicators for biodiversity, giving a preliminary evaluation of diversity and population size
(species area relationships and habitat type and complexity relationships). Such data are of
value to conservation planning and fisheries management.
The entire Mozambique Channel, from South Africa to Tanzania, and including Madagascar,
has also been digitised to provide accurate electronic charts in order to determine likely sites
for coelacanths within the region, and to provide a GIS base upon which to place all
biophysical data from surveys in the region.
Oceanography
The oceanographic component is measuring the physical parameters of the region (e.g.
currents, temperature, salinity, oxygen concentration, light extinction) and biological
parameters, including primary productivity, plankton and nutrients.
248
Data from the first studies indicate that despite strong surface currents over the canyons,
coelacanths within the canyons are sheltered because currents in canyons are of very low
energy and velocity. Often, the areas inhabited by coelacanths had no detectable currents.
Coelacanths are usually intolerant of temperatures higher than 20oC, but the caves in which
they live at the GSLWP are just below the 20oC isobath, suggesting that global warming
might force the South African coelacanths into depths where caves do not occur. Such a
change could threaten the continued existence of this population.
The oceanographic studies in the Mozambique Channel and Tanzania have revealed currents
of exceptional velocity. At this early stage it seems that the Mozambique Current does not
flow consistently down the Channel to then become the Agulhas Current, as previously
believed. Rather, massive gyres in the Channel appear to exist.
Although the primary questions regarding the oceanographic studies are directed at probing
enigmas related to coelacanths, it should be clear that they also provide information of
considerable value to fisheries management, conservation, marine protected areas and global
warming.
Marine Ecology
Given that the programme is process orientated and ecosystem based, the presence,
population size and structure of all organisms and their roles in the ecosystem were studied
both locally and in terms of the biogeography of the region. These topics are summarised
below.
a) Coelacanth ecology: Most ecological and behavioural data on coelacanths stem
from research conducted in the Comoros. Those data indicate that coelacanths
have a narrow habitat tolerance range and are likely to be vulnerable to change.
They live in caves during the day, but hunt out of the caves at night. In the
Comoros the caves occupied by coelacanths are at 200-300 m depth. The
temperature range occupied by coelacanths is 14-20oC, with far greater sensitivity
to the higher temperatures. At night coelacanths swim into deeper water to feed.
In South Africa, coelacanths occupy caves at 95-148m, in temperatures that
correspond to those of the Comoros (14-20oC). Evidence from a single tagged
individual suggest that coelacanths in South Africa feed in the area where caves
are found or in slightly shallower water.
b) Fishes: The distribution of fish which might be prey to coelacanths within the
study area, from South Africa to Tanzania, Comoros and Madagascar, and their
association with fish communities in shallower, deeper and open waters are being
investigated with respect to species composition, relative abundance, ecological
role and trophic relationships.
c) Invertebrates and plants: Demersal and open water invertebrates and plants are
being catalogued and their ecological communities investigated throughout the
study areas to determine variation with respect to habitat and geographic
distribution.
d) Taxonomy: The study area is spectacularly rich in species. However, taxonomy of
many groups proved to be challenging, suggesting that there is considerable
scope for taxonomic work on virtually every group.
e) Lodging voucher specimens: Museum specimens are being collected for each
country so that voucher specimens are lodged. It is deemed essential that
vouchers are lodged to enable verification of the science and to provide each
country with museum samples of their taxa. Several of the countries are facing
249
difficulties in finding the resources to adequately curate their collections. A longterm sustainable solution is required to ensure adequate curation.
f) Critical mass of taxonomists: It is apparent that the partner countries involved in
the programme do not have thecollective taxonomic expertise to accurately
identify the specimens collected in each phylum. Even the fishes, particularly the
deep mid-water species, proved to be challenging. To develop a critical mass of
regional taxonomists, ACEP is planning to hold training courses to be led by
international experts. Such courses will be spread over the next few years, each
focusing on a particular group of animals or plants.
g) Stable isotopes: In order to determine the primary source of energy to
coelacanths, particularly if it is dependent upon pelagic planktonic sources, as
might be the case in the Comoros, or more strictly demersal detritic sources, as
might be the case in South Africa, a stable isotope analysis of the trophic food
web has been initiated. The programme is collecting samples from the plankton,
the bottom habitats (using SCUBA in shallow water and a manned submersible
and demersal trawls in deeper habitats), and mid-waters (mid-water trawls). Such
data will ultimately contribute to an understanding of the trophic relationships
(web) within the Mozambique Channel and help define the relationships between
shallow and deep demersal communities and the open water communities.
h) Data management and Geographic Information System (GIS): All data are
georeferenced and are entered into relational databases for incorporation into the
GIS framework for the programme. The foundations for this work have been laid
by both the accurate mapping of the canyons and other aspects of the bottom in
the GSLWP using swath bathymetry (as a model for other parks in the area).
Similarly, the digitisation of the Mozambique Channel, including Tanzania and
the north eastern areas of South Africa, provides the foundation for incorporation
of regional biophysical data into the GIS.
Genetics
Coelacanths: Tissue samples are collected from coelacanths in a non-intrusive
manner to determine the relationship of South African coelacanths to those in other parts of
Africa. An intriguing question related to the small localised population in South Africa is
whether this is an isolated founder population, perhaps derived from a single pregnant
female. Genetic fingerprinting to probe kin relationships and genetic variability will provide
answers to this and related questions. Such analyses will also provide an indication of the
conservation status of the population; a broad variability will indicate a robust healthy
population, probably with gene flow between it and other populations; a homozygous
population will suggest inbreeding and vulnerability.
Other organisms: Expertise in genetics is not strong in every partner country, so the
capacity to answer questions of fundamental importance, such as whether the prawns of
Tanzania and Mozambique are the same or different stocks, or questions related to taxonomy
and phylogentics is limited. In partnership with Germany, ACEP is moving towards
developing the required capacity.
Genome
Can the astounding window to the past provided by coelacanths really give us an indication
whether coelacanths gave rise to tetrapods, and hence dinosaurs and humans? Alternatively,
can the genome provide an insight to coelacanth and other ancient aspects of DNA and
RNA? Such questions are being investigated by the genome resource group on ACEP.
250
Technology and tools
Ships: The programme has used two ships: the Ocean Mariner for the acoustic
bathymetry necessary to map the bottom (expedition 1), and the FRS Algoa, for the diving
expeditions using the manned submersible (expeditions 2 and 4) and the NEPAD
expeditions (expeditions 3 and 5) up the Mozambique Channel to Mozambique, Tanzania,
Comoros and Madagascar. The FRS Algoa was modified to accommodate the manned
submersible Jago, and fitted with a six-tonne crane to launch and retrieve Jago. She was
also modified for tropical work, including the installation of a water distillation plant for
when at sea for protracted periods, and to take more researchers, given that five countries are
now represented on the programme. The Ocean Mariner is privately owned and was hired
for the work. The FRS Algoa belongs to Marine and Coastal Management, Department of
Environmental Affairs and Tourism, strong supporters and primary partners of ACEP.
Submersible: The German manned submersible Jago was used for the diving
expeditions and proved to be very successful. The international management committee of
ACEP have initiated a feasibility study into the viability of a regionally owned submersible
so that the countries of the Western Indian Ocean will not always be dependent upon foreign
support and equipment.
Scale collection and specimen collection: Genetic, genome and stable isotope
collections from coelacanths were effected by shooting a small dart into scales of
coelacanths. These darts have prongs that penetrate the scales, but not the flesh of
coelacanths. Coelacanths grow replacement scales fairly quickly.
Video transects: Video records of much of what happens underwater are made from
the submersible and by SUCBA divers in the shallows. To provide baselines for
comparative purposes and to develop accurate numerical data, video transects are employed.
Biophysical monitoring stations: Long-term biophysical monitoring stations have
been or are being established along the coast and on islands around the entire study area. At
present the minimum that these stations have are temperature probes at 18 m depth. Most
also have marked out biological transects and a few have current meters (ADCPs). Ideally,
all stations should have temperature probes, ADCPs and biological transects. The
monitoring stations are primarily within MPAs, where they can serve the parks and be
serviced by the parks’ managers. In addition, they are placed at points which are likely to
provide critically important oceanographic and/or biological data.
Tags and listening devices: ACEP has implanted an acoustic tag into one coelacanth
and made some interesting discoveries from tracking the tagged fish. However, a great deal
more could be discovered if the long-lasting tags were monitored by listening devices placed
strategically in the canyons. Such behavioural information could then be correlated with
changes in the physical environment (temperature, currents, salinities). ACEP is working
towards these objectives.
ROVs: Consideration is being given to extending the operational efficiency of ACEP
by using ROVs operated from submersibles and/or from a surface vessel. Such ROVs will
increase the data acquisition and enable activities that cannot be performed by submersibles
(e.g. enter small caves to place recording equipment, such as CTDs, in them to measure the
conditions in caves used by coelacanths and caves not used by them).
Streaming for science and education: Endeavours to stream data either live, from
fixed cameras on the bottom, or from films recorded from the submersible are likely to find
support in the near future. The streaming will be to meet scientific, educational and public
awareness objectives.
251
Capacity Building, Environmental Education, Public Awareness
Fewer people in Africa enter the sciences than are required to meet the needs of most
countries. Then there are difficulties in retaining trained personnel and to sustain them in
their chosen careers. There is a clear need to encourage entry into the sciences, recruiting
people for training, and then once trained they need to have career opportunities that have
sustainability. If the goal is to have a functional critical mass of highly skilled professionals
employed securely in their scientific capacity, then all aspects of capacity building are
required: train young learners, build the institutional and infrastructural capacity to offer
them careers in their chosen disciplines and ensure secure long-term financial capacity to
sustain the highly skilled professionals required by each country.
ACEP is endeavouring to meet at least some of the challenges as follows:
1. Encouraging entry into science and technology. At each port the ship is opened to
school teachers and their scholars. They are given instructional packages, shown
films and taken on tours of the ship to meet scientists and see what happens on a
research ship. The objective is to use the excitement of ships, submersibles and
exploration to inspire the youth to consider scientific careers.
2. Promoting public awareness so that careers in the marine sciences are options that
become desirable to the broader community and so that conservation of marine
resources becomes better understood. To achieve these objectives the ACEP is taken
to the public through the media (printed, radio, TV), public lectures and exhibitions,
for example at the World Summit for Sustainable Development, SciFest, South
African Parliament and travelling displays.
3. Taking science to the children in schools. Printed material, videos and CDs are taken
to those children who are in schools that are too remote to enable them to visit the
ship. The GIS has also been structured so that children and teachers can interact with
it, by, for example, flying through canyons in a virtual submersible to find
coelacanths and the animals and plants with which they live.
4. Offering training opportunities to students who register under the umbrella of the
programme, and offering special opportunities to researchers from each of the partner
countries to work onboard the ship or attend special courses onshore (shore-based
courses are still in the planning stage).
5. Recognising that in each country the number of people employed in offshore research
is low, therefore develop a regional team – a critical mass-- that can work effectively
together to achieve national and regional objectives.
Conclusion
The African Coelacanth Ecosystem Programme is only in its second year, so it is perhaps
premature to draw firm conclusions. Nevertheless, it is clear that the Western Indian Ocean
and the countries associated with it are in a spectacularly beautiful part of the world. It is a
region of amazingly rich marine, freshwater and terrestrial biodiversity. The staggering
marine diversity and richness of species is not matched by the biomass to provide the
fisheries-based economic benefits that accrue, for example, to the south western coast of
Africa. The prawn fishery and the tuna fisheries (exploited to a large degree by foreign
vessels) are the most lucrative and are on a scale that affects the national economies. The
smaller scale fisheries are of great value to communities that depend upon them, but many
may not be sustainable. Given the beauty and species richness of the region, perhaps nonconsumptive use of natural resources through eco-tourism holds greater potential for
sustained economic security. A Census of Marine Life offers an opportunity to explore this
promise, and ACEP offers a vehicle for offshore studies to the Western Indian Ocean region.
