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Chapter 2 USING RESEARCH TO UNDERSTAND CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS CHAPTER OUTLINE RELEVANT TEST ITEMS PRINCIPLES OF RESEARCH Ethical Protection of Children The Scientific Method Research Participants Multiple-Choice 1–3, 6, 14, 43 Essay 54 ANALYZING DEVELOPMENTAL RESEARCH Data Collection Techniques Research Designs Becoming a Thoughtful Consumer of Research Multiple-Choice 4, 5, 7-13, 1534 Essay 52 GATHERING DATA AS AN EDUCATOR Inviting Children’s Self-Reports Interpreting Tests, Other Assessments, and Artifacts Examining Physiological Data from Children Observing Children Increasing the Accuracy of Conclusions About Children Conducting Action Research Ethical Guidelines for Teacher-Researchers Multiple-Choice 35-42, 44-50 Essay 51, 53 Multiple-Choice Questions • 1. Three of the following statements describe ethical practices in developmental research. Which one does not? a. Children participate in studies voluntarily, and only with their parents’ consent. b. Researchers put the welfare of participants ahead of any desire to learn new information about child development. c. Researchers can publish data about specific participants in local newspapers if the descriptions are flattering ones. d. Researchers inform participants’ families about the results and conclusions of their research. • 2. Three of the following are typical components of the scientific method in developmental research. Which one is not typical? a. Designing a study that addresses a particular research question b. Collecting data from children who have agreed to participate in the study c. Drawing conclusions from patterns observed in the data d. Keeping the results and conclusions secret for at least five years • 3. In developmental research, the sample is: a. Those individuals who are asked to participate and choose to do so b. The entire group about which the researcher is interested, including both participants and nonparticipants in a particular study c. The setting in which the research participants spend significant amounts of time, such as the classroom d. A subset of research participants whose data are particularly interesting or valuable to the outcome of the study •• 4. Imagine that you want to find out which extracurricular activities in a community’s after-school programs are of most interest to teenagers. Which data collection technique would be most useful for this purpose? a. a self-report questionnaire b. an Apgar scale c. a measure of habituation d. observation • 5. Developmental researchers sometimes conduct interviews to learn more about children or adolescents. Three of the following are accurate statements about interviews. Which one is inaccurate? a. The quality of the data they yield depends on the researcher’s interviewing skills. b. They are most likely to be productive when youngsters feel safe and comfortable. c. They take very little time relative to other data-collection techniques. d. They allow researchers to probe youngsters’ reasoning about a topic in depth. • 6. Which is not one of the general steps of the scientific method? a. collecting data b. posing a question c. analyzing data d. selecting a sample • 7. A first-time researcher wants to determine whether a new approach to teaching preschool is more effective than older, more traditional approaches. She is thinking that she might use one or more tests as a way of assessing the effectiveness of the new approach. As she reads about the benefits and disadvantages of tests as a means of collecting data, the researcher is most likely to discover that tests: a. Invariably involve paper and pencil, even for very young children b. Can be useful in obtaining information about children’s cognitive processes c. Far surpass other techniques as a means of collecting research data d. Have little value as a basis for drawing inferences about educational practices •• 8. A researcher wants to know if young infants notice any differences between classical music and jazz music. Which data collection technique would be most useful for this purpose? a. the Bayley Scales b. an Apgar c. a physiological measure d. observation •• 9. • 10. Researchers often gain useful information from observation of children and adolescents. Three of the following suggestions are likely to improve the quality of observational data. Which one is unlikely to do so? a. Keep a detailed record of what you see. b. Discuss your observations with other researchers. c. Carefully define the behaviors you want to categorize. d. Begin data collection almost as soon as you enter the research setting. • 11. Developmental researchers need to be sure that any data collection method they use is actually assessing what it is supposed to assess. In other words, researchers need to be concerned about the _______ of their data-collection techniques. a. reliability b. practicality c. physiological basis d. validity • 12. If we say that a particular data collection method has high reliability, we mean that it: a. Yields scores that fall on a bell curve b. Yields similar results on different occasions c. Predicts future success in academic or social settings d. Accurately determines whether children have met certain predetermined developmental goals •• 13. Dr. Kim has noticed that many 4-year-olds are very kind and caring toward their younger siblings. She wants to find out if 4-year-olds who are especially kind at home are equally kind and caring with their preschool