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Thinker Research
Rebecca Cloud
EDU 320
Howard Gardner
Howard Gardner developed the theory of multiple intelligences (Anon.,
2004). He believed each individual possessed many distinct forms of intelligence,
which varied from person to person (Anon., 2004). In his theory there were seven
primary forms: linguistic/language, musical/different aspects of music, logicalmathematical/mathematics, spatial/diagrams, body-kinesthetic/hands-on,
intrapersonal/insight, and interpersonal/social skills (Anon., 2004). He also believed
learning and teaching should focus on an individuals particular intelligences, and
assessment should measure all forms of intelligence not only language and
mathematics (Anon., 2004). He emphasizes that cultures tend to emphasize
particular intelligences and individuals should be able to choose which intelligence
they prefer in the learning process (Anon., 2004).
Lev Vygotsky
Lev Vygotsky is known for his social development theory (Anon., 2004).
He believed that social interaction played an important role in cognitive
development (Anon., 2004). Vygotsky (1978) states “Every function in the childs
cultural development appears twice: first on the social level, and later, on the
individual level; first, between people and then inside the child. This applies
equally to voluntary attention, to logical memory, and to formation of concepts.
All the higher functions originate as actual relationships between individuals” (p.
57). Zone proximal development or ZPD is considered by Vygotsky to be the
level of development gained when children engage socially (Anon., 2004). For
example, learning language, first utterances of language are for mere
communication, yet will become internalized once the language is mastered
(Anon., 2004). He believed that full cognitive development depended on zone
proximal development (Anon., 2004). He also believed that cognitive development
was limited at given ages to certain ranges of development (Anon., 2004).
Jean Piaget
Jean Piaget conducted a tremendous amount of research , which he called
genetic epistemology (Anon., 2004). He did this type of research because he was
[profoundly interested in how knowledge developed in humans (Anon., 2004). He
used his knowledge of biology and philosophy in his theories of child
development. “Cognitive structures are patterns of physical or mental action that
underlie specific acts of intelligence and correspond to stages of child
development” (Anon., 2004). According to Piaget, four primary cognitive structures
existed: sensorimotor, preoperations, concrete operations, and formal operations
(Anon., 2004). The sensorimotor stage deals with the motor skills of children in
the range of ages 0-2 years (Anon., 2004). Intelligence in the preoperations stage,
3-7, is more intuitive (Anon., 2004). Children in the age range of 8-11 years are
considered to be in the concrete operations stage. In this stage children try to put
logical into concrete references (Anon., 2004). The last stage formal operations
(children 12-15 years of age) are where thinkers start to be more abstract.
Through these stages cognitive development goes through changes or adaptations ,
which are known as assimilation and accommodation (Anon., 2004). Assimilation
involves using existing cognition while accommodation means changing the
structure to fit the situation (Anon., 2004). Piaget believed that children would
present different explanations for ideas depending on the level of cognition they
were in (Anon., 2004).
James Bruner
James Bruner developed a constructivist theory that learners construct new
ideas from past and present knowledge or experiences (Anon., 2004). He develops
Piagets theory of cognitive structures to include that learners should be taught on
the basis of information they already know (Anon., 2004). The curriculum should
be in a spirally manner to incorporate and build upon learners previous
understandings of concepts (Anon., 2004). The instructor and student should have
an open dialog relationship (Anon., 2004). Theory of instruction should address
four concepts: 1. predisposition about learning, 2. ways to structure knowledge to
make it available for learners to understand, 3. a well-organized way to present
material, and 4. the nature of rewards and punishment (Anon., 2004). Bruner also
includes the social and cultural aspect of learning; learning from others and the
environment (Anon., 2004). He focuses mostly on language, mathematics, and
science (Anon., 2004). Bruner’s most profound principles include teaching learners
by using experiences and contexts that make learning enjoyable and wanted by
the learner (Anon., 2004). Also instruction should be able to fill in any gaps
learners may have, regarding that information, in their frames (Anon., 2004).
Maria Montessori
Maria Montessori developed two major principles: The absorbent mind and
sensitive periods (Caspari, 2000). These principles were never labeled as theories
making them easier to use even today (Caspari, 2000).
She discovered that a childs mind up to the age of seven to be absorbent
(Caspari, 2000). In that age range a childs experiences are molded into their
personality and frames (Caspari, 2000).
Between the ages of three and six children are sensitive to their
development of language, good manners, order, etc. (Caspari, 2000). Children tend
to or seem to learn effortlessly (Caspari, 2000). At the age of six or seven the
absorbent mind begins to be replaced by an abstract form of thinking (Caspari,
2000).
Children are taught good coordination at the preschool age and are helped
to develop important motor skills (Caspari, 2000). Maria also developed
scientifically designed materials for sensory development , which is known, as one
of her greatest gifts to early childhood education (Caspari, 2000). Using
vocabulary that is present in a childs everyday surroundings begins language at an
early age (Caspari, 2000). Religion is also a part of the Montessori principles,
mostly the golden rule (Caspari, 2000).
James Banks
James Banks mostly believes that students should be critical thinkers
(Ardoin, 2000). He believes that students should think for themselves rather then
told what to think (Ardoin, 2000). Students should be able to give their own
interpretations of information, since everyone understands things differently
(Ardoin, 2000). He states that learners need to be able to assert their own
positions, ideas, and interests to encourage the best learning environment for each
learner (Ardoin, 2000).
Erik Erikson
Erikson has developed a theory involving eight stages of human
development (About, 2004). Stage one is infancy, age 0-1 (About, 2004). In this
stage infants have to trust their parents to provide them with the basic need of
food, affection, warmth, etc. (About, 2004). If these items are met all of the time
by responsible parents infants begin to willingly trust their parents and themselves,
on the other hand if the needs are not met mistrust will occur (About, 2004).
Stage two involves toddlers age 1-2 (About, 2004). This is the stage of
self-confidence. Encouragement on the part of the parents helps toddlers cope with
future situations with confidence and independence (About, 2004). If a parent is
over protective a child may become ashamed of his behavior and have doubt of
his abilities (About, 2004).
Stage three is early childhood, age 2-6 (About, 2004). At this stage
children must find a balance between eagerness for adventure and impulse control
(About, 2004). If parents are consistent with discipline yet encouraging children
will learn right from wrong without guilt (About, 2004). If not children can show
signs of guilt about being independent (About, 2004).
Stage four consists of elementary and middle school years, age 6-12
(About, 2004). Children begin to learn to be a worker and provider outside of the
home (About, 2004). If children find pleasure in success they can develop a sense
of competence, if they don’t they will develop a sense of inferiority (About,
2004).
Stage five adolescence, age 12-18 (About, 2004). The identity crisis is the
single most significant conflict a person must face in Erikson’s opinion (About,
2004). With a positive outcome an adolescent will come out with a strong
identity prepared for the future, while a negative outcome will result in confusion
(About, 2004).
Stage six young adulthood, age 19-40 (About, 2004). Erikson says that a
person is not developmentally complete without intimacy (About, 2004). People
with strong identities will attain close meaningful relationships while those without
will feel isolated and fear commitment (About, 2004).
Stage seven middle adulthood, age 40-65 (About, 2004). This stage refers
to a persons need to have children (About, 2004). This situation is resolved by
having children or mentoring others (About, 2004). On the other hand not solving
this need can result in stagnation (About, 2004).
Stage eight late adulthood, age 65-death (About, 2004). People of old age
need to know that their life had meaning (About, 2004). If this is accomplished
that individual will accept death, on the other hand if it is not achieved the
individual will fear death (About, 2004).
Reference
About, Inc. (2004). Erikson-eight stages of psychosocial development. Retrieved on
March 28, 2004 from http://psychology.about.com/library/weekly/aa091500a.htm.
Anon. (2004). Genetic epistemology (J. Piaget). Retrieved on March 27, 2004
from http://tip.psychology.org/piaget.html.
Anon. (2004). Social development theory (L. Vygotsky). Retrieved on March 27,
2004 from http://tip.psychology.org/vygotsky.html.
Anon. (2004). Multiple intelligences (H. Gardner). Retrieved on March 27, 2004
from http://tip.psychology.org/gardner.html.
Anon. (2004). Constructivist theory (J. Bruner). Retrieved on March 27, 2004
from http://tip.psychology.org/bruner.html.
Ardoin, B. D. (2000). Multiculturalism-theories. Retrieved on March 28, 2004
from http://www.start-at-zero.com/papers/multiculturalism/theories.htm.
Caspari Montessori Institute International, Inc. (2000). Maria Montessori method.
Retrieved on March 28, 2004 from http://www.montessori-trainingcmi.org/montessori.html.