252
Thematic report
Coastal and marine avian biodiversity in the Afrotropics and associated
islands
Philip A.R. Hockey & Jane V. Hamblin
Percy FitzPatrick Institute of African Ornithology, University of Cape Town,
Rondebosch, South Africa 7701. [email protected]
The purposes of this study were 1) to summarise information about the status of coastal and
marine birds in the Afrotropics and associated satellite islands; 2) to develop a simple
Biodiversity Index that allows comparisons of the avifaunas of different countries and 3) to
compare the current distribution of Important Bird Areas and protected areas in the region
and assess their spatial relationship with avian biodiversity.
Data compilation
A list of 136 coast-dependent (C) and pelagic (P) bird species present in one or more coastal
African countries and Afrotropical islands was compiled from Sinclair et al. (2003)
(Appendix 1). National coast lengths (km) were obtained from The Central Intelligence
Agency (1995), Cheke (1987) (Rodrigues) and Porter et al. (1996) (Socotra).
Each species was assigned a conservation status score (BirdLife International 2000);
5 = Critically endangered, 4 = Endangered, 3 = Vulnerable, 2 = Near-threatened, 1 = Not
threatened.
Each species was also placed in one of five endemism categories. 5 = Localised subSaharan endemic, 4 = regional sub-Saharan endemic (i.e. w, e or s Africa), 3 = widespread
sub-Saharan endemic, 2 = near sub-Saharan African endemic, 1 = non-endemic.
Each species in each country was further assigned a ranking according to its
abundance and breeding status (Br = breeding, N-Br = non-breeding, see below).
Code
5
4
3
2
1
0
Status
Breeding status
Br
Common
Uncommon
Rare
253
N-Br
Br
N-Br
Br
N-Br
For each country, sites identified as being of national or international importance for coastal
birds (Important Bird Areas), and the number and area (km2) of these that are protected,
were extracted from Fishpool & Evans (2001); with additional information for Socotra from
Evans (1994).
Data analyses
A biodiversity index (BI) was calculated for each country. BI = Ylog10Z, where Y =
(5X1)+(4X2)……, Xn = the number of species per status category (5-0) per country, and Z =
coast length (km).
SYNOPSIS OF FINDINGS
•
Species richness (SR) per mainland country was positively and significantly
correlated with coastline length (CL): SR = 0.0126CL + 64.01; r = 0.66, P <0.001.
•
Pelagic and coastal species diversity, as well as national Biodiversity Indices for both
categories peaked in regions influenced by upwelling systems, viz. the Canaries
Current (Mauritania, Senegambia), Benguela Current (Angola, Namibia, South
Africa), and Somali Current (Kenya, Somalia) (Table 1, Figs 1a, 1b).
•
Red Data species are concentrated in southern Africa (Angola, Namibia and South
Africa), and to a lesser degree, in Mozambique, Madagascar, Mauritius and Somalia
(Table 1).
•
Endemics show a similar pattern, with endemism concentrated in southern Africa
(Angola to Mozambique), and in Gabon, Madagascar, Kenya and Somalia (Table 1).
•
The number of Important Bird Areas (IBAs) per country is generally a reflection of
ornithological knowledge. Seven mainland countries and two islands have no coastal
IBAs (Table 1). Of the 23 countries/islands that do have coastal IBAs, 16 (70%) have
one or more of these at least partially protected (Table 1). In general, the countries
with highest species richness and Biodiversity Indices have the most IBAs and the
largest areas protected (Table 1).
254
Table 1: Summary of avian biodiversity and coastal conservation attributes of coastal African
countries and associated satellite islands. Shaded blocks indicate the countries with the 5
highest scores in each category.
Coast
Area
# end- # IBAs f
# spp
BI c
length
Prot.
RDS d
e
g
emics (#prot.)
(km) P a C b P
(km²)
C
MAINLAND
Mauritania
754 23 36 52 337
1
2
4 (2) 12 860
Senegambia
611 29 39 89 354
2
4
11 (8)
2131
Guinea-Bissau
350 14 34 25 280
0
3
5 (4)
4650
Guinea
320 15 33 30 248
0
2
6 (0)
Sierra Leone
402 20 31 39 190
0
2
2 (0)
Liberia
579 24 31 44 152
2
3
0
Ivory Coast
515 17 37 27 206
2
4
1 (1)
194
Ghana
539 17 34 16 210
1
3
6 (1)
95
Togo
56 11 32
3 126
2
3
0
Benin
121
7 19
8 110
2
3
0
Nigeria
853 15 32
6 214
1
3
1 (0)
Cameroon
402
9 30 10 201
3
5
0
Equatorial Guinea
296
8 21 10 119
1
3
0
Gabon
885 15 41
6 239
4
7
2 (0)
Congo
169
7 28
4 136
4
4
0
Democratic Republic of
37
no data
0
Congo
34 103 269
11
7
2 (1)
9960
Angola
1600 25
Namibia
1572 32
40 246 390
14
8
9 (7)
185
South Africa
2798 47
47 276 441
14
9 18 (13)
2002
Mozambique
2470 25
38 17 309
8
6
3 (2)
900
Tanzania (incl. Zanzibar
1424 9
35 47 315
2
4
8 (2)
1870
& Pemba)
Kenya
536 25
45 60 347
4
5
5 (3)
511
Somalia
3025 25
46 99 360
5
5
7 (0)
TOTAL
20 314
90 (44) 35 358
ISLANDS
Cape Verde Islands
Sao Tome & Principe
Madagascar
Mauritius (incl.
Rodrigues)
Reunion
Comores
Mayotte
Seychelles
Socotra
TOTAL
965
209
4828
244
23
23
33
23
25 134
18 86
32 129
21 100
113
102
350
122
1
2
7
7
2
4
6
3
6 (4)
0
17 (2)
7 (6)
201 14
340 8
185.2 5
491 25
260 7
7723.2
15 76
21 38
22 18
31 172
26 36
32
91
91
180
99
4
0
0
2
2
3
2
2
2
1
10 (5)
0
1 (0)
13 (7)
2 (0)
56 (24)
a
21
975
8
67
343
1414
pelagic, b coastal, c biodiversity index (see methods), d RDS = International Red Data Book species (BirdLife International
2000), e local or regional, f Important Bird Areas (Evans 1994, Fishpool & Evans 2001), g 'prot.' = protected
255
Data Sources: Altenburg & van der Kemp 1992, Altenburg et al. 1982, Ash & Miskell 1983,
Ash & Miskell 1998, Barlow et al. 1997, Barre et al. 1996, BirdLife International 2000,
Borrow & Demey 2001, Bregnballe et al. 1990, Central Intelligence Agency 1995, Cheke
1987, Cheke & Walsh 1996, Christy & Clarke 1998, Christy & Vande weghe 1999, Clancey
1971, Dean 2000, Elgood 1981, Elgood et al. 1994, Evans 1994, Fishpool & Evans 2001,
Gatter 1997, Grimes 1987, Harrison et al. 1997, Hazavoet 1995, Jensen & Kirkeby 1980,
Kirwan et al. 1996, Landrand 1990, Louette 1988, Maclean 1993, Morel & Morel 1990, Morris
& Hawkins 1998, Parker 1999, Porter et al. 1996, Rand 1951, Schepers & Marteijn 1993,
Sinclair & Landrand 1998, Sinclair et al. 2003, Skerrett et al. 2001, Staub 1976, Thiollay 1985,
Williams & Arlott 1980, Wolff & Smit 1990, Zimmerman et al. 1996.
256
a) Pelagic Species (BI)
> 88
16-60
< 11
Upwelling
Fig 1: Mainland avian diversity hotspots for a) pelagic species and b) coastal species;
b) Coastal Species (BI)
> 308
< 281
Upwelling Plover
White-fronted
species detailed in Appendix 1.
257
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260
Appendix 1: List of all pelagic (P) and coast-dependent (C) bird species included in the analyses.
P
Diomedea exulans
Wandering Albatross
P
Sula dactylatra
Masked Booby
P
Diomedea sanfordi
Northern Royal Albatross
P
Sula leucogaster
Brown Booby
P
Thalassarche cauta
Shy Albatross
P
Sula sula
Red-footed Booby
P
Thalassarche melanophris
Black-browed Albatross
P
Phalaropus lobatus
Red-necked (Northern) Phalarope
Grey-headed Albatross
P
Phalaropus fulicarius
Red (Grey) Phalarope
P
Thalassarche chrysostoma
P
Thalassarche chlororhynchos Atlantic Yellow-nosed Albatross
P
Catharacta antarctica
Subantarctic (Brown) Skua
P
Thalassarche carteri
Indian Yellow-nosed Albatross
P
Catharacta skua
Great Skua
P
Macronectes giganteus
Southern Giant-Petrel
P
Catharacta maccormicki
South Polar Skua
Stercorarius pomarinus
Pomarine Jaeger (Skua)
P
Macronectes halli
Northern Giant-Petrel
P
P
Daption capense
Pintado Petrel
P
Stercorarius parasiticus
Parasitic Jaeger (Arctic Skua)
P
Fulmarus glacialoides
Antarctic Fulmar
P
Stercorarius longicaudus
Long-tailed Jaeger (Skua)
P
Pterodroma macroptera
Great-winged Petrel
P
Larus sabini
Sabine's Gull
Sterna paradisaea
Arctic Tern
P
Pterodroma mollis
Soft-plumaged Petrel
P
P
Pterodroma feae
Fea's Petrel
P
Sterna sumatrana
Black-naped Tern
P
Pterodroma baraui
Barau's Petrel
P
Sterna fuscata
Sooty Tern
P
Pterodroma arminjoniana
Trinidade Petrel
P
Gygis alba
White Tern
Anous stolidus
Brown (Common) Noddy
P
Pterodroma aterrima
Reunion Petrel
P
P
Pachyptila desolata
Antarctic Prion
P
Anous minutus
Black Noddy
P
Pachyptila belcheri
Slender-billed Prion
P
Anous tenuirostris
Lesser Noddy
P
Procellaria aequinoctialis
White-chinned Petrel
C
Podiceps nigricollis
Black-necked Grebe
Spheniscus demersus
African Penguin
P
Procellaria conspicillata
Spectacled Petrel
C
P
Puffinus griseus
Sooty Shearwater
C
Morus capensis
Cape Gannet
P
Puffinus carneipes
Flesh-footed Shearwater
C
Phalacrocorax neglectus
Bank Cormorant
P
Puffinus pacificus
Wedge-tailed Shearwater
C
Phalacrocorax capensis
Cape Cormorant
P
Calonectris diomedea
Cory's Shearwater
C
Phalacrocorax coronatus
Crowned Cormorant
P
Calonectris edwardsii
Cape Verde Shearwater
C
Phalacrocorax nigrogularis
Socotra Cormorant
P
Puffinus gravis
Great Shearwater
C
Egretta gularis
Western Reef Heron
P
Puffinus puffinus
Manx Shearwater
C
Egretta dimorpha
Dimorphic (Mascarene) Egret
P
Puffinus lherminieri
Audubon's Shearwater
C
Ardea humbloti
Humblot's Heron
P
Puffinus assimilis
Little Shearwater
C
Phoenicopterus ruber
Greater Flamingo
P
Bulweria bulwerii
Bulwer's Petrel
C
Threskiornis bernieri
Madagascar Sacred Ibis
P
Bulweria fallax
Jouanin's Petrel
C
Ciconia episcopus
Wooly-necked Stork
P
Pelagodroma marina
White-faced Storm-Petrel
C
Pandion haliaetus
Osprey
P
Fregetta tropica
Black-bellied Storm-Petrel
C
Haliaeetus vociferoides
Madagascar Fish-Eagle
P
Fregetta grallaria
White-bellied Storm-Petrel
C
Dromas ardeola
Crab Plover
P
Oceanites oceanicus
Wilson's Storm-Petrel
C
Haematopus moquini
African Black Oystercatcher
P
Hydrobates pelagicus
European Storm-Petrel
C
Haematopus ostralegus
Eurasian Oystercatcher
P
Oceanodroma leucorhoa
Glareola ocularis
Madagascar Pratincole
Oceanodroma castro
Leach's Storm-Petrel
Band-rumped (Madeiran) StormPetrel
Red-tailed Tropicbird
C
P
C
Charadrius mongolus
Mongolian Plover
C
Charadrius leschenaultii
Greater Sand Plover
C
Charadrius alexandrinus
Kentish Plover
C
Charadrius marginatus
White-fronted Plover
C
Charadrius hiaticula
Common Ringed Plover
C
Charadrius pallidus
Chestnut-banded Plover
C
Pluvialis fulva
Pacific Golden Plover
C
Pluvialis squatarola
Grey (Black-bellied) Plover
C
Limosa lapponica
Bar-tailed Godwit
P
P
Phaethon rubricauda
Phaethon lepturus
White-tailed Tropicbird
P
Phaethon aethereus
Red-billed Tropicbird
P
Fregata magnificens
Magnificent Frigatebird
P
P
Fregata aquila
Fregata minor
Ascension Frigatebird
Greater Frigatebird
P
Fregata ariel
Lesser Frigatebird
P
Morus bassanus
Northern Gannet
261
C
Numenius arquata
Eurasian Curlew
C
Numenius phaeopus
Whimbrel
C
Tringa totanus
Common Redshank
C
Tringa nebularia
Common Greenshank
C
Xenus cinerea
Terek Sandpiper
C
Calidris canutus
Red Knot
C
Calidris ferruginea
Curlew Sandpiper
C
Calidris alpina
Dunlin
C
Calidris minuta
Little Stint
C
Calidris alba
Sanderling
C
Limicola falcinellus
Broad-billed Sandpiper
C
Arenaria interpres
Ruddy Turnstone
C
Larus dominicanus
Kelp Gull
C
Larus heuglini
Heuglin's Gull
C
Larus fuscus
Lesser Black-backed Gull
C
Larus cachinnans
Yellow-legged Gull
C
Larus cirrocephalus
Grey-headed Gull
C
Larus hartlaubii
Hartlaub's Gull
C
Larus ridibundus
Common Black-headed Gull
C
Larus genei
Slender-billed Gull
C
Sterna caspia
Caspian Tern
C
Sterna maxima
Royal Tern
C
Sterna bengalensis
Lesser Crested Tern
C
Sterna bergii
Swift (Greater Crested) Tern
C
Sterna sandvicensis
Sandwich Tern
C
Sterna dougallii
Roseate Tern
C
Sterna hirundo
Common Tern
C
Sterna vittata
Antarctic Tern
C
Sterna repressa
White-cheeked Tern
C
Sterna albifrons
Little Tern
C
Sterna saundersi
Saunders' Tern
C
Sterna balaenarum
Damara Tern
C
Sterna anaethetus
Bridled Tern
C
Chlidonias niger
Black Tern
C
Alcedo thomensis
São Tomé Kingfisher
C
Alcedo nais
Prìncipé Kingfisher
C
Halcyon senegaloides
Mangrove Kingfisher
C
Mirafra ashi
Ash's Lark
C
Anthus melindae
Malindi Pipit
C
Cisticola haematocephala
Coastal Cisticola
C
Anthreptes gabonicus
Mangrove (Brown) Sunbird
C
Ploceus subpersonatus
Loango Weaver
262
Related
initiatives
Related initiatives
Census of Marine Life – CoML Indian Ocean
Dr M. Wafar
National Institute of Oceanography, Dona Paula, P.O. Goa 403 004. India.