classmates. Which data collection technique would be most useful for this purpose? a. interviews b. a paper-pencil test c. one or more physiological measures d. observation In which one of the following situations does a researcher definitely have a problem with the reliability of a data collection technique? a. Ms. Arthur assesses children’s overall physical fitness on Monday; she then assesses it the following Monday. Children who perform well one week are not the same ones who perform well the following week. b. Mr. Benavidez uses a test of mechanical aptitude to determine which high school students are ready to take a calculus course. Later, he finds out that the students who got some of the lowest scores on the test are actually some of the best students in the calculus course. c. Mr. Candelaria distributes a questionnaire to a group of fifth graders without first obtaining their parents’ permission. d. To determine the frequency with which young adolescents drink alcoholic beverages, Ms. D’Amato conducts two-hour, one-on-one interviews with a sample of 200 middle school students. •• 14. Which of the following situations does not need written consent from the participants and their families? a. A researcher wants to interview tenth grade students about their study habits. b. A researcher wants to administer a survey to middle school students about their television viewing at home. c. A researcher wants to observe the natural play interactions of children on the playground in a public setting. d. A researcher wants to give a short questionnaire to twelfth grade students about their extracurricular activities. • Experimental research requires only one of the following. Which one is an essential component of an experimental study? a. Manipulating an aspect of the environment b. Being able to predict two or more variables c. Describing each variable in considerable detail d. Studying behavior in a laboratory rather than in a more naturalistic setting 15. •• 16. Dr. Fitz wants to know which of three health programs is most effective in promoting children’s physical well-being. With the consent of both the children and their parents, children who regularly attend a community center are randomly assigned to one of three 8-week programs. After the programs have ended, Dr. Fitz assesses the children’s general physical well being. Dr. Fitz’s study can best be classified as which one of the following? a. experimental b. correlational c. cross-sectional d. quasi-experimental •• 17. Which one of the following conclusions can be firmly drawn only from an experimental study? a. Children grow taller as they get older. b. Boys are more likely than girls to engage in physical aggression. c. Some drugs administered during pregnancy affect a child’s prenatal development. d. Children’s muscular coordination and physical endurance improve as they grow older. • 18. Which one of the following statements best describes a quasi-experimental study? a. Participants are randomly assigned to treatment and control groups. b. Treatment and control interventions are administered to pre-existing groups. c. Researchers examine children’s behaviors in educational settings rather than in laboratories. d. Researchers are less concerned about the validity and reliability of their measures than is true in experimental studies. •• 19. A team of researchers wants to know whether a new crime prevention program is really effective in reducing crime in young adolescents. The researchers find two middle schools, Adams Middle School and Monroe Middle School, which serve similar kinds of students and report similar rates of theft, physical assault, and vandalism. The researchers implement the program at Adams and use Monroe as a control group. Afterwards, they discover that crime has decreased at Adams but not at Monroe. This study is a good example of a(n) _______ design. a. correlational b. experimental c. cross-sectional d. quasi-experimental • Which one of the following best describes a correlational study? a. Multiple groups of participants are involved. 20. b. Investigators look for naturally occurring associations. c. Participants are randomly assigned to treatment groups. d. Investigators can draw firm conclusions about cause-and-effect relationships. •• 21. You read in a professional magazine that the correlation between children’s anxiety levels and their general effectiveness in social situations is –.30. You should conclude that: a. Children who are highly anxious are more skillful in social situations, almost without exception. b. Children who have low levels of anxiety are more skillful in social situations, almost without exception. c. Children who are highly anxious tend to be more skillful in social situations, but with many children being exceptions to the rule. d. Children who have low levels of anxiety tend to be more skillful in social situations, but with many children being exceptions to the rule. •• 22. You read a research article about abstract thinking and academic achievement in a professional journal. The researchers report a correlation of +.65 between the amount of abstract thought students demonstrate and the grade-point-averages they earn. You should conclude that: a. Students who think more abstractly are likely to have higher grade-pointaverages than their classmates. b. Students who think more abstractly are likely to have lower grade-point-averages than their classmates. c. You can promote students’ abstract thinking by helping them to earn high GPAs. d. You can promote students’ academic achievement by helping them to think more abstractly. •• 23. A researcher asks a group of 10-year-olds how many hours a week they watch television and what kinds of programs they typically watch. The researcher also gives the children a questionnaire designed to assess their beliefs about gender stereotypes—that is, about what behaviors they believe are “appropriate” for males and females. The researcher then analyzes the data to see if children who have very traditional gender stereotypes (e.g., men are strong and independent, women are weak and dependent) are related to certain television viewing preferences. Which one of the following research designs is the researcher using? a. naturalistic b. correlational c. experimental d. longitudinal •• 24. Imagine that a researcher finds that, on average, students who weigh more are better athletes. Which one of the following is an appropriate conclusion from this information? a. Parents should feed their children as much as possible. b. The school cafeteria should decrease the fat content of the food it serves. c. On average, students who eat more become stronger and more agile. d. There is a correlation between weight and athletic performance. •• 25. Dr. Lesgold finds that students in private schools perform better on achievement tests than do students in public schools. Which conclusion can Dr. Lesgold fairly draw? a. The difference is probably due to differences in family income. b. The difference is probably due to the fact that private schools have smaller classes. c. The difference is probably due to the fact that private schools are more likely to “teach to the test.” d. Students’ achievement test scores can be predicted to some extent by the kind of school they attend. •• 26. A school nurse wants to know if children’s knowledge about nutrition increases over the course of the elementary years. To find out, she gives a test about nutrition to students in the first, third, and fifth grades. She then compares the test scores for the three grade levels. Which one of the following research designs does the nurse’s study best reflect? a. experimental design b. longitudinal design c. cross-sectional design d. correlational design •• 27. A researcher wants to know if children’s attitudes about cheating at school change as they get older. To find out, the researcher gives a questionnaire about cheating to 100 fourth graders, 100 seventh graders, and 100 tenth graders. Which one of the following research designs does this study best reflect? a. longitudinal design b. quasi-experimental design c. cross-sectional design d. correlational design • 28. In a longitudinal study, a researcher: a. Collects data from several groups of children, preferably on the same day, so that the groups can be compared b. Examines how certain characteristics and behaviors change over time c. Is able to prove whether future behavior is determined by earlier behavior d. Observes two or more groups of children acting in a familiar setting •• 29. To find out how children’s drawing skills improve with age, a researcher asks 50 four-year-olds to “Draw the best picture of a person that you can.” In each of the next six years (until the children are ten years old), the researcher asks them once again to draw a picture of a person. The researcher then compares quality and detail of the pictures drawn at various ages. Which one of the following research designs does this study best reflect? a. experimental design b. correlational design c. cross-sectional design d. longitudinal design •• 30. A researcher wants to know how children’s career aspirations change as they grow older. He asks a group of third graders, “What do you think you might want to be when you grow up?” Every year until they graduate from high school, the researcher contacts these same students and once again asks them about their career plans. The researcher’s investigation is an example of a(n): a. longitudinal study b. cross-sectional study c. naturalistic study d. experimental study • Which one of the following statements best describes a naturalistic study? a. It takes place under well-controlled experimental conditions. b. It examines the behavior of people in their day-to-day environments. c. It examines and compares the behaviors of multiple groups of people. 31. d. It focuses on newborn infants’ behaviors, with the hopes that it can identify human beings’ inborn tendencies. •• 32. John Nathan, who grew up in a relatively affluent family and attended private schools, has just accepted a job in a public middle school in a low-income school district. Realizing that his own experiences may not have prepared him to be successful in this setting, John decides to spend time in the neighborhood observing young adolescents as they go about their lives: playing sports, running errands, and just hanging out. He discovers that these youngsters are in some ways very different from, and yet in other ways very similar to, the kids with whom he grew up. John’s inquiry most closely resembles which one of the following? a. A correlational study b. A longitudinal study c. A naturalistic study d. A cross-sectional study • 33. Which one of the following statements about developmental research is true? a. Experimental studies can be conducted only in the laboratory and under somewhat artificial conditions. b. Longitudinal studies yield the most information for making decisions about how best to foster children’s development. c. Experