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Chapter 2
USING RESEARCH TO UNDERSTAND
CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS
CHAPTER OUTLINE
RELEVANT TEST ITEMS
PRINCIPLES OF RESEARCH
Ethical Protection of Children
The Scientific Method
Research Participants
Multiple-Choice 1–3, 6, 14, 43
Essay 54
ANALYZING DEVELOPMENTAL RESEARCH
Data Collection Techniques
Research Designs
Becoming a Thoughtful Consumer of Research
Multiple-Choice 4, 5, 7-13, 1534
Essay 52
GATHERING DATA AS AN EDUCATOR
Inviting Children’s Self-Reports
Interpreting Tests, Other Assessments, and Artifacts
Examining Physiological Data from Children
Observing Children
Increasing the Accuracy of Conclusions About Children
Conducting Action Research
Ethical Guidelines for Teacher-Researchers
Multiple-Choice 35-42, 44-50
Essay 51, 53
Multiple-Choice Questions
•
1.
Three of the following statements describe ethical practices in developmental
research. Which one does not?
a. Children participate in studies voluntarily, and only with their parents’ consent.
b. Researchers put the welfare of participants ahead of any desire to learn new
information about child development.
c. Researchers can publish data about specific participants in local newspapers if
the descriptions are flattering ones.
d. Researchers inform participants’ families about the results and conclusions of
their research.
•
2.
Three of the following are typical components of the scientific method in
developmental research. Which one is not typical?
a. Designing a study that addresses a particular research question
b. Collecting data from children who have agreed to participate in the study
c. Drawing conclusions from patterns observed in the data
d. Keeping the results and conclusions secret for at least five years
•
3.
In developmental research, the sample is:
a. Those individuals who are asked to participate and choose to do so
b. The entire group about which the researcher is interested, including both
participants and nonparticipants in a particular study
c. The setting in which the research participants spend significant amounts of time,
such as the classroom
d. A subset of research participants whose data are particularly interesting or
valuable to the outcome of the study
••
4.
Imagine that you want to find out which extracurricular activities in a community’s
after-school programs are of most interest to teenagers. Which data collection
technique would be most useful for this purpose?
a. a self-report questionnaire
b. an Apgar scale
c. a measure of habituation
d. observation
•
5.
Developmental researchers sometimes conduct interviews to learn more about
children or adolescents. Three of the following are accurate statements about
interviews. Which one is inaccurate?
a. The quality of the data they yield depends on the researcher’s interviewing skills.
b. They are most likely to be productive when youngsters feel safe and comfortable.
c. They take very little time relative to other data-collection techniques.
d. They allow researchers to probe youngsters’ reasoning about a topic in depth.
•
6.
Which is not one of the general steps of the scientific method?
a. collecting data
b. posing a question
c. analyzing data
d. selecting a sample
•
7.
A first-time researcher wants to determine whether a new approach to teaching
preschool is more effective than older, more traditional approaches. She is thinking
that she might use one or more tests as a way of assessing the effectiveness of the
new approach. As she reads about the benefits and disadvantages of tests as a means
of collecting data, the researcher is most likely to discover that tests:
a. Invariably involve paper and pencil, even for very young children
b. Can be useful in obtaining information about children’s cognitive processes
c. Far surpass other techniques as a means of collecting research data
d. Have little value as a basis for drawing inferences about educational practices
••
8.
A researcher wants to know if young infants notice any differences between classical
music and jazz music. Which data collection technique would be most useful for this
purpose?
a. the Bayley Scales
b. an Apgar
c. a physiological measure
d. observation
••
9.
•
10.
Researchers often gain useful information from observation of children and
adolescents. Three of the following suggestions are likely to improve the quality of
observational data. Which one is unlikely to do so?
a. Keep a detailed record of what you see.
b. Discuss your observations with other researchers.
c. Carefully define the behaviors you want to categorize.
d. Begin data collection almost as soon as you enter the research setting.
•
11.
Developmental researchers need to be sure that any data collection method they use is
actually assessing what it is supposed to assess. In other words, researchers need to
be concerned about the _______ of their data-collection techniques.
a. reliability
b. practicality
c. physiological basis
d. validity
•
12.
If we say that a particular data collection method has high reliability, we mean that it:
a. Yields scores that fall on a bell curve
b. Yields similar results on different occasions
c. Predicts future success in academic or social settings
d. Accurately determines whether children have met certain predetermined
developmental goals
•• 13.
Dr. Kim has noticed that many 4-year-olds are very kind and caring toward their
younger siblings. She wants to find out if 4-year-olds who are especially kind at home
are equally kind and caring with their preschool classmates. Which data collection
technique would be most useful for this purpose?
a. interviews
b. a paper-pencil test
c. one or more physiological measures
d. observation
In which one of the following situations does a researcher definitely have a problem
with the reliability of a data collection technique?
a. Ms. Arthur assesses children’s overall physical fitness on Monday; she then
assesses it the following Monday. Children who perform well one week are not
the same ones who perform well the following week.
b. Mr. Benavidez uses a test of mechanical aptitude to determine which high school
students are ready to take a calculus course. Later, he finds out that the students
who got some of the lowest scores on the test are actually some of the best
students in the calculus course.
c. Mr. Candelaria distributes a questionnaire to a group of fifth graders without first
obtaining their parents’ permission.
d. To determine the frequency with which young adolescents drink alcoholic
beverages, Ms. D’Amato conducts two-hour, one-on-one interviews with a
sample of 200 middle school students.
•• 14.
Which of the following situations does not need written consent from the participants
and their families?
a. A researcher wants to interview tenth grade students about their study habits.
b. A researcher wants to administer a survey to middle school students about their
television viewing at home.
c. A researcher wants to observe the natural play interactions of children on the
playground in a public setting.
d. A researcher wants to give a short questionnaire to twelfth grade students about
their extracurricular activities.
•
Experimental research requires only one of the following. Which one is an essential
component of an experimental study?
a. Manipulating an aspect of the environment
b. Being able to predict two or more variables
c. Describing each variable in considerable detail
d. Studying behavior in a laboratory rather than in a more naturalistic setting
15.
•• 16.
Dr. Fitz wants to know which of three health programs is most effective in promoting
children’s physical well-being. With the consent of both the children and their
parents, children who regularly attend a community center are randomly assigned to
one of three 8-week programs. After the programs have ended, Dr. Fitz assesses the
children’s general physical well being. Dr. Fitz’s study can best be classified as which
one of the following?
a. experimental
b. correlational
c. cross-sectional
d. quasi-experimental
•• 17.
Which one of the following conclusions can be firmly drawn only from an
experimental study?
a. Children grow taller as they get older.
b. Boys are more likely than girls to engage in physical aggression.
c. Some drugs administered during pregnancy affect a child’s prenatal
development.
d. Children’s muscular coordination and physical endurance improve as they grow
older.
•
18.
Which one of the following statements best describes a quasi-experimental study?
a. Participants are randomly assigned to treatment and control groups.
b. Treatment and control interventions are administered to pre-existing groups.
c. Researchers examine children’s behaviors in educational settings rather than in
laboratories.
d. Researchers are less concerned about the validity and reliability of their
measures than is true in experimental studies.
•• 19.
A team of researchers wants to know whether a new crime prevention program is
really effective in reducing crime in young adolescents. The researchers find two
middle schools, Adams Middle School and Monroe Middle School, which serve
similar kinds of students and report similar rates of theft, physical assault, and
vandalism. The researchers implement the program at Adams and use Monroe as a
control group. Afterwards, they discover that crime has decreased at Adams but not
at Monroe. This study is a good example of a(n) _______ design.
a. correlational
b. experimental
c. cross-sectional
d. quasi-experimental
•
Which one of the following best describes a correlational study?
a. Multiple groups of participants are involved.
20.
b. Investigators look for naturally occurring associations.
c. Participants are randomly assigned to treatment groups.
d. Investigators can draw firm conclusions about cause-and-effect relationships.
•• 21.
You read in a professional magazine that the correlation between children’s anxiety
levels and their general effectiveness in social situations is –.30. You should
conclude that:
a. Children who are highly anxious are more skillful in social situations, almost
without exception.
b. Children who have low levels of anxiety are more skillful in social situations,
almost without exception.
c. Children who are highly anxious tend to be more skillful in social situations, but
with many children being exceptions to the rule.
d. Children who have low levels of anxiety tend to be more skillful in social
situations, but with many children being exceptions to the rule.
•• 22.
You read a research article about abstract thinking and academic achievement in a
professional journal. The researchers report a correlation of +.65 between the amount
of abstract thought students demonstrate and the grade-point-averages they earn. You
should conclude that:
a. Students who think more abstractly are likely to have higher grade-pointaverages than their classmates.
b. Students who think more abstractly are likely to have lower grade-point-averages
than their classmates.
c. You can promote students’ abstract thinking by helping them to earn high GPAs.
d. You can promote students’ academic achievement by helping them to think more
abstractly.
•• 23.
A researcher asks a group of 10-year-olds how many hours a week they watch
television and what kinds of programs they typically watch. The researcher also
gives the children a questionnaire designed to assess their beliefs about gender
stereotypes—that is, about what behaviors they believe are “appropriate” for males
and females. The researcher then analyzes the data to see if children who have very
traditional gender stereotypes (e.g., men are strong and independent, women are weak
and dependent) are related to certain television viewing preferences. Which one of
the following research designs is the researcher using?
a. naturalistic
b. correlational
c. experimental
d. longitudinal
•• 24.
Imagine that a researcher finds that, on average, students who weigh more are better
athletes. Which one of the following is an appropriate conclusion from this
information?
a. Parents should feed their children as much as possible.
b. The school cafeteria should decrease the fat content of the food it serves.
c. On average, students who eat more become stronger and more agile.
d. There is a correlation between weight and athletic performance.
•• 25.
Dr. Lesgold finds that students in private schools perform better on achievement tests
than do students in public schools. Which conclusion can Dr. Lesgold fairly draw?
a. The difference is probably due to differences in family income.
b. The difference is probably due to the fact that private schools have smaller
classes.
c. The difference is probably due to the fact that private schools are more likely to
“teach to the test.”
d. Students’ achievement test scores can be predicted to some extent by the kind of
school they attend.
•• 26.
A school nurse wants to know if children’s knowledge about nutrition increases over
the course of the elementary years. To find out, she gives a test about nutrition to
students in the first, third, and fifth grades. She then compares the test scores for the
three grade levels. Which one of the following research designs does the nurse’s
study best reflect?
a. experimental design
b. longitudinal design
c. cross-sectional design
d. correlational design
•• 27.
A researcher wants to know if children’s attitudes about cheating at school change as
they get older. To find out, the researcher gives a questionnaire about cheating to 100
fourth graders, 100 seventh graders, and 100 tenth graders. Which one of the
following research designs does this study best reflect?
a. longitudinal design
b. quasi-experimental design
c. cross-sectional design
d. correlational design
•
28.
In a longitudinal study, a researcher:
a. Collects data from several groups of children, preferably on the same day, so that
the groups can be compared
b. Examines how certain characteristics and behaviors change over time
c. Is able to prove whether future behavior is determined by earlier behavior
d. Observes two or more groups of children acting in a familiar setting
•• 29.
To find out how children’s drawing skills improve with age, a researcher asks 50
four-year-olds to “Draw the best picture of a person that you can.” In each of the next
six years (until the children are ten years old), the researcher asks them once again to
draw a picture of a person. The researcher then compares quality and detail of the
pictures drawn at various ages. Which one of the following research designs does
this study best reflect?
a. experimental design
b. correlational design
c. cross-sectional design
d. longitudinal design
•• 30.
A researcher wants to know how children’s career aspirations change as they grow
older. He asks a group of third graders, “What do you think you might want to be
when you grow up?” Every year until they graduate from high school, the researcher
contacts these same students and once again asks them about their career plans. The
researcher’s investigation is an example of a(n):
a. longitudinal study
b. cross-sectional study
c. naturalistic study
d. experimental study
•
Which one of the following statements best describes a naturalistic study?
a. It takes place under well-controlled experimental conditions.
b. It examines the behavior of people in their day-to-day environments.
c. It examines and compares the behaviors of multiple groups of people.
31.
d.
It focuses on newborn infants’ behaviors, with the hopes that it can identify
human beings’ inborn tendencies.
•• 32.
John Nathan, who grew up in a relatively affluent family and attended private
schools, has just accepted a job in a public middle school in a low-income school
district. Realizing that his own experiences may not have prepared him to be
successful in this setting, John decides to spend time in the neighborhood observing
young adolescents as they go about their lives: playing sports, running errands, and
just hanging out. He discovers that these youngsters are in some ways very different
from, and yet in other ways very similar to, the kids with whom he grew up. John’s
inquiry most closely resembles which one of the following?
a. A correlational study
b. A longitudinal study
c. A naturalistic study
d. A cross-sectional study
•
33.
Which one of the following statements about developmental research is true?
a. Experimental studies can be conducted only in the laboratory and under
somewhat artificial conditions.
b. Longitudinal studies yield the most information for making decisions about how
best to foster children’s development.
c. Experimental studies enable us to draw conclusions about cause-effect
relationships.
d. Correlational research is more difficult and time-consuming than experimental
research.
•• 34.
Mr. Jones, a physical education teacher, notices that some of his students are better
basketball players than others. He wonders if having a basketball net at home fosters
the development of basketball skills. He gives his students a short survey that asks
them if they have a basketball net at home. Sure enough, Mr. Jones finds that the
better basketball players are more likely to have a net at home. He concludes that
having a basketball net at home facilitates the development of basketball skills. Is his
conclusion appropriate?
a. Yes, because he used random assignment.
b. No, because he didn’t conduct an experimental study.
c. No, because his study wasn’t conducted in a scientific laboratory.
d. Yes, provided that his students responded truthfully to the survey.
•
35.
Three of the following are important considerations when reading about and
evaluating developmental research. Which one is least important?
a. Whether a researcher is affiliated with a large research university
b. Whether a study was described in a well respected professional journal
c. Whether a study showed dramatic (rather than small) differences between groups
d. Whether a researcher’s pre-existing beliefs might have led to distortions or
misinterpretations of the findings
•
36.
Teachers and others who work regularly with children and adolescents often need to
gather information about the youngsters in their charge. Three of the following are
recommendations for collecting and using information. Which one is not
recommended?
a. Collect information from a variety of sources.
b. Form several different hypotheses that might explain a child’s behavior.
c. Critically examine your assumptions and hunches, recognizing that they might
be incorrect.
d. Realize that validity and reliability are less important in daily work with children
than they are in research.
•
37.
Teachers and other adults can learn a great deal about children and adolescents
simply by observing them. Three of the following strategies should improve the
quality of practitioners’ observations of young people. Which one is not necessarily
recommended?
a. Observe youngsters’ behaviors in a wide variety of settings.
b. Keep in mind the kinds of behaviors that are typical for an age-group.
c. Focus more on what children actually say than on what their body language
might reveal.
d. Try to keep an accurate record of what youngsters say and do, and keep your
inferences separate from your observations.
In an attempt to find out why 10-year-old Rosemarie has trouble working
independently, a teacher aide quietly observes her one day as she works by herself at
a “science center” set up in the corner of the classroom. The aide keeps a detailed
record of what Rosemarie says and does during the 15-minute period she is at the
center. Which one of the following observation techniques is the aide using?
a. a running record
•• 38.
b. an anecdotal record
c. a checklist
d. a rating scale
•
39.
One very effective way of gathering information about children and adolescents is
simply to talk to them. Three of the following should increase the quantity and
quality of information you get when you talk with young people. Which one is not
likely to be helpful?
a. Make it clear that you really care what a youngster has to say.
b. Try to be somewhat aloof so that you come across as an unbiased listener.
c. When asking about a sensitive topic, ask what other children might think about
it.
d. Ask follow-up questions when you don’t understand what a child is telling you.
•
40.
Before beginning a unit on astronomy, a seventh-grade science teacher gives students
a brief pre-test designed to identify misconceptions they might have about the solar
system, asteroids, black holes, and so on. When looking at the students’ responses,
the teachers should keep in mind three of the following weaknesses of paper-pencil
tests. Which point is not necessarily accurate about paper-pencil tests?
a. Children’s performance depends on their reading ability.
b. Paper-pencil tests are rarely as reliable as one-on-one interviews.
c. Paper-pencil tests provide little if any information about nonverbal behaviors.
d. Paper-pencil tests provide little if any information about social-emotional factors
(e.g., self-confidence).
•• 41.
Which one of the following is the best example of action research?
a. A teacher gives her students a questionnaire that asks them to describe how often
they study and what kinds of strategies they use when they study. She will use
the results to develop several lessons on effective study skills.
b. A graduate student quietly observes adolescents’ behaviors in the school
cafeteria. He plans to describe his observations in his master’s thesis.
c.
d.
•
42.
A college professor recruits sixth graders to come to his lab, where she assesses
their responses and reaction times in a variety of challenging problem-solving
tasks. Her results will help her refine her theory about the development of
children’s problem-solving skills.
All of the school districts in a particular state are instructed to give the same
mathematics achievement test to all eleventh graders. The average test scores for
each district will be presented in a report that will be released to the general public.
Three of the following are important ethical guidelines that teachers and other
practitioners should keep in mind when conducting research with children or
adolescents. Which one is not recommended?
a. Practitioners should keep their supervisors informed about any research projects.
b. Practitioners should keep their findings about individual children confidential.
c. Practitioners should be ready and willing to draw firm conclusions from the data.
d. Practitioners should administer and interpret specialized tests only after
obtaining specific training in their use.
•• 43.
A researcher has conducted a study with 150 students in a school district to examine
the students’ attitudes concerning the use of technology in the classroom. Which
instrument was the most likely one used by this researcher?
a. Questionnaire
b. Interview
c. Observation
d. Test
•
44.
When conducting interviews with children, which practice is not recommended?
a.
Pause after asking a question.
b. Make a request for information that is not in the form of a question.
c. Ask a combination of open-ended and close-ended questions.
d. Engage in quick question and answer exchanges.
•
45.
A number of test items unfairly penalize some individuals because of their language.
Which of the following is the term for this unfair penalty?
a. Invalid bias
b. Invalid
c. Cultural bias
d. Unreliable
•• 46.
Mr. Patton makes a practice of writing short descriptions of his students’ significant
actions and statements. He usually writes these brief notes at the end of each day.
Then, when he conferences with his students’ families, he refers to these descriptions
to share with the families. Which of the following is Mr. Patton most likely using?
a. Rating scales
b. Checklists
c. Running records
d. Anecdotal records
•
47.
Which of the following is not part of the four steps identified in conducting action
research?
a. Action plan
b. Data analysis
c. Journal publication
d. Data collection
•
48.
When drawing conclusion about a child’s behavior, which practice is not
recommended?
a.
Look at test scores.
b. Look at test scores and self-reports.
c. Look at self-reports and observations.
d. Look at observations, test scores and self-reports.
•
49.
Which of the following is not a recommended guideline for ethical practice by
teacher researchers?
a. Interpret test for which you have been adequately trained.
b. Be firm and irrefutable in your conclusions.
c. Take the children’s perspectives into account.
d. Maintain confidentiality
•• 50.
Ms. Rodriguez notices that a large percentage of her students’ spelling test scores are
low. She wonders if a new individualized spelling approach will improve her second
graders’ spelling skills. She decides to use a differentiated spelling program that a
colleague has shared with her and implements it during the second nine weeks of
school. She keeps a record of her students’ spelling test scores and talks with each
student about their thoughts about the new spelling program. At the end of the nine
weeks, she compares the spelling scores of the second nine weeks with the spelling
scores of the first nine weeks. She finds that all of the students’ scores have increased.
She also sees from her conversations with her students that they enjoy the
differentiated program and think that they are learning to spell better. She decides to
continue the differentiated spelling program for the third nine weeks. What practice is
Ms. Rodriguez using?
a. Observation
b. Action Research
c. Running records
d. Anecdotal records
Essay Questions
•• 51.
Teachers and administrators at a particular school are concerned about a possible rise
in bullying in recent months. Before deciding how to respond to the problem, they
want to determine if, in fact, their perceptions are accurate. For example, they want to
know how many students are considered to be bullies, how many students are victims
of bullying, and how often students encounter bullying incidents at school. In three
separate paragraphs, describe three different data collection techniques they might use
to get the information they need.
•• 52.
A psychologist conducts a research study and finds that abused children have more
difficulty in school than nonabused children.
a. Is this an experimental, correlational, cross-sectional, or longitudinal study?
Justify your choice.
b. Based on the study, the psychologist draws the conclusion that an abusive home
life leads to poorer school performance in school. Is this conclusion justified?
Why or why not?
•• 53.
Imagine that you are a teacher who has just learned about a new technique for
teaching children better study habits, and you want to know how effective it is.
Describe an action research study you might conduct in your classroom to address
this question. As you write your response:
a. Identify the type of research design you would use, and explain whether it would
enable you to draw conclusions about a cause-effect relationship.
b. List at least five different steps you should take in conducting the research.
•
54.
When conducting research, it is imperative that all researchers—whether they be
college professors, practitioners in the field, or graduate or undergraduate students—
adhere to high ethical standards in their work. In three separate paragraphs, describe
three different ethical standards that researchers should follow. Illustrate each one
with a concrete example.
Developmental Trends Table
The table below describes information collected about the experiences of five youngsters. For
each of these experiences, the table identifies factors that affect interpretations about the
information, offers an implication for making accurate conclusions about the information, or
both.
Apply what you’ve learned about making accurate inferences about children and adolescents to
fill in the empty cells in the table.
Drawing Reasonable Conclusions About Children and Adolescents
Age
A Youngster’s Experience
Infancy
(Birth–2)
An 18-month-old baby, Harriet,
is drowsy when an unfamiliar
adult tries to examine her
recognition of common
household words, such as ball.
The girl fails to point to
particular objects when the
adult asks her to do so.
Early
Childhood
(2–6)
Four-year-old Seth takes a
children’s picture book, points
at each page, and tells the
teacher what each page says.
Developmental
Concepts
Considering the
Accuracy of Information
The fact that Harriet is
not alert, the task is
somewhat artificial, and
the adult is a stranger
raises questions about the
task’s validity as an
indication of the child’s
ability.
Implications
56)
The researcher realizes that
more observations are
needed to determine
whether Seth can read. It
may also be helpful to talk
with the boy about his
interests and abilities in
reading.
Drawing Appropriate
Conclusions
55)
Middle
Childhood
(6–10)
A teacher is conducting action
research on her students’
performance in mathematics.
One 9-year-old boy, Ryan, turns
in a blank paper each time the
class does math worksheets.
Ryan has recently moved from
another state, and the teacher
does not yet know what Ryan’s
skills are. He is very quiet.
The teacher examines
each child’s written
work, talking with
children individually
about their interests in
math and watching them
as they perform
mathematical operations.
The teacher appreciates
that she is just getting to
know Ryan and that there
are many reasons why he
might not be completing
the math problems. The
inference that Ryan is not
able to do the work may
not be valid.
The teacher cannot draw
firm conclusions about
Ryan’s mathematical skills.
There are countless reasons
why he is not doing well on
the worksheets—perhaps he
has not yet been exposed to
multiplication, feels anxious
about math, or is bored with
the task. Alternatively, he
might be shy and worried
about being in the new
classroom. The teacher
realizes that she needs more
information before she can
draw any conclusions about
Ryan’s abilities.
Early
Adolescence
(10–14)
Twelve-year-old Mary
completes a survey related to
sexual harassment at school. In
her responses to some items,
Mary reports that she has been
touched inappropriately while
walking down the school hall
and has been the recipient of
unwanted comments about her
physical appearance. On other
items, Mary responds that she
has not been a victim of sexual
harassment.
The researcher notices
that Mary’s responses are
not consistent (that is, not
reliable) and therefore
may not be valid. It is
possible that Mary
interprets some of the
items differently than the
researchers do or perhaps
she completed the survey
while distracted or
unmotivated to give her
honest responses.
The researcher determines
that it will be necessary to
look at all students’
responses before drawing
conclusions about sexual
harassment at school. The
researcher may choose to
implement other surveys or
follow up with informal
interviews among a few of
the students.
Late
Adolescence
(14–18)
Seventeen-year-old Melinda has
had a brain scan. Her scan
seems to show that some brain
areas, especially those areas
devoted to planning ahead and
using good judgment, are less
mature than those in typical
adult brains.
Adolescent brains are
undergoing continuous
refinement as they
change with maturational
processes and
experience. The results
of a single brain scan
should not be taken too
seriously, however. Any
single result cannot be
assumed to be
completely valid or
reliable.
57)
CHAPTER 2 ANSWER KEY
Multiple Choice Questions
1.
C
2.
D
3.
A
4.
A
5.
C
6.
D
7.
B
8.
C
9.
D
10.
D
Correct Answer: Researchers can publish data about specific participants in local newspapers if the
descriptions are flattering ones.
Feedback for Correct Response: One of the specific ethical standards that researchers must follow to
protect the rights of children is to preserve the privacy of the children. If a researcher does identify a child
in the research, a fictitious name is provided and any identifying information is withheld.
Text Reference: See Principles of Research, p. 38, Objective 2.1
Correct Answer: Keeping the results and conclusions secret for at least five years
Feedback for Correct Response: Researchers share their study results. This can be done at conferences
and in journals. This sharing promotes scientific progress.
Text Reference: See Principles of Research, p. 39, Objective 2.1
Correct Answer: Those individuals who are asked to participate and choose to do so
Feedback for Correct Response: Researchers first determine the population which they want to study.
From that population, they select a smaller subset of that population. This is the sample. Then, possible
participants are identified within that sample and are asked to participate in the study. It is the participant’s
choice to participate or not to participate.
Text Reference: See Principles of Research, p. 39, Objective 2.1
Correct Answer: a self-report questionnaire
Feedback for Correct Response: Self-reports are an effective means of gathering data of the participants’
own statements about themselves. Self-reports can be gathered primarily through interviews and
questionnaires.
Text Reference: See Analyzing Developmental Research, p. 40, Objective 2.2
Correct Answer: They take very little time relative to other data-collection techniques.
Feedback for Correct Response: Interviews are a time-consuming method of gathering self-report data.
Text Reference: See Analyzing Developmental Research, p. 41, Objective 2.2
Correct Answer: selecting a sample
Feedback for Correct Response: The five general steps of the scientific method for developmental
scholars are: posing a question, designing an investigation, collecting data, analyzing data, and sharing the
results.
Text Reference: See Principles of Research, p. 39, Objective 2.1
Correct Answer: Can be useful in obtaining information about children’s cognitive processes
Feedback for Correct Response: Tests are useful to gather data about knowledge, skills, and abilities.
Tests can also be used to measure the effectiveness of educational programs.
Text Reference: See Analyzing Developmental Research, p. 41, Objective 2.2
Correct Answer: a physiological measure
Feedback for Correct Response: Physiological measures can be used to learn more about how infants’
respond to different stimuli.
Text Reference: See Analyzing Developmental Research, p. 42, Objective 2.2
Correct Answer: observation
Feedback for Correct Response: Observations allow researchers to carefully study participants’ behavior.
Observations can be conducted over time and provide a rich picture of the behavior of the participants
who are being observed.
Text Reference: See Analyzing Developmental Research, p. 43, Objective 2.2
Correct Answer: Begin data collection almost as soon as you enter the research setting.
Feedback for Correct Response: Researchers often spend an extended period of time in the research
setting before collecting data formally. This helps the participants to become used to the researcher in
order to reduce self-consciousness or anxiety and promote more natural behavior by the participants.
Text Reference: See Analyzing Developmental Research, p. 44, Objective 2.2
11.
D
12.
B
13.
A
14.
C
15.
A
16.
A
17.
C
18.
B
19.
D
20.
B
Correct Answer: validity
Feedback for Correct Response: Validity is the extent to which the data collection method assesses what
the researcher is seeking to assess.
Text Reference: See Analyzing Developmental Research, p. 44, Objective 2.2
Correct Answer: Yields similar results on different occasions
Feedback for Correct Response: Data collection techniques have reliability when they provide consistent
and dependable results in a variety of conditions.
Text Reference: See Analyzing Developmental Research, p. 45, Objective 2.2
Correct Answer: Ms. Arthur assesses children’s overall physical fitness on Monday; she then assesses it
the following Monday. Children who perform well one week are not the same ones who perform well the
following week.
Feedback for Correct Response: The same type of result needs to be attained if there is to be a measure of
reliability for a particular data collection method. Reliability is lowered when undesired influences affect
results. Children typically perform differently on some occasions than others depending on individual
variations in behavior and other factors such as the amount of rest that the children are getting.
Text Reference: See Analyzing Developmental Research, p. 45, Objective 2.2
Correct Answer: A researcher wants to observe the natural play interactions of children on the playground
in a public setting.
Feedback for Correct Response: Written permission does not need to be obtained when the researcher
does not intrude on children’s customary activities. Institutional authorities would need to review the
study but would not require written consent of the participants and their families.
Text Reference: See Principles of Research, p. 38, Objective 2.1
Correct Answer: Manipulating an aspect of the environment
Feedback for Correct Response: In an experimental study, the researcher needs to manipulate one aspect
of the environment and measure its effect upon the participants. Often this is accomplished through an
intervention which involves a treatment group (the group that receives the intervention) and a control
group which receives no treatment or a less effective treatment.
Text Reference: See Analyzing Developmental Research, p. 45, Objective 2.3
Correct Answer: experimental
Feedback for Correct Response: Three programs (interventions) were studied. The children were
randomly assigned to three groups. The effects of the programs were assessed to measure the effects upon
the children. This reflects an experimental design.
Text Reference: See Analyzing Developmental Research, p. 45, Objective 2.3
Correct Answer: Some drugs administered during pregnancy affect a child’s prenatal development.
Feedback for Correct Response: The drugs are the treatment which are the aspect of the environment that
are being manipulated by the researcher.
Text Reference: See Analyzing Developmental Research, p. 45, Objective 2.3
Correct Answer: Treatment and control interventions are administered to pre-existing groups.
Feedback for Correct Response: There are times when a random assignment to groups is not possible.
When this is the case, the treatment and control are given to existing groups. This is a quasi-experimental
design.
Text Reference: See Analyzing Developmental Research, p. 46, Objective 2.3
Correct Answer: quasi-experimental
Feedback for Correct Response: The schools were existing groups. There was no random assignment for
treatment and control groups which makes this a quasi-experimental design.
Text Reference: See Analyzing Developmental Research, p. 46, Objective 2.3
Correct Answer: Investigators look for naturally occurring associations.
Feedback for Correct Response: In a correlational study, two variables are studied that are related to each
other such that when one variable changes, the other variable changes in an identifiable manner.
Researchers look for naturally occurring associations between variables such as existing behavior and
characteristics.
Text Reference: See Analyzing Developmental Research, p. 47, Objective 2.3
21.
D
22.
A
23.
B
24.
D
25.
D
26.
C
27.
C
28.
B
29.
D
30.
A
31.
B
Correct Answer: Children who have low levels of anxiety tend to be more skillful in social situations, but
with many children being exceptions to the rule.
Feedback for Correct Response: The size of the coefficient shows how strong the relationship between
the variables is in a correlational study. The closer, positive or negative, the coefficients to 1, the stronger
the relationship is between the variables. The closer, positive or negative, the coefficients are to zero, the
weaker the relationship is between the variables. The coefficient in this study indicates a weaker
relationship between the variables.
Text Reference: See Analyzing Developmental Research, p. 47, Objective 2.3
Correct Answer: Students who think more abstractly are likely to have higher grade-point-averages than
their classmates.
Feedback for Correct Response: The coefficient in this study shows more than a moderate
(+.50 or .50) relationship between the variables.
Text Reference: See Analyzing Developmental Research, p. 47, Objective 2.3
Correct Answer: correlational
Feedback for Correct Response: The researcher is studying the relationship between two variables,
television viewing and gender stereotypes.
Text Reference: See Analyzing Developmental Research, p. 47, Objective 2.3
Correct Answer: There is a correlation between weight and athletic performance.
Feedback for Correct Response: This study examined the two variables of student weight and athletic
ability. The researcher was looking to see the correlation between these two variables.
Text Reference: See Analyzing Developmental Research, p. 47, Objective 2.3
Correct Answer: Students’ achievement test scores can be predicted to some extent by the kind of school
they attend.
Feedback for Correct Response: The conclusion based on this correlational study shows that there is a
relationship between the two variables of kind of school and achievement test performance. However, a
correlational study cannot explain why these two variables are related.
Text Reference: See Analyzing Developmental Research, p. 47, Objective 2.3
Correct Answer: cross-sectional design
Feedback for Correct Response: A cross-sectional design examines participants in different age levels at
the same point in time.
Text Reference: See Analyzing Developmental Research, p. 47, Objective 2.3
Correct Answer: cross-sectional design
Feedback for Correct Response: A cross-sectional design examines participants in different age levels at
the same point in time.
Text Reference: See Analyzing Developmental Research, p. 47, Objective 2.3
Correct Answer: Examines how certain characteristics and behaviors change over time
Feedback for Correct Response: A longitudinal study examines a group or groups of participants over a
length of time to see the changes that occur over time. The length of time can vary from years to decades.
Text Reference: See Analyzing Developmental Research, p. 47, Objective 2.3
Correct Answer: longitudinal design
Feedback for Correct Response: This researcher studied the same group of children for six years to
compare the pictures that they drew over time. This reflects a longitudinal design.
Text Reference: See Analyzing Developmental Research, p. 47, Objective 2.3
Correct Answer: longitudinal study
Feedback for Correct Response: This researcher studied the same group of children for six years to
compare the pictures that they drew over time. This reflects a longitudinal design.
Text Reference: See Analyzing Developmental Research, p. 47, Objective 2.3
Correct Answer: It examines the behavior of people in their day-to-day environments.
Feedback for Correct Response: Researchers study children’s experiences in their families, schools,
clubs, and other settings which are natural to their daily life in naturalistic studies. Themes emerge from
naturalistic studies that the researcher may not have expected which permits an aspect of discovery in this
type of research design.
Text Reference: See Analyzing Developmental Research, p. 48, Objective 2.3
32.
C
33.
C
34.
B
35.
A
36.
D
37.
C
38.
A
39.
B
40.
B
41.
A
Correct Answer: A naturalistic study
Feedback for Correct Response: The researcher, John, is observing the adolescents in their natural
settings and gathering data from their behavior in their own environment in order to learn more about
them. He discovers information from this form of research design that allows him to make some
observations to help him to be successful in his work with these students in his school district.
Text Reference: See Analyzing Developmental Research, p. 48, Objective 2.3
Correct Answer: Experimental studies enable us to draw conclusions about cause-effect relationships.
Feedback for Correct Response: Experimental studies manipulate variables which allows for an
examination of cause and effect with those variables.
Text Reference: See Analyzing Developmental Research, p. 45, Objective 2.3
Correct Answer: No, because he didn’t conduct an experimental study.
Feedback for Correct Response: Mr. Jones did not manipulate variables in the students’ environment.
Therefore, he cannot draw a conclusion that basketball nets at home facilitate the development of
basketball skills.
Text Reference: See Analyzing Developmental Research, p. 45, Objective 2.3
Correct Answer: Whether a researcher is affiliated with a large research university
Feedback for Correct Response: When evaluating developmental research, it is important to look at the
integrity of the study. A reputable professional journal accepts research that is reviewed by experts in the
field. Make sure that the differences that are found in a study are significant. Check to see if the results are
biased by the researcher’s beliefs which may have led to a distortion in the report of the findings.
Text Reference: See Analyzing Developmental Research, p. 51, Objective 2.4
Correct Answer: Realize that validity and reliability are less important in daily work with children than
they are in research.
Feedback for Correct Response: Researchers collect data on children in ways that are valid and reliable.
It is important for educators to do the same. Their strategies may differ; however, the diligence for
collecting and using information is the same.
Text Reference: See Gathering Data As An Educator, p. 52, Objective 2.4
Correct Answer: Focus more on what children actually say than on what their body language might
reveal.
Feedback for Correct Response: It is important to observe the non-verbal cues. These cues carry
important information and insight in children’s behavior, thoughts, and experiences.
Text Reference: See Gathering Data As An Educator, p. 55, Objective 2.4
Correct Answer: a running record
Feedback for Correct Response: A running record provides a narrative summary of a child’s activities
during a particular time period. The running record is written at the same time of the activity. This method
of observation allows for an analysis of developmental information that is shown by individual children.
Text Reference: See Gathering Data As An Educator, p. 56, Objective 2.5
Correct Answer: Try to be somewhat aloof so that you come across as an unbiased listener.
Feedback for Correct Response: It is important to show children and adolescents that you care. When
you have earned a level of trust, the child or adolescent will be more likely to openly talk with you.
Text Reference: See Gathering Data As An Educator, pp. 52, Objective 2.5
Correct Answer: Paper-pencil tests are rarely as reliable as one-on-one interviews.
Feedback for Correct Response: Paper-pencil tests can give information on what children have and have
not learned. Some results of paper-pencil tests can be due to a child’s reading and writing skills and would
not reflect an accurate picture of the child’s learning. Also, paper-pencil tests do not give much
information about social-emotional factors or nonverbal behaviors.
Text Reference: See Gathering Data As An Educator, p. 53, Objective 2.6
Correct Answer: A teacher gives her students a questionnaire that asks them to describe how often they
study and what kinds of strategies they use when they study. She will use the results to develop several
lessons on effective study skills.
Feedback for Correct Response: Action research is a systematic approach to a problem which has the
goal of improved outcomes for children. In this case, the teacher identified an area of focus (study skills).
She collected data (questionnaire). She will analyze the data and develop an action plan to new strategies
for her students to promote effective study skills.
42.
C
43.
A
44.
D
45.
C
46.
D
47.
C
48.
A
49.
B
50.
B
Text Reference: See Gathering Data As An Educator, pp. 59-60, Objective 2.5
Correct Answer: Practitioners should be ready and willing to draw firm conclusions from the data.
Feedback for Correct Response: It is important to be tentative in your conclusions. Wrong inferences can
do more harm than good. Even when collecting data from multiple sources, be sure to acknowledge that
these are your interpretations of the data and not unquestionable facts.
Text Reference: See Gathering Data As An Educator, p. 60, Objective 2.5
Correct Answer: Questionnaire
Feedback for Correct Response: Questionnaires are used by developmental researchers when they need
to gather information from a large number of participants.
Text Reference: See Analyzing Developmental Research, p. 41, Objective 2.1
Correct Answer: Engage in quick question and answer exchanges.
Feedback for Correct Response: Many conversations between adults and children are in the form of short
ask-a-question-and-get-an-answer interchanges. Lengthier dialogues can provide more information.
Text Reference: See Gathering Data As An Educator, p. 52, Objective 2.4
Correct Answer: Cultural bias
Feedback for Correct Response: A test is tainted with cultural bias when it unfairly penalizes individuals
due to their ethnicity, gender, socioeconomic status, or cultural background. Errors can be observed in
tests due to language differences if a test shows cultural bias.
Text Reference: See Gathering Data As An Educator, p. 54, Objective 2.4
Correct Answer: Anecdotal records
Feedback for Correct Response: Anecdotal records are descriptions of brief incidents that are observed
by teachers. They are briefer than running records and can be written later in the day. These anecdotal
records can be used to share information with families and identify individual needs.
Text Reference: See Gathering Data As An Educator, p. 56-58, Objective 2.4
Correct Answer: Journal publication
Feedback for Correct Response: The four steps of action research include identifying an area of focus,
collecting data, analyzing and interpreting the data, and developing an action plan.
Text Reference: See Gathering Data As An Educator, pp. 59-60, Objective 2.6
Correct Answer: Look at test scores.
Feedback for Correct Response: When making conclusions about students, it is recommended to use
multiple sources of information. No one source of data will yield “perfect” validity and reliability.
Text Reference: See Gathering Data As An Educator, p. 59, Objective 2.6
Correct Answer: Be firm and irrefutable in your conclusions.
Feedback for Correct Response: When drawing conclusions, it is recommended to be tentative and not to
make wrong inferences. When sharing your perceptions with families, be sure to let them know that these
are inferences that you have drawn that are based upon the data that you have observed.
Text Reference: See Gathering Data As An Educator, pp. 60-62, Objective 2.6
Correct Answer: Action Research
Feedback for Correct Response: Action research involves identifying an area of focus and identifying a
problem (spelling scores), collecting data (test scores and interviews), analyzing and interpreting the data
(comparing the first and second nine weeks’ test scores and examining the interview results), and
developing an action plan (continue to use the differentiated spelling program in the third nine weeks).
Text Reference: See Gathering Data As An Educator, pp. 59-60, Objective 2.6
Essay Questions
51.
Suggested Response: The following are possible strategies (the response should refer to at least two of them):
 Administer a questionnaire that asks students whether they have witnessed or been a victim of bullying
behavior
 Interview students regarding peers whom they perceive to be bullies or frequent victims of bullies
 Observe students in various settings during the school day, looking for possible incidents of bullying
Text Reference: See Gathering Data As An Educator, pp. 52-56, Objective 2.5
52.
53.
54.
Suggested Response: Responses to the two parts of the question are as follows:
a. It is a correlational study because it investigates the extent to which two variables, abuse and school
performance, are associated. (An experimental study looking at the possible effects of abuse would, of course,
be unethical.)
b. The conclusion is not justified. Conclusions about cause-effect relationships cannot be drawn from
correlational studies.
Text Reference: See Analyzing Developmental Research, p. 56, Objective 2.3 and Objective 2.6
Suggested Response: The response should describe a study that might reasonably address the question. In addition,
it should:
a. Reflect an experimental study, a quasi-experimental study, or a correlational study. A well-designed
experimental study could reveal a cause-effect relationship, whereas other designs might suggest—but could
not actually prove—that the new technique fosters better study habits.
b. List at least five of the following steps:
 Identify the area of focus
 Design an appropriate study
 Seek permission from students and their parents
 Inform a supervisor about the project, and seek his or her permission
 Identify a valid means of assessing students’ study habits
 Deliver the new technique to some or all students
 Collect data about students’ study habits
 Analyze the data
 Draw conclusions from the data
 Inform students and parents about the results
 Develop an action plan (i.e., decide whether to use the new technique and, if so, how)
Text Reference: See Gathering Data As An Educator, p. 59, Objective 2.5
Suggested Response: The response should include and illustrate at least three of the following guidelines:
 Consider any detrimental effects that a research effort might have on children’s welfare, and make
adjustments accordingly.
 Obtain the consent of participants and their parents.
 Keep your supervisor informed of what you are doing; seek the supervisor’s permission for the research
endeavor.
 Respect children’s privacy by keeping their individual performance confidential; report only group results.
 Be honest with participants about what you will be asking them to do.
 Use only those tests and research instruments for which you have been specifically trained.
 Address any questions or concerns that participants or parents might have.
 Be tentative in reaching conclusions, recognizing that they are interpretations rather than facts.
 Share your results with children, parents, and professional colleagues.
Text Reference: See Principles of Research, p. 38, Objective 2.1
Developmental Trends Table
55. Implications in Infancy: The researcher realizes that the task may not be a valid measure of the infant’s
knowledge of object names. The researcher needs to observe the infant on other occasions, particularly when the
infant is interacting with a familiar caregiver.
56. Developmental Concepts in Early Childhood: An observer wonders whether Seth knows how to read. She
realizes that the boy might know how to read, but it is also possible that this book is a favorite of the boy’s and one
that he has memorized after listening to it repeatedly. Without additional information, the validity of her inference
about Seth’s reading is questionable.
57. Implications in Late Adolescence: The researcher realizes that any single physiological measure should be
confirmed with other data. If the immaturity is confirmed, it may be age typical and would not mean that Melinda
should be excluded from activities that require judgment and restraint.