[email protected]
The Indian Ocean accounts for 29% of the spread, 13% of the marine organic carbon
synthesis, 10% of the capture fisheries, 90% of the culture fisheries, 30% of coral reefs
and 10% of the mangroves of the global ocean. It also has 246 estuaries draining
hinterlands greater than 2000 km2 and a large number of minor estuaries, besides coastal
lagoons and backwaters. Bering landlocked in the north, and with its largest portion lying
in the tropics, the Indian Ocean is also a region of high biological diversity. It is also a
region of developing countries and has the greatest concentration of the world’s
population (30%) living within 100 km of the coast.
Notwithstanding this importance, our knowledge of the coastal and marine biodiversity of
the Indian Ocean is still scattered in temporal, spatial and taxonomical scales. On the
temporal scale, since the International Indian Ocean Expedition in 1960s, there have been
no major international efforts to collect and analyze biodiversity. On spatial scales,
relatively more comprehensive datasets are available only for some countries. On
taxonomical scales, inventories of biodiversity are relatively more detailed with respect to
commercially exploited groups and larger organisms than with the minor phyla or microorganisms. Considered in the context of the spread, ecosystem diversity, economic
potentials –current and perceived – and the threat perceptions of the loss, and in
comparison with what is known elsewhere in the world, what we know of the marine
biodiversity of the Indian Ocean is much less than what should have been.
The CoML Indian Ocean initiative is the first attempt to evaluate what is actually known
of the marine biodiversity, what remains to be known and what would potentially remain
unknown in the region. This will bring together scientists and experts from major
countries of the region in a workshop in December 2003 at Goa (India). The workshop
has the following objectives:
1. To compile and consolidate existing information on the biodiversity of various
habitats and regions of the Indian Ocean (including both coastal and open-ocean)
and to make that information available in a collection of peer-reviewed
publications.
2. To identify regional priorities for biodiversity studies and develop research
initiatives around these priorities.
264
3. To develop ways and means of improving data archival and management of
existing information on marine biodiversity in the Indian Ocean, with a view to
preventing their loss, and improving access to existing data.
4. To create a regional network of scientists interested in marine biodiversity of the
Indian Ocean region, to facilitate exchange of information and data, and to coordinate scientific efforts.
5. To establish links with CoML initiatives in other regions.
The participants, in particular, shall try to:
•
Synthesize our current knowledge of the coastal and marine biodiversity
of the region and identify the gaps;
•
Suggest strategies to fill up these gaps – including augmented surveys,
linking to other CoML activities, developing new technologies and tools,
and through training, education and building public awareness;
•
Propose methods to increase accessibility to, and protection of, existing
information through improved data management and distribution
strategies; and
•
Speculate on the evolution of the drivers of change on how best they could
be managed.
•
Propose a strategy for long term monitoring of coastal and ocean marine
biodiversity for the Indian Ocean region.
265
Related initiatives
Ocean Biogeographic Information System (OBIS)
Dennis Gordon
Aquatic Biodiversity and Biosecurity, National Institute of Water & Atmosphere
Research, PO Box 14-901 Kilbirnie, Wellington, New Zealand.
[email protected]
OBIS is a web-based provider of global georeferenced information on accurately
identified marine species. OBIS contains or links with expert species-level and habitatlevel databases and provide a variety of spatial query tools for visualising relationships
among species and their environment. OBIS strives to assess and integrate biological,
physical, and chemical oceanographic data from multiple sources. Users of OBIS,
including researchers, students, and environmental managers, will gain a dynamic view
of the multi-dimensional oceanic world.
New synoptic datasets from environmental-sensing technologies and new techniques for
identifying and describing marine species are likely to result in a quantum increase in
knowledge about the distribution and abundance of life in the oceans over the next ten
years. The opportunity for new scientific breakthroughs, and heightened concern about
the health and persistence of life in the oceans, are the stimulus for the Census of Marine
Life (CoML), an international research program to assess and explain the diversity,
distribution, and abundance of marine organisms throughout the world's oceans. OBIS is
a major component of CoML, as is the History of Marine Animal Populations (HMAP),
whose mission is to gather, restore, and analyse historical marine population data from
the past 500 years, before human impacts on the ocean became significant. OBIS and
HMAP provide the temporal context, charting fluctuations of species' distributions past
and present. This context is necessary for the third major element of CoML, the Future of
Marine Animal Populations (FMAP), which provides a basis for modeling and prediction
of future oceanic communities.
CoML will benefit from related programs such as the Global Ocean Observing System
(GOOS), which will be providing continuous streams of observations to challenge
existing capabilities for data access, analysis, and presentation. OBIS will play a role in
making component biological data accessible and interpretable to a variety of end-users
including maritime industries, environmental managers, scientists, teachers, and the
general public.
266
Related initiatives
The global invasive species programme and marine biodiversity
Dr. Lynn F. Jackson
Programme Coordinator: GISP, c/o NBI, Private Bag X7, Claremont 7735, Cape
Town.
ABSTRACT: Invasive alien species are now recognized as a major threat to biodiversity,
including that of the marine environment. Responses to this threat include the
establishment, by a range of international organizations, of the Global Invasive Species
Programme (GISP), and, in relation to the marine environment, a Ballast Water Working
Group under the International Maritime Organisation (IMO) and the Globallast
Programme. GISP has recently established a Secretariat in South Africa and offers
information, technical support and capacity building/ training.
1. INTRODUCTION
Invasive species are now widely recognized as one of the greatest threats to biodiversity
generally and one of the four biggest threats to the marine environment, the others being
habitat destruction, overexploitation of living resources, and land-based sources of
pollution.
Their impacts can be direct, for example, where they compete with and displace
indigenous species, even leading to the loss of rare species. Or they can be indirect as a
result of habitat alteration or disruption of ecosystem functioning and community
structure. They also affect the ability of the environment to deliver goods and services
leading to the loss of products harvested from indigenous populations and loss of
amenities. Examples of invasives in the marine environment, amongst many others,
include the Chinese mitten crab, the comb jelly and species with health implications such
as cholera and toxic dinoflagellates. Apart from health impacts, marine invasives can
have serious ecological and economic consequences.
The majority of marine species have a planktonic stage in their life cycle, with the result
that they can have a very wide natural dispersion, depending on waves and currents. This
can lead to an expansion of their ranges and is thought to be exacerbated by climate
change. Many other human activities also contribute to this phenomenon, and marine
invasives can be introduced intentionally or unintentionally. Intentional introductions are
primarily for purposes of mariculture, while unintentional introductions can be a
consequence of canal developments, the growth in marine debris, deliberate or accidental
releases from aquaria, and shipping.
267
Ship-related vectors include hull fouling, bilge water, sediments around the anchor
chains, and ballast water. Ballast water has received the greatest attention at the
international level, with the establishment of a Ballast Water Working Group under the
International Maritime Organisation. This group initially drafted a set of Voluntary
Guidelines for Ballast Water Management, and has recently completed a draft
International Convention. Linked to this has been Globallast, a GEF-funded programme
aimed at assisting developing countries with the implementation of the relevant
regulations.
2. THE GLOBAL INVASIVE SPECIES PROGRAMME (GISP).
Concern at the international level over the threat posed by invasive species led, amongst
other things to the establishment of GISP.
2.1Brief history
2.1.1 In 1996 the Norway/UN Conference on Alien Species recognized IAS as one of
the greatest threats to biodiversity and recommended the development of a global
strategy and action plan to address the problem.
2.1.2 This led to the development of an MoU between IUCN, CABI and SCOPE to
establish GISP, which happened in 1997 with financial support from UNEP, GEF,
UNESCO and a range of other organizations.
2.1.3 GISP also entered into a MoU with the CBD to act as the Focal Point for IAS
under the Clearing House Mechanism of the Convention.
2.2
Institutional Structures
Phase I: 1997 – 2000
The initial phase of GISP was managed out of Stanford University under the
leadership of Prof. Hal Mooney. There was only 1 staff member, with the rest of the
work being undertaken by volunteers – largely experts in the field from partner
organizations and associated institutions. It culminated in a Synthesis Conference
held in Cape Town in late 2000.
Phase II: 2000 – 2006
The Synthesis Conference recommended the establishment of a more substantial
Secretariat to support the voluntary efforts and to oversee the execution of a Phase II
Implementation Plan. An initial office was set up in Washington DC and in June,
2003 a Secretariat was established in Kirstenbosch Gardens, Cape Town, with core
funding from the World Bank. One of the first activities of Phase II was to run 7
Regional Workshops in developing regions, with a view to assessing their needs and
268
priorities. Reports of these workshops will be published soon, and will inform future
priority projects and actions of GISP.
GISP consists of an Executive Board, an Advisory Panel, a number of Working
Groups and the Secretariat. The staff of the latter comprises a CEO, a Programme
Coordinator, Communications Officer, Working Group Coordinators and
Administrative Officers. The WG Coordinator Posts are yet to be filled.
The Working Groups as listed are each chaired by a Board member, and include a
wide range of experts in their membership.
GISP is currently investigating options with a view to registering as an independent
legal entity.
2.3 Mission
GISP’s mission is: “To conserve biodiversity and sustain human livelihoods by
minimizing the spread and impact of invasive alien species”.
2.4 Objectives
-
To promote implementation of Article 8 (h) of the Convention on Biological
Diversity
To improve the scientific basis for decision-making
To examine and strengthen legal and institutional frameworks
To reduce economic impacts
To develop capacity for the management of invasive species
To promote awareness of invasive species issues at all levels
to promote access to information on invasive species.
3. WHAT GISP OFFERS
GISP aims to achieve its objectives by offering the following:
- Information
- Technical support
- Capacity building/training
3.1 Information
During Phase I, GISP produced a number of publications, many of which have been
widely distributed. One of those products, Invasive Alien Species: A Toolkit of Best
Prevention and Management Practices, is now being actively promoted for use in
demonstration projects. It includes case studies on all steps of IAS management and is
269
being translated into a number of other languages (initially French and Spanish). The
English version is now available on the GISP website.2
The Secretariat is currently in the process of commissioning the preparation of a number
of other documents including:
- Manuals on best prevention practices, early warning of invasions, inland waters
and wetlands, and islands
- An assessment of the socio-economic costs of IAS
- A manual on best practices for funding agencies and aid organizations.
GISP will promote access to information through a Global Directory Service which will
include an updated website, distribution of information on CD’s, and a regular newsletter.
To date, GISP has focused to a large extent on the terrestrial and freshwater
environments. The intention is, however, to place more emphasis on marine invasives in
the future.
4.2 Technical support
GISP, through the expertise resident in its Working Groups and partner organizations can
provide technical support to collaborative projects and programmes around the world.
Existing partners include CABI, IUCN, SCOPE and the CBD, while partnerships are
currently under discussion with TNC, IMO, UNEP – Regional Seas Programmes, CI,
RAMSAR and others. GISP is already involved in projects in Africa, the South Pacific,
India, China and the Galapagos.
4.3 Capacity building/ training
There is clearly a need for enhancing the capacity of all countries, but particularly
developing countries, to manage invasive species. GISP therefore intends to promote the
development of appropriate training and educational materials and to assist in the
delivery of training courses – including courses aimed at managers of protected areas.
The GISP Secretariat welcomes all interested parties to contact us for further information
on our planned activities.
Contact information for GISP Secretariat
Programme Coordinator: + 27 – 21 – 799 8837
e-mail: [email protected]
Communications Officer: + 27 – 21 – 799 8839
e-mail: [email protected]
Fax: + 27 – 21 – 797 1561
2
The current web address is: http://globalecology.stanford.edu/DGE/Gisp. However, arrangements are
currently being made to transfer the website to South Africa.
270
Related initiatives
The marine programme of WWF South Africa
Dr Deon Nel
WWF South Africa, Millenium Park, 16 Stellantia Avenue, Stellenbosch 7600,
South Africa. [email protected]
WWF-SA's Vision:
To inspire collective custodianship of our natural heritage with passion, integrity
and enthusiasm
WWF's Target Driven Programmes:
WWF-SA focuses on the prevention of degradation of the South African natural
environment, the conservation of biodiversity and the sustainable use of natural
resources. WWF-SA plays a key role in facilitating the implementation of activities that
contribute to achieving these objectives by actively engaging with a wide variety of
partners and networks through project development, financing and programme
management.
As a global network, WWF has adopted a target driven approach to conservation and will
endeavour to invest 80% of its resources towards six global target driven programmes
(TDPs) and the 200 ecoregions identified by the network as being of global importance.
WWF-SA has moved towards a closer alignment of its conservation activities with these
international approaches and has identified ten relevant programmes within the TDP's
and Ecoregion Action Programmes, which contribute towards South African priority
conservation needs.
These programmes will be proactively developed with strategic partners and address
national, regional and international priorities.
The five full programmes are: Marine; Freshwater; Fynbos; Grasslands and Conservation
Education.
The five sub-programmes are: Climate Change; Toxics; Forests; Species of Special
Concern and Succulent Karoo.
The Marine Programme:
The oceans cover 70% of the Earth's surface and act as a significant life support system
for the world. Globally, the marine environment is a transport route, playground, source
of resources, means of livelihood and store of biodiversity. South Africa's national
271
responsibility is the conservation of coastal systems, the Benguela and Agulhas current
ecoregions and waters within the Southern Oceans.
The WWF-SA Marine Programme will encompass the development and management of
a cohesive and effective marine and coastal conservation support programme, which is
relevant to the marine conservation needs of South Africa and is aligned with
international programmes and protocols. The modus operandi of the programme will be
to consult with marine conservation partners to develop a strategic focus and plan for
priority activities, to assist with the development of projects and to secure resources for
their implementation. The geographical focus of the programme will be the inshore
marine waters of South Africa, the Southern Ocean waters within the jurisdiction of
South Africa as well as linked interventions up the western and eastern coasts of southern
Africa.
Vision:
Government Departments, communities, environmentalists, industries and other interest
groups in South Africa work closely together to keep and restore the treasures of the sea.
People use oceans and coasts wisely for the benefit of current and future generations.
Due to a common understanding and value of natural richness and beauty, humans
respect the idea that all marine life has a right to be and the space to survive.
Marine Programme Targets:
•
•
•
•
•
•
Identify priority habitats, species and marine systems requiring special conservation
attention.
Establishment and implementation of a network of effectively managed,
ecologically representative Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) covering at least 20 %
of South Africa's coastline.
Number of fish stocks that are currently categorised as over-exploited or depleted,
are halved and the status of sustainably exploited fish stocks maintained.
At least three South African fisheries certified by the Marine Stewardship Council
(MSC) as sustainably managed.
Security and management for Southern Ocean illegal, unreported and unmonitored
fishery activities achieved.
By-catch of endemic or threatened seabirds and sea mammals reduced to acceptable
levels.
272
Related initiatives
MASDEA - Marine Species Database for Eastern Africa
Dr Edward Vanden Berghe
Flanders Marine Data and Information Centre, Flanders Marine Institute, Vismijn,
Pakhuizen 45-52, B-8400 Ostend, Belgium. [email protected]
In spite of the importance of standard species lists for taxonomic nomenclature, no such
lists presently exist for the Western Indian Ocean/Eastern African region. Several global
initiatives exist to inventorise all published taxonomic names, such as ITIS (Integrated
Taxonomic Information System) or Species 2000. Some groups are covered adequately
globally (FishBase, FishNet, CephBase, Hexacorallians of the World), or in single
continents (European Marine Molluscs, Marine Molluscs of the Indo-Pacific).
Late 1996, we started developing a database application at the RECOSCIX-WIO project
(Regional Cooperation in Scientific Information Exchange - Western Indian Ocean) to
fill this gap. MASDEA consists of taxonomic records, and distribution records, mostly at
the country level, for these taxa. In the database, no attempt was made to convert
synonymous names in their currently valid name; valid names would be a separate
taxonomic record, with synonymous names linking to the valid one.
Since 1996, the database has been permanently maintained and added to; today it lists
just under 20,000 taxa on the genus or species level, and contains 50,000 distribution
records, some extracted from other databases, but mostly extracted from primary
literature. We are now actively looking for partners in this project, like taxonomists with
knowledge of the flora and fauna of the region. Also, we are looking for collaboration
with other databasing projects; data managers are invited to contact us to discuss
modalities for collaboration.
In part, this project was inspired by the fact that some data had been collected during a
project funded by UNESCO/ROSTA, for which no follow-up funding was provided. This
project was formally endorsed by the region during the Fourth Session of the
IOCINCWIO.
Objectives of the database
The main objectives of the database are to provide biodiversity researchers in the region
with a standard, well-documented and properly researched list of taxonomic names. Also
taxonomic names no longer considered valid are included. Together with the extensive
list of references, which forms integral part of the database, this will form a guide to the
biodiversity literature of the region. Based on the database, country lists of biodiversity
can be created. Another possible application is gap analysis, both in terms of areas/taxa
inadequately researched, as in terms of predicting species presence from (apparent)
discontinuous distributions.
273
The database covers all countries that were involved in the RECOSCIX-WIO project:
Eritrea, Kenya, Tanzania, Mozambique, Seychelles, Madagascar, Mauritius, Reunion
(France). South Africa was included later. Also records for Somalia, Djibouti, Chagos
Archipelago and the Comoros were logged. Most distribution records were logged at a
geographical resolution of country.
Guiding principles for development
The software for the database is developed in Access. A short summary of the structure is
presented below. A number of guiding principles were observed while developing the
structure and the user interface:
Importance of keeping wrong and outdated information
Very often, while scanning the literature, one comes across taxonomic name changes, or
a statement that an earlier distribution observation was based on a misidentification. Very
often, such wrong species distribution records are propagated through literature, with the
result that many species lists are inflated, containing distribution records based on these
misidentifications. Also, very often a taxon is included several times: once under the
currently valid name, and under one or more invalid synonyms: hence the need to store
information on synonymy, and to keep the distribution record linked with the name under
which it was originally published.
Importance of leaving an ‘audit trail’
All sources where the information is taken from are documented in the database. Both
taxonomy records and distribution records have a field to include a literature reference, so
that anyone who wishes can check the contents of the database against the primary
sources. The ultimate goal of this exercise is to provide biologists with a reference tool;
while the database is being developed, and its contents validated, it can serve as a
roadmap to the literature available on biogeography of the Western Indian Ocean.
Don’t force an extra layer of codes on the users
Taxonomic nomenclature is, in itself, a coding system with very elaborate rules and
regulations, and well understood by trained biologists. These rules are internationally
accepted, and documented in the ‘Code for Zoological Nomenclature’ and the one for
Botanical nomenclature. There is no need to develop an extra set of codes, which only
carries information that is already contained in the taxonomic names. Chances are that
these latter codes will be specific to a given databasing exercise, and create unnecessary
confusion. There are, obviously, codes that link records in the relational structure of the
database, but these are internal to the system and could be completely hidden from the
user.
Keep it simple
Only those fields have been created that were essential to capture the biogeographical
information. For all additional information, memo fields are provided. This way, the user
is only presented with, and forced to fill, those fields he/she is really interested in. There
is also the added advantage of ease of development, and the performance gain of the
completed system.
274
Structure of the Database
The database consists of a synonymised list, with distribution records referring to the
taxon name with which the distribution information was originally published. Each
distribution record (in principle presence in one of the countries of the region) is
referenced to the literature. It is also possible to keep track of records of which it is
known that they are false or doubtful. This feature, together with the way synonyms are
treated, should ensure that false records or records with invalid names are only entered
once, and appropriately flagged.
As illustrated in the diagram, four tables form the core of the structure: ‘Countries’,
‘Records’, ‘Literature’, and ‘Taxonomy’. Records table links country and taxonomy, plus
a reference to the literature, making it possible to keep track of sources of information on
the level of occurrence of taxon in a country. A separate table gives information on the
higher taxonomy; book-keeping of the flow of information into the system is possible
through the table with Log session information.
Figure 1: structure of the database.
Progress so far
So far, about 1000 published sources have been consulted, resulting in approximately
20,000 taxonomic records and 50,000 distribution records. Information for some
taxonomic groups has been extracted from other databases. Fish taxonomy and
distribution has been completed using FishBase, Seaweeds, apart from being adequately
covered from the publications of Coppejans and his team, have been augmented using
275
Silva’s catalogue of Indo-Pacific algae. A systematic attempt at tracing all echinoderm
literature has resulted in a (what we hope) fairly complete picture for this phylum.
Coverage for other phyla remains incomplete or even fragmentary.
276
Related initiatives
Species 2000: New Zealand, OR, How to achieve a national inventory of
biodiversity
Dennis Gordon
Aquatic Biodiversity and Biosecurity, National Institute of Water & Atmosphere
Research, PO Box 14-901 Kilbirnie, Wellington, New Zealand.
[email protected]
Species 2000: New Zealand is a four-stage activity with multiple goals. The four stages
are: 1) a millennial symposium reviewing the entire New Zealand biota (completed); 2)
published volumes of kingdom/phylum-by-phylum reviews of all taxa, with end-chapter
checklists of all known species; 3) electronic checklists of species and hierarchical
classification available on the worldwide web; 4) web enhancement, with the addition of
synonyms, common names, and other information.
The goals of the New Zealand activity include: 1) consciousness-raising among New
Zealand taxonomists about Species 2000 and Global Species Databases (GSDs); 2)
consciousness-raising among New Zealand government departments and ministries about
the crucial role of biosystematics in biotechnology, biosecurity, human and animal health,
sustainable ecosystem management, resource identification and use, and conservation; 3)
promotion of the concept of a National Biosystematics Strategy, to be aligned with the
existing New Zealand Biodiversity Strategy; and 4) New Zealand contributions to GSDs
that conform to the core data standards of Species 2000.
Lessons learned from the activity so far include: 1) the value of using the media to
promote such aims; 2) the need for detailed long-term planning and commitment; and 3)
how RSDs (regional) may contribute to GSDs.
277
Related initiatives
SeaweedAfrica: African seaweeds online
Martin Cocks
International Ocean Institute Southern Africa, c/o Department of Biodiversity and
Conservation Biology, University of the Western Cape, Private Bag X 17, Bellville
7535, South Africa. [email protected]
Seaweeds species have significant economic potential and information about their present
and potential uses is becoming increasingly necessary for the development of a seaweed
industry on the African continent. This industry has the potential to bring much-needed
economic opportunities to local communities and small businesses. The industry also
requires other information to be available to potential farmers and harvesters, for example
taxonomic information for the accurate identification of seaweed species and information
about a species’ ecology, distribution, harvesting methods and aquacultural practices.
Information on the legal framework that governs the industry in different African
countries will also be invaluable.
SeaweedAfrica is a multi-national project that plans to fill this information gap by
expanding AlgaeBase – a biodiversity database of seaweed information to include
additional information for the seaweed species of the African continent. It is a three-year
project which started in November 2001 and is funded by the European Union under the
INCO-DEV section of the Fifth Framework Programme. The project is coordinated by
the Martin Ryan Institute of the National University of Ireland, Galway and includes
scientists from South Africa, Kenya, Mozambique, Namibia, Tanzania, Portugal, Sweden
and Brazil. The collaborating scientist will redesign the already existing AlgaeBase
database and populate it with information. They will start with useful and potentially
useful African seaweeds adding the following information;
278
1. General ecological information about how seaweed species grow in the natural
environment,
2. How the seaweed species is used or could be potentially be used anywhere the world
3. How the seaweed species is harvested and its potential yields,
4. How the seaweed species is grown commercially,
5. The legal requirements for growing or harvesting seaweed in various African
countries.
A website (www.seaweedAfrica.org) has been established which serves the project in
two ways. Firstly it is where users of the database will be able to search for information.
These users will include the following groups;
1. Business people interested in harvesting seaweed species or growing them in
aquiculture or expanding their seaweed businesses,
2. Scientist involved in seaweed research, particularly on useful or potential useful
species,
3. Government officials involved in the management and regulation of the seaweed
industry – aquiculture or harvesting,
4. Students,
5. Interested members of the public.
At the website these users will be able to do more complex searches of the information in
the database than simply searching for a particular species and its associated information.
They will be able to search on other fields in the database, for example which species
contain a particular compound and grow under particular conditions.
The second group of users is the scientists who are collaborating on this project to build
the database and populate it with information. They will use the website to capture the
information about the seaweed species.
This group of users needs to be able to
communicate closely with each other about the project, although they are spaced
physically far apart. Thus they have to rely on the Internet as their main means of
communication – they form a virtual team. The web-portal has been provided with
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various tools to help with this process such as an online discussion forum to foster more
open and frank discussion about the project, a document management system and project
management system.
280
Related initiatives
Networking for Integrated Waste Management in Africa: experiences
from the SEAWASTE Network
Neil Griffin
IOI Southern Africa, c/o Department of Biodiversity and Conservation Biology,
University of the Western Cape, Private Bag X17, Bellville 7535, South Africa.
[email protected]
The SEAWaste network is presented here to show an example of a set of communication
tools used to link a network of widely distributed experts. The SEAWaste network has
the objective of promoting communication, information exchange and cooperation on
pollution and water quality issues that impact on all aquatic environments in Southern
and Eastern Africa. It provides a clearing-house of information for waste management
professionals in the region, and also a forum for interaction between professionals around
particular focal points (for example: capacity building for dealing with waste
management, disaster and contingency management, national and regional waste
management policy, the ratification of international conventions, and funding sources for
dealing within aquatic pollution).
The network was developed after contacting relevant people in government departments,
environmental NGOs, tertiary institutions and research groups, asking whether they
would be interested in joining the network, and asking them to recommend others that
might be approached. This process resulted in the compilation of list of experts interested
in joining the network. Currently, there are 68 members in the network.
The network’s website (http://seawaste.uwc.ac.za) offers a number of facilities to the
general public; however, the facilities available on the website are primarily for members
of the network. The members’ area contains a searchable database of members, profiles
on countries that make up the network, archives of resources and images, and
communication tools such as an email system, a within-site instant messenger, and
archived discussion fora. New members can register on the website.
Work areas are an important component of the members’ area. These are focused around
areas of interest to members, and contain communication tools, calendars, resource
archives, and facilities for uploading documents and images to the work area for the use
of all work area members. Work areas are managed by network members with a
particular interest or expertise in the subject of the work area.
An email newsletter was added as a tool to send information of interest to the network to
members who were not able to regularly visit the website. Content for the newsletter is
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supplied by the members, and the newsletter is compiled by the project coordinator and
sent to all members every three months.
The network has been running for more than a year now. It relies heavily on a number of
very interested members. These are the people that contribute news to the network,
facilitate information sharing between countries, recruit new members, and act as work
area coordinators. When the network started, there was little content in place, and
relatively few members, and so little incentive for people to visit the website or join the
network. This delayed the network reaching a critical mass of active members, and it has
relied heavily on very interested members during this period. It is important to identify
and involve the interested members, as they add considerable value to the network. The
email newsletter has proved a great success, as information reaches all members
regardless of whether they have logged in to the website recently (if they can), and shows
continual activity within the network. The newsletter may also be forwarded by members
to other potential members. Personal contact between members in, for example, regional
workshops has been invaluable in improving the network and developing interaction
between members. Finally, not all members have functional web access, and some do not
even have email access. We are looking at producing print versions of the newsletter for
those members without internet access.
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Related initiatives
Notes
No abstract received for the following talks
Benguela Current Large Marine Ecosystem Programme
International Ocean Institute (IOI)
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SUMMARY OF THE WORKSHOP
ALAN WHITFIELD
Summary of the first two days of the workshop
Dr whitfield presented a summary of the first two days of the workshop in the form of a
strengths, weaknesses and opportunities analysis.
General introduction
Africa is bathed by three oceans, and covers the widest latitudinal gradient of any
continent, thus providing a tremendous opportunity to contribute to global marine
biodiversity initiatives. Africa has a rich biodiversity, although this remains relatively
poorly known, and is under threat from major human pressures.
Strengths
• rich diversity of marine life appreciated and beginning to be explored
• small core of dedicated scientists available to form the catalyst for future work
• problems associated with potential biodiversity loss have been identified,
including habitat loss, over-exploitation, pollution, and invasive organisms
• lessons in marine biodiversity conservation
• online biodiversity databases are already up and running
Weaknesses
• limited capacity – human, infrastructure, financial
• biodiversity research not coordinated on a national or continental scale
• habitat destruction and over-exploitation already far advanced in many countries
• where laws are present to sustain biodiversity these are seldom enforced
• large dams have been built without reference to the consequences on marine
productivity and biodiversity
• invasive biota appear to be on the increase despite legislation
• limited museums housing national biodiversity collections
• conversion of estuaries and lagoons into salt pans or shrimp farms before
biodiversity and other options fully explored
• fisheries catches declining, and the impact on biodiversity is unknown
• little detailed information on the impacts of global warming on marine
biodiversity
Opportunities
• new technologies available, including observation, data management and
communication technologies
• value of biodiversity (and the processes that they support) needs to be promoted to
all, especially politicians
• convert ‘bits and pieces’ research into coordinated national and international
programmes with defined goals
• need to identify marine biogeographic regions and link these to biodiversity
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obtain greater sponsorship for biodiversity research from foreign fishing and oil
companies?
ensure training of taxonomists at the highest level
identify the many species that have only been keyed out to generic or family levels
initiate research on neglected groups and regions
more aquaria around africa to increase public awareness of marine biodiversity
elimination of destructive and non-selective fishing methods
quantify impact of invasive species on african marine biodiversity
reduce fishery by-catches to the benefit of biodiversity
initiate mangrove reforestation where possible to increase coastal productivity and
biodiversity
establish national museums to curate african biodiversity collections
balance offshore and inshore biodiversity efforts
peace has brought opportunities for research in countries previously affected by
conflict
link physico-chemical and biological information to define marine biogeographic
regions
pay more attention to endemic species at national, regional, biogeographic and
continental levels
examine how natural system variability affects marine biodiversity
identify threatened species and the cause(s) of their endangered status
how do large dams affect marine biodiversity?
encourage overseas taxonomists to become more involved in africa via
collaborative projects
identify ‘hotspots’ for marine biodiversity in same was as the ornithologists have
done for birds
create marine protected areas that are effective at sustaining african biodiversity
ideal opportunity to conduct focused research on the impact of global warming on
marine biodiversity
need t use technology to refine taxonomy, create and update electronic databases
link information gathering, communication and management
need to create training opportunities and ensure that trained students are not lost
there needs to be focused research on threatened habitats before these systems
disappear
scientists and non-scientists alike must make more use of online biodiversity
websites
etc.
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INTRODUCTION TO WORKSHOP DISCUSSIONS
The workshop helped to identify what is known regarding marine biodiversity in subSaharan Africa, and to highlight what remains unknown. Working session discussions
were held in order to use this information to develop a coordinated programme of action
to further the state of knowledge of marine biodiversity on the African continent. These
working session discussions were centered around the three themes of exploring
mechanisms for information dissemination and communication, identifying and
addressing key gaps in marine biodiversity knowledge in Africa, and developing
appropriate capacity for furthering knowledge on Africa’s marine biodiversity. In
addition to these, a plenary discussion was held to explore future directions of the
programme. In all cases, guidelines were prepared in order to assist participants to have
meaningful discussions around the themes.
General guidelines to be considered in all working session discussions were as follows:
• Try to think holistically and programmatically rather than project-wise (although
some projects will undoubtedly be identified during the discussions).
• Try to think continent-wise rather than nationally (although national perspectives
will be invaluable in this process)
• Where possible, consider all aspects of marine biodiversity, including research,
conservation, exploitation, etc.
• Discussions should be based on needs identified through this workshop and other
processes such as the African Process, WSSD, GIWA, national processes, etc.
• It is important to keep a focus on the current regional political climate, in
particular NEPAD
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WORKING SESSION A
EXPLORATION OF MECHANISMS FOR INFORMATION
DISSEMINATION AND COMMUNICATION
Chair: Dr Dennis Gordon (OBIS)
Rapporteur: Mr Faghrie Mitchell (IOI-SA)
Guidelines
The guidelines provided for this working session were as follows. The workshop should
have identified the following:
• A need for dissemination of marine biodiversity information and communication
within sub-Saharan Africa
• What mechanisms currently exist for such information dissemination and
communication in the region (and elsewhere)
• Some examples of how information dissemination and communication can be
achieved
With this base, we are now ready to:
• Identify what is needed in terms of information dissemination and communication
mechanisms related to marine biodiversity in sub-Saharan Africa
• Discuss what form such mechanisms should take
Identification of needs
A number of needs were identified regarding dissemination of biodiversity information
and communication between researchers. These included:
• There is a strong need for dissemination of biodiversity information in a number
of forms, including electronic databases, regional taxonomic guides, etc.
• There is a need to raise awareness of existing online and hard-copy resources
• There is a need to harmonize existing online databases, and to draw on existing
material
• Online databases require linking with oceanographic and ecological data
• Africa-specific databases should be developed
• Communication and networking between researchers working on African marine
biodiversity needs to be improved.
A vision for marine biodiversity information dissemination and communication in
Africa in the year 2020
The participants formulated the following considerations for marine biodiversity
communication in Africa:
• Every country has infrastructure for biodiversity information retrieval, access, and
delivery, with shared information for all
• Have enough researchers working in taxonomy – trained personnel, funding
(sustainable), technology (communications)
• Efficient communication and networking between researchers active in the field
of marine biodiversity in Africa
• Buy-in from national governments at all levels for biodiversity appreciation and
awareness, national ownership of biodiversity
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Appropriate, adequate and accessible databases which are integrated, and which
aid the proper management of the biodiversity resources i.e. collected, archived,
properly managed and accessible
Link with other databases and initiatives
Make use of existing infrastructure, for example the ODINAfrica.
Actions necessary to achieve the vision
The following actions were suggested in order to achieve the vision:
• Establish appropriate links between databases at all levels
• Implement technology to integrate and analyze biodiversity data
• Ensure human resources and infrastructure capacity for communication
• Establish a network for marine biodiversity research in Africa
• Establish national and/or regional hubs as clearing houses for biodiversity data
• Establish a program for training taxonomists, sourcing funding and enhancing
infrastructure
• Crucial to align these goals and actions with CBD strategies
• Needs assessments and setting of priorities within different countries
• Ensure sustainability of database systems and data
• Improved data management.
Some considerations in establishing marine biodiversity databases for Africa
As a first step in the collaboration, it is suggested to use ODINAfrica to create
biogeographical databases in those countries where they do not yet exist. It is important
that existing databases are drawn into the system, and that there is a minimal set of fields
common to all of theses. This minimal set should be equal to, or greater than, the OBIS
minimum set of data. Specifically, information on voucher specimens is seen as
important.
To ensure that information is exchangeable, not only at the technical level, but also on the
content level, a standard species list can be built. MASDEA, Species 2000 and other
resources can be used to build this list. Participants to the network are invited to
contribute their expertise (on a region or on a taxon) to this database.
ODINAfrica, Oceanographic Data and Information Network for Africa, is a
UNESCO/IOC (Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission)-led programme, funded
by the Flemish Government, now entering its third phase. Emphasis in the first two
phases was mainly on capacity building, both human resources, IT and connectivity, to
facilitate up-to-date management of oceanographic/marine data and information.
Capacity has been built to handle data streams, manage information resources, build and
host web sites, and make databases available through these web sites. In the 20 countries
participating to the ODINAfrica II project, there is now a functional National
Oceanographic Data Centre, forming part of the International Oceanographic Data and
Information Exchange programme (IODE) of the IOC.
For the third phase of ODINAfrica, the capacity built in earlier phases of the project will
be used to generate and manage data streams. The emphasis will still be on physical
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oceanography. There is, however, also a wish to deal with biological data, mainly related
to fisheries and biodiversity.
This creates an opportunity for collaboration with OBIS activities in Africa. Biological
expertise from the African countries can be combined with the infrastructure and knowhow built up in ODINAfrica, to make a contribution to the global OBIS programme in a
relatively short time. Resources available within the ODINAfrica project can be made
available to a possible OBISAfrica network. The library and information resources of
ODINAfrica can make a substantial contribution to the future network. There are some
financial resources available to forge links between the two networks.
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WORKING SESSION B
IDENTIFYING AND ADDRESSING KEY GAPS IN MARINE
BIODIVERSITY KNOWLEDGE IN AFRICA
Chairs: Prof. Charles Griffiths & Dr Larry Hutchings (University of Cape Town
Zoology Department & South Africa’s Marine and Coastal Management
respectively)
Rapporteur: Dr Ceri Lewis (IOI-SA)
Guidelines
The guidelines provided for this working session were as follows. The workshop should
have identified the following:
• The current state of knowledge of marine biodiversity in sub-Saharan Africa
• Areas where gaps exist in our current knowledge in geographical, taxonomic and
genetic contexts
• Which of these knowledge gaps are of high priority and can be considered ‘key’
gaps (in terms of geographical, taxonomic and genetic contexts)
With this base, we are now ready to:
• Formally identify the key gaps in marine biodiversity knowledge in the region
• Identify what is needed to improve the state of knowledge surrounding these key
gaps
• Discuss what form such intervention(s) should take
Identification of key gaps in marine biodiversity knowledge in Africa
Knowledge gaps in African marine biodiversity can be categorized as being in three
areas:
• Taxonomic information
• Geographic regions
• Ecosystem/ biotope
Two different possible approaches to address these gaps in biodiversity knowledge were
identified:
• Examine existing threats on a region by region basis and analyze habitat types and
key taxonomic groups for that region. This becomes more difficult where
taxonomic information is limiting
• Examine patterns amongst known ‘proxy’ groups of organisms and identify
regional knowledge gaps where there is little existing knowledge on any group of
organism. Well studied groups that could be used as ‘proxy’ organisms to look
for geographical biodiversity patterns might be; fish, seaweeds, birds, shallow
water echinoderms, large crustaceans, molluscs and mammals. Whilst there are
many groups where detailed information is missing and must be studied, it will
take a long time before enough is learnt about such groups for them to be useful in
identifying patterns in biodiversity.
It was recognized that an opportunity exists in Africa to contribute to global biodiversity
knowledge through the vast latitudinal gradient along the coast and presence of 6
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biogeographical zones (2 tropical, 2 sub tropical, and 2 temperate). Some of these zones
are well studied while very little information is currently available for others. Knowledge
gaps were examined in more detail for each of the six zones.
Tropical East Coast
The following were highlighted as key gaps in marine biodiversity knowledge in this
biogeographic region:
• Most estuaries on the tropical east coast (particularly benthos) have never been
surveyed
• Very little info exists for the entire regions of Somalia, the Comoros and northern
Mozambique, representing major geographical gaps
• The offshore benthos is not well known (shallower zones are far better known
than deeper areas)
• Fauna and flora associated with seagrass beds
• Small crustaceans, polychaetes and meiofauna in general
• Planktonic systems in general poorly known
• Phytoplankton
• Soft corals
Sub-tropical East Coast (Southern Mozambique and KwaZulu-Natal)
The following were highlighted as key gaps in marine biodiversity knowledge in this
biogeographic region:
• No surveys of offshore benthos beyond 140m depth, which is a soft bottomed
trawled area
• Meiofauna (especially deeper than 140m) not known
• hydroids, bryozoans, octocorals of deeper waters
Warm Temperate East Coast
The following were highlighted as key gaps in marine biodiversity knowledge in this
biogeographic region:
• Offshore beyond 30m has been surveyed and so is well known relative to the rest
of Africa but there are still no systematics studies for this area and little taxonomic
information
• The deep benthos is poorly understood
• There are deep water coral beds on the edge of the Agulhas bank which are poorly
understood but which form an important fish refuge and there are known to be
destructive fishing trawling taking place there.
Cool Temperate (Benguela) West Coast
The following were highlighted as key gaps in marine biodiversity knowledge in this
biogeographic region:
• This was identified as the most-studied and hence best known of all African
marine biogeographic regions
• There has been little benthic sampling in offshore regions and these areas can be
considered knowledge gaps
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Deep water areas (>30m) of hard substratum are also not well known
The slope biota, now supporting an important fishery, is poorly known.
Warm Temperate and Sub tropical West Coast
The following were highlighted as key gaps in marine biodiversity knowledge in this
biogeographic region:
• This was identified as a transition zone where the regional hydrodynamics and
biogeographical boundaries are poorly understood, so is in itself a knowledge gap
• Estuaries in Angola were identified as being key areas where little is known,
together with inshore and even inter-tidal areas
• All taxa in the region poorly known though some work has been done. The
information is, however, dispersed and has not been collated
• Mangroves were identified as being key gaps in biodiversity knowledge.
Tropical West Coast
The following were highlighted as key gaps in marine biodiversity knowledge in this
biogeographic region:
• Estuaries and deltas
• Lagoons (some information exists for open lagoons, none for closed lagoons)
• Mangroves and seagrasses
• Taxonomic information is poor for deep offshore and pelagic regions and is
particularly poor for benthos in all areas. Deep-sea fish and offshore fish are also
poorly studied
• A census project has done some sampling in shelf areas off Angola so some data
do exist for this region.
General gaps in knowledge across the whole continent:
• Deep-sea benthos (beyond 30m in all areas except in areas where the Coelacanth
Project has collected data extending to 140m depth).
• Knowledge of benthic meiofauna is poor in the majority of regions
• Bryozoans were identified as a very poorly studied group across the whole of
Africa
• It was identified that reference collections in Africa were often missing with
collections/type specimens being overseas and not readily available
• Some knowledge gaps are due to human resource gaps. Knowledge sharing is
vitally important in reducing these
• Coralline algae were also determined to be a group about which little is known.
General comments
Transition zones should be prioritized as a whole. These are key areas of limited species
and are also zones which are likely to move over a period of years.
Further, more detailed gap analysis for each region is required.
Data collation of all previous studies is required since data often exists but is not readily
available to be used together to give the ‘whole picture’ for a region.
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Priorities and opportunities
Threats exist where there are high populations or extraction procedures taking place. In
order to be able to prioritize threats in a meaningful way a full knowledge of all threats
along the coast needs to be compiled into a ‘coastal sensitivity atlas of Africa’ ie a
synthesis of all existing information into one all-encompassing document. This would
detail all threats (as defined below) in association with habitat analysis for those areas. A
destructive process occurring in a biodiversity ‘hotspot’ would then become a high
priority.
Threats can be classified as:
• Population density and migration to the coast
• Extraction industries
• Pollution
• Development resulting in habitat modification
• Dam construction and modification of freshwater flow regimes
• Invasive alien species
• Climate change – increased frequency and/or intensity of extreme events
• Lack of political will, and shortcomings in enforcement ability
• Poverty (lack of alternatives)
• Trading in marine species, including aquarium fish, shells, hard corals, seahorses
(CITES list), Muti trade, etc.
Some recommendations for filling the gaps
1. Identify experts who can work on the knowledge gaps and/or taxomonic groups
which are poorly known and pool knowledge between regions
2. Encourage overseas experts to become involved in collaborative research and
training, and in particular to train African scientists so that knowledge remains on
the continent and does not leave with the visiting scientist
3. Individual reference collections are important for data quality in biodiversity
studies and on-the-ground training (rather than relying on overseas museum
collections which are not readily available)
4. Funding for museums to enable proper curation of collections. Possible
institution twining with overseas experts and institutions should be investigated.
Countries can aid each other through biodiversity legislation to implement
capacity building
5. Training core staff in both taxonomy and curation
6. Most countries have signed biodiversity legislation but implementing it requires
funding which is a problem in Africa
7. A full and complete census of current Marine Protected Areas is required
(allowing these to become reference areas)
8. A coastal sensitivity atlas reflecting both the biodiversity and existing threats is
essential. The data already exist for the most part, but must be collated to be of
used in identifying biodiversity ‘hotspots’.
9. Web-based identification guides can be established as a way of sharing taxonomic
knowledge. Identification resources need to be available to all. The knowledge
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often exists but not in a form widely available and in a regional format. Proper
taxonomic information is vital for biodiversity studies.
10. Icon species e.g. dugongs, turtles, mammals, birds, sharks can be highlighted
when canvassing for public support for biodiversity projects.
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WORKING SESSION C
DEVELOPING APPROPRIATE CAPACITY FOR FURTHERING
KNOWLEDGE OF AFRICA’S MARINE BIODIVERSITY
Chair: Dr Kim Prochazka (IOI-SA)
Rapporteur: Ms Jocelyn Collins (IOI-SA)
Guidelines
The guidelines provided for this working session were as follows. The workshop should
have identified the following:
• What human, institutional and infrastructural capacity exists in sub-Saharan
Africa for furthering the state of knowledge of marine biodiversity
• Where such capacity is lacking in geographical, taxonomic and genetic contexts
With this base, we are now ready to:
• Identify key gaps in capacity for furthering knowledge of marine biodiversity in
Africa
• Identify whether these gaps are in the context of geography, taxonomy, genetics
or a particular aspect of capacity (human, institutional or infrastructural)
• Identify what human, institutional and infrastructural capacity is needed to
efficiently address shortcomings in marine biodiversity knowledge in subSaharan Africa
• Discuss how this might be achieved
Key capacity limitations
The following were identified as key shortcomings in existing capacity for marine
biodiversity research on the African continent:
• Insufficient biodiversity researchers
• Very little capacity for research on genetic aspects of biodiversity
• Shortage of museums
• Existing museum capacity highly underdeveloped in terms of human capacity
(scientists, curators and collections managers), infrastructure (facilities and
equipment) and financial resources
• Inadequate facilities and equipment (e.g. Ships, sampling equipment, genetic labs
etc.)
• Institutions suffer from resource problems (people, facilities, equipment, financial
resources). This is linked to issues surrounding political will and priorities within
government and institutions, as well as poorly defined institutional objectives
• There is a need to develop capacity for project development
• It was identified that capacity varies geographically. In relative terms the southwest has adequate capacity, some capacity exists in the east, and very little in the
west, the south east (Mozambique) and the Indian Ocean islands.
• From a taxonomic perspective, capacity biases are based on the size of organisms
(larger species are better known than smaller species), their accessibility,
commercial importance, depth, attractiveness and availability of literature
resources.
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Human capacity for biodiversity research
There was a strongly identified need for additional biodiversity researchers and museum
staff in Africa.
The following points were identified as policy-level considerations:
• Human capacity development efforts should be in line with identified taxonomic
and geographic priorities
• Capacity development should maximize the use of existing expertise by utilize a
blend of African and outside expertise
• Capacity development should take place physically on the African continent
• Development of human capacity requires back-up from other fields of biology
• A wider perspective of biodiversity should be promoted (e.g. ecosystem effects,
effects of climate change, etc.)
Some practical considerations include:
• Encouragement of students through a coordinated, marketed project
• More information is required regarding what is available in terms of training of
museum staff
• Develop a field course. Such a course would bring in experts from both Africa
and abroad in order to train young biodiversity researchers. The field course
could be mobile, focussing on the priorities of the country in which it is being run.
This will have the double benefit of not only providing biodiversity training but
also of utilizing the collective experience of the participating experts to contribute
towards biodiversity knowledge in that country
• The development of Centres of Excellence should be encouraged. The rationale
behind this is to avoid unnecessary duplication of effort and to establish centres
that maintain a “critical mass” of researchers with a common interest. Such
Centres of Excellence could be developed around taxonomic, ecosystem or
geographical themes.
It is important to note that unattractive salaries are a stumbling block to any capacity
building efforts. This presents a significant challenge to the development of marine
biodiversity capacity.
Institutional capacity for biodiversity research
The following recommendations emerged surrounding further development of
institutional capacity for biodiversity research:
• Each country should develop a national collection/museum irrespective of current
research capacity. The rationale for this is to at least be able to build up
biological collections irrespective of current taxonomic capacity. Once
taxonomic capacity becomes available, the country will then be in a favourable
position.
• It is important to develop an institutional network based around marine
biodiversity. Such a network would include Universities, museums, research
institutions, etc.
296
Infrastructural capacity for biodiversity research
The following points were highlighted in the discussions:
• Existing opportunities should be utilized (e.g. fishing vessels etc.)
• Links should be established with other programmes, projects and industries in the
region
• Infrastructural capacity development should dovetail with human capacity
development
• An audit of existing infrastructure should be performed. Such an audit would
compile an inventory of existing infrastructure and further identify opportunities
for sharing infrastructure, for upgrading infrastructure and ensuring its adequacy
• There is a strong need to develop and improve museum infrastructure
• There is a strong need to develop and improve genetic laboratory facilities
• It is critical to ensure that IT infrastructure is in line with current trends
Genetic diversity
The concept of a regional centre for genetic diversity research was discussed. The
following points regarding such a centre were proposed:
• The centre need not be a traditional centre, but can be a virtual centre of linked
organizations/institutions
• The centre would provide a focus for training activities
• Ongoing support to genetic diversity researchers could be provided through such a
facility
• Such a centre would provide a focus for developing ‘critical mass’ of marine
genetic diversity researchers
• A centre for genetic diversity would facilitate the sharing of resources within and
between countries
• Such a centre would require external funding and a funding committee would be
required
• The centre would need to create links with other initiatives, such as the
Convention on Biological Diversity, etc.
297
The Way Forward
Chair: Dr Kim Prochazka
Rapporteur: Dr Ceri Lewis
Workshop oversights
Workshop participants were asked whether they felt that anything of importance had
become lost due to the way the workshop was organized. A few salient points arose:
• The area of genetic diversity was largely unexplored during the workshop
• There is a need for greater understanding of the ecological processes which
support biodiversity
• Biomass/abundance indicators are also important factors to consider when dealing
with biodiversity
• The Antarctic and sub-Antarctic were not dealt with in the workshop
Towards an african marine biodiversity programme
The workshop and discussion sessions identified a number of needs for improving the
state of marine biodiversity knowledge on the African continent, and a number of actions
aimed at filling these needs. The workshop participants then engaged in a discussion
aimed at developing a means to take this process further, and to ensure that the identified
actions are implemented.
Workshop participants agreed that it was desirable that the process started during this
workshop should be continued. It was further agreed to form a regional coordinating
body that would work towards achieving the desired goals established in the three
working sessions.
Such a body would give marine biodiversity researchers a collective voice, and could
thus be used as a strategic entity. This body would seek the political support necessary to
ensure the continuation of the ongoing programme. The programme would not have to
wait on this political support before moving forward.
One of the most pressing tasks that this body would be charged with is to further
investigate the feasibility of establishing an OBIS node for Africa, and to take advantage
of funding that is currently available for this. Such a node should be developed as a
portal through which access to national and other databases can be accessed.
With these considerations in mind, it was agreed to establish a Steering Committee to
take the process of developing a marine biodiversity programme for Africa forward. It
was decided that the Steering Committee should, at least initially, be made of up of a
minimum of five individuals representing each of five major geographical regions (east,
west, southwest, south, and Indian Ocean islands) and one person with experience in
databases. These individuals would represent their region and network with people in
their region. A process of nomination resulted in the following six people being offered
positions on the Steering Committee. All have accepted, with the exception of the
representative from Angola, who is awaiting official clearance.
298
Region
Indian Ocean Islands
East Africa
Southern Africa
West Africa
Southwest Africa
Databases
Individual
Mr Jude Bijoux
Prof. Yunus Mgaya
Prof. Charles Griffiths
Mr AK Armah
(Ms Maria Sardinha)
Mr Edward van den Berghe
Country
Seychelles
Tanzania
South Africa
Ghana
Angola
(MASDEA, ODINAfrica)
At the closure, the meeting was urged to draft a resolution, listing countries that attended
the meeting, and to seek support for this resolution through e-mail.
299
RESOLUTION ESTABLISHING AN
AFRICAN MARINE BIODIVERSITY PROGRAMME
We, the participants of the African Marine Biodiversity Workshop:
- realizing Africa’s important role as a steward of a rich and largely endemic marine
biota,
- recognizing the potential of this marine biodiversity to contribute to the sustainable
development of the African continent and the upliftment of its people,
- acknowledging that the marine biodiversity of Africa is relatively poorly known, and
- cognizant of the fact that numerous human activities present serious threats to marine
biodiversity in the waters surrounding the African continent,
hereby support the development of an African Marine Biodiversity Programme, the
objectives of which are to:
-
develop a research programme aimed at addressing key gaps in our knowledge of
marine biodiversity in Africa through the identification and implementation of
research projects
-
establish national and/or regional online databases, accessible via a common
portal, for the exchange and sharing of marine biodiversity information across the
continent
-
establish a communications and information-sharing network to link those with an
interest in marine biodiversity on the African continent
-
establish a programme to develop human, institutional and infrastructural capacity
in Africa in support of these aims.
We further support the establishment of an interim Steering Committee of the following
representatives to take the development of the African Marine Biodiversity Programme
forward:
Region
Indian Ocean Islands
East Africa
Southern Africa
West Africa
Southwest Africa
Databases
Individual
Mr Jude Bijoux
Prof. Yunus Mgaya
Prof. Charles Griffiths
Mr AK Armah
Ms Maria Sardinha
Mr Edward van den Berghe
300
Country of residence
Seychelles
Tanzania
South Africa
Ghana
Angola
(MASDEA, ODINAfrica)
Appendix
301
African marine biodiversity: the known and the unknown
Cape Town 23-26 September 2003
Programme
Tuesday 23 September 2003
18:00-20:00
Registration and Reception (incl. Tour of Aquarium)
Venue: Two
Oceans Aquarium
Wednesday 24 September 2003
08:50-09:00
Welcome
Chairperson: Prof. Charles Griffiths
09:00-09:30
Background to the Census of Marine Life
(CoML)
09:30-10:00
National report: Liberia & Cote d’Ivoire
10:00-10:30
National report: Ghana, Togo & Benin
Tea break
Chairperson: Dr. Anthony Ribbink
11:00-11:30
National report: Nigeria
11:30-12:00
National report: Cameroon, Sao Tome &
Principe
12:00-12:30
National report: Gabon
12:30-13:00
National report: Angola
Lunch break
Chairperson: Dr. Alan Whitfield
14:00-14:30
National report: Namibia,
14:30-15:00
National report: South Africa
15:00-15:30
National report: Moçambique
Tea break
16:00-16:30
National report: Tanzania
16:30-17:00
National report: Kenya
Prof. Charles Griffiths
Dr Cynthia Decker
Dr Yacoube Sankare
Mr A.K. Armah
Mrs. C.E. Isebor
Mr Charles Gabche
Miss Carole Ogandagas
Mr. Nkosi Luyeye
Ms Lizette Voges
Prof. Charles Griffiths
Dr Antonio Hoguane
Prof. Yunus Mgaya
Ms Ester Fondo
Thursday 25 September 2003
Chairperson: Dr. Cynthia Decker
09:00-09:30
National report: Mauritius & Reunion
09:30-10:00
National report: Seychelles
Tea break
Chairperson: Dr. Larry Hutchings
10:30-11:00
Thematic report: Macroalgae
11:00-11:20
Thematic report: Biogeography of estuarine
fishes in Africa
11:20-11:40
Thematic report: Western Indian Ocean
Project on marine biodiversity
11:40-12:10
Thematic report: Coastal and seabirds
Lunch break
Chairperson: Dr. Jean Harris
302
Dr. Mitrasen Bhikajee
Mr. Jude Bijoux
Prof. John Bolton
Dr. Alan Whitfield
Dr. Anthony Ribbink
Prof. Phil Hockey
13:10-13:30
13:30-13:50
13:50-14:05
14:05-14:15
14:15-14:30
14:30-15:00
Tea break
15:30-15:50
15:50-16:10
16:10-16:30
16:30-17:00
Related initiatives: Census of Marine Life (CoML)
Indian Ocean
Related initiatives: Ocean Biogeographic Information
Systems (OBIS)
Related initiatives: Global Invasive Species
Programme (GISP)
Related initiatives: International Ocean Institute (IOI)
Related initiatives: World Wide Fund For Nature in
South Africa (WWF-SA)
Related initiatives: Marine Species Database for
Eastern Africa (MASDEA) and Ocean Data and
Information Network for Africa (ODINAfrica)
Dr. Mohideen Wafar
Related initiatives: How to achieve a national
biodiversity review and inventory
Related initiatives: SeaweedAfrica Database
Related initiatives: Seawaste Network
Related initiatives: Benguela Current Large Marine
Ecosystem Programme (BCLME)
Dr. Dennis Gordon
Dr. Dennis Gordon
Dr. Lynn Jackson
Dr. Kim Prochazka
Dr. Deon Nel
Dr. Edward Vanden Berghe
Mr. Martin Cocks
Mr. Neil Griffin
Ms Maria Sardinha
Friday 26 September 2003
08:30-09:00
09:00-10:30
Summary of Days 1&2 – Dr. Alan Whitfield
Working session B
Working session A
Chair: Prof. Charles
Chair: Dr. Dennis
Griffiths
Gordon
Rapporteur: Mr. Faghrie Rapporteur: Ms Ceri
Lewis
Mitchell
Identifying and
Exploration of
addressing key gaps in
mechanisms for
marine biodiversity
information
knowledge in Africa
dissemination and
communication
Tea break
Chairperson: Dr. Kim Prochazka
11:00-12:30
Working session A
continued…
12:30-13:00
Lunch break
14:00-14:30
14:30-15:00
15:00-15:30
Tea break
16:00-16:40
16:40-17:00
17:00
Preparation of Working
session report
Working session C
Chair: Dr Kim Prochazka
Rapporteur: Ms Jocelyn Collins
Developing appropriate capacity
for furthering knowledge
of Africa’s marine biodiversity
Working session B
continued…
Working session C continued…
Preparation of Working
session report
Preparation of Working session report
Report-back: Working session A – Session Chair & Rapporteur
Report-back: Working session B – Session Chair & Rapporteur
Report-back: Working session C – Session Chair & Rapporteur
The way forward
Adoption of meeting report and resolutions
Meeting closure
303
Delegates attending the African Marine Biodiversity Workshop
Mr A.K. Armah
University of Ghana
Department of Fisheries and Oceanography
Ph: 233-21-514614
Fax: 233-21-513976
E-mail: [email protected]
Dr Mitrasen Bhikajee
Department of Biological Sciences
Faculty of Science
University of Mauritius
Reduit, Mauritius
Ph: 230 4541041
Fax: 230 4656928
E-mail: [email protected]
Mr. Jude Bijoux
Seychelles Centre for Marine Research &
Technology-Marine Parks
P. O. Box 656
Victoria, Mahe
Ph:
Fax:
E-mail: [email protected]
Prof. John Bolton
Botany Department
University of Cape Town
Rondebosch 7701
South Africa
Ph: 27 21 6502447
Fax: 27 21 6504041
E-mail: [email protected]
Mr. Dylan Clarke
Department of Biodiversity and
Conservation Biology
University of the Western Cape
Private Bag X17
Bellville, 7535
Ph: +27 21 9592314
Fax: +27 21 9591237
E-mail: [email protected]
Ms Jocelyn Collins
International Ocean Institute, Southern
Africa
Mr Martin Cocks
International Ocean Institute, Southern Africa
c/o Department of Biodiversity and Conservation Biology
University of the Western Cape
Private Bag X17
Bellville, 7535
Ph: +27 21 9593412
Fax: +27 21 9591213
E-mail: [email protected]
Dr Cynthia Decker
Oceanographer of the Navy
304
c/o Department of Biodiversity and
Conservation Biology
University of the Western Cape
Private Bag X17
Bellville, 7535
Ph: +27 21 9592566
Fax: +27 21 9591213
E-mail: [email protected]
Mr. Wayne Florence
Department of Biodiversity and
Conservation Biology
University of the Western Cape
Private Bag X17
Bellville, 7535
South Africa
Ph: +27 21 9592314
Fax: +27 21 9591237
E-mail: [email protected]
Mr Charles Emene Gabche
MINREST-IRAD
Research Station for Fisheries and
Oceanography
PMB 77
Limbe
Ph: 237 3332071
Fax: 237 3332025
E-mail: [email protected] or
[email protected]
Mr. Neil Griffin
International Ocean Institute, Southern
Africa
c/o Department of Biodiversity and
Conservation Biology
University of the Western Cape
Private Bag X17
U.S. Naval Observatory Bldg 1
3450 Massachusetts Ave., NW
Washington, DC 20392-5421
Ph: 1 202-762-0272
Fax: 1 202-762-0956
E-mail: [email protected]
Ms Esther Fondo
Kenya Marine and Fisheries
Research Institute
P.O. Box 81651
Mombasa, Kenya
00-254-41-475153/4
00-254-41-475157
E-mail: [email protected]
Dr. Dennis Gordon
Aquatic Biodiversity & Biosecurity
National Institute of Water & Atmospheric Research
P.O. Box 14-901 Kilbirnie
Wellington, New Zealand
Ph: 64 4 386 0388
Fax: 64 4 386 2153
E-mail: [email protected]
Prof. Charlie Griffiths
Zoology Department
University of Cape Town
Rondebosch 7700
South Africa
305
Bellville, 7535
Ph: +27 21 9593412
Fax: +27 21 9591213
E-mail: [email protected]
Ph: +27 21 650-3610
Fax: +27 21 650-3301
E-mail: [email protected]
Or [email protected]
Dr. Jean Harris
Ph:
Fax:
E-mail: [email protected]
Mr. Martin Hendricks
Department of Biodiversity and Conservation Biology
University of the Western Cape
Private Bag X17
Bellville, 7535
South Africa
Ph: +27 21 9592041
Fax: +27 21 9591237
E-mail: [email protected]
Prof. Phil Hockey
Percy Fitz Patrick Institute of African
Ornithology
University of Cape Town
Rondebosch 7700
South Africa
Ph: +27 21 650 3293
Fax: +27 21 650 3295
E-mail: [email protected]
Dr Antonio Hoguane
Dr Larry Hutchings
Marine and Coastal Management
Private Bag X2
Rogge Bay, 8012
Ph: +27 21 402 3109
Fax: +27 21 402 7416
E-mail: [email protected]
Eduardo Mondlane University
Chair of marine Sciences and Oceanography
Faculty of Sciences
P.O.Box 257, Maputo - Mozambique
Ph: 258 1 493102
Fax: 258 1 493049
E-mail: [email protected]
Mrs. Catherine E. Isebor
Nigerian Institute for Oceanography and Marine Research
Victoria Island
P.M.B. 12729
Lagos, Nigeria
Ph: 234-618118
Fax: 234-619517
E-mail: [email protected]
306
Lynn Jackson
Global Invasive Species Programme (GISP)
c/o National Botanical Institute
Ph: +27 21 799 8837
Fax: +27 21 797 1561
E-mail: [email protected]
Ashley Johnson
Physical Oceanography & Atmospheric Science
Marine and Coastal Management
Private Bag X2
Rogge Bay, 8012
Ph: +27 21 402 32 81
Fax: +27 21 425 6976
E-mail: [email protected]
Cloverley Lawrence
KwaZulu Natal Wildlife
South Africa
Ph: +27 31 - 274 1167
Fax: +27 31 - 205 1547
E-mail: [email protected]
Dr. Ceri Lewis
International Ocean Institute, Southern Africa
c/o Department of Biodiversity and Conservation Biology
University of the Western Cape
Private Bag X17
Bellville, 7535
Ph: +27 21 9592566
Fax: +27 21 9591213
E-mail: [email protected]
Mr. Nksoi Luyeye
Benguela Current Large Marine Ecosystem
Programme (BCLME)
Marine Research Institute
Ilha do Cabo
P. O. Box 2601
Luanda
Ph: 092 508201/309077
Fax: 244-2-309731
E-mail: [email protected]
Prof. Yunus D. Mgaya
Mr. Faghrie Mitchell
International Ocean Institute, Southern
Africa
c/o Department of Biodiversity and
Conservation Biology
University of the Western Cape
Private Bag X17
University of Dar es Salaam
Faculty of Aquatic Sciences and Technology
P. O. Box 35064
Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
Ph: 255-22-2410462 or 255 741 237774
Fax: 255-22-2410078
E-mail: [email protected]
Dr. Deon Nel
WWF South Africa
Millennia Park, 16 Stellentia Avenue,
Stellenbosch, 7600
Private Bag X2, Die Boord, 7613
307
Bellville, 7535
Ph: +27 21 9593408
Fax: +27 21 9591213
E-mail: [email protected]
Ph: +27 21 888 2800
Fax: +27 21 888 2888
Miss Carole Ogandagas
Direction Generale de Peches et de
l'Aquaculture/Gabon
BP 7119
Libreville
Ph: 241 232472 or 241 762503
Fax: 241 720770
E-mail: [email protected] or
[email protected]
Dr. Kim Prochazka
E-mail: [email protected]
International Ocean Institute, Southern Africa
c/o Department of Biodiversity and Conservation Biology
University of the Western Cape
Private Bag X17
Bellville, 7535
Ph: +27 21 9593088
Fax: +27 21 9591213
E-mail: [email protected]
Miss Lantoasinoro Ranivoarivelo
Institut Halieutique et des
Sciences Marines
University of Toliara
P. O. Box 141
Route du Port-Tulear CP 601
Madagascar
Ph:
Fax:
E-mail: [email protected]
Ms Carmen Ras
International Ocean Institute, Southern Africa
c/o Department of Biodiversity and Conservation Biology
University of the Western Cape
Private Bag X17
Bellville, 7535
Ph: +27 21 9592075
Fax: +27 21 9591213
E-mail: [email protected]
Dr. Anthony Ribbink
South African Institute for Aquatic
Biodiversity
Private Bag 1015
Grahamstown 6140
Ph: 046 6035830
Fax: 046 6222403
E-mail: [email protected]
Dr Toufiek Samaai
School of Biology
Faculty of Science and Engineering
University of Durban-Westville
P/B X54001
Durban 4000
South Africa
308
Ph: +27 31 204 4580
Fax: +27 31 204 4790
E-mail: [email protected]
Dr. Yacouba Sankare
Centre de Recherches Oceanologiques
29 Rue des Pecheurs
BPV 18 Abidjan
Cote d'Ivoire
Ph: 225 21 35 50 14 or 225 21 35 58 80
Fax: 225 21 35 11 55
E-mail: [email protected]
Ms. Maria Sardinha
Benguela Current Large Marine Ecosystem Programme (BCLM
BEH&P Activity Centre
c/o IIM, Namibia
P. O. Box 2601
Ilha do Cabo
Luanda
Ph: 244 92508200
Fax: 244 309330
E-mail: [email protected]
Robyn Scott
University of Cape Town
Rondebosch 7700
South Africa
Ph: +27 21 6503610
Fax: +27 21 6503301
E-mail: [email protected]
Mrs. Rashieda Toefy
Department of Biodiversity and Conservation Biology
University of the Western Cape
Private Bag X17
Bellville, 7535
Ph: +27 21 9592314
Fax: +27 21 9591237
E-mail: [email protected]
Dr. Edward Vanden Berghe
Flanders Marine Data and Information
Centre
Flanders Marine Institute
Vismijn, Pakhuizen 45-52,
B-8400 Ostend, Belgium
Ph: +32 59 342130
Fax: +32 59 342131
E-mail: [email protected]
Ms Lizette Voges
Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Coordinator
National Biodiversity program
Namibia
P.O. Box 3098
Vineta, Namibia 9000
Tel + 264 64 4101151
Fax + 264 64 404385
E-mail: [email protected]
309
Dr. Mohideen Wafar
Biological Oceanography Division,
National Institute of Oceanography,
Dona-Paula, India
Goa 403 004
Ph: 91 (0) 832-2450252
Fax: 91(0)832-2450602
E-mail: [email protected]
Dr Alan Whitfield
South African Institute for Aquatic Biodiversity
Private Bag 1015
Grahamstown 6140
Ph:+27 (0) 46 6365829
Fax:+27 (0) 46 6222403
E-mail: [email protected]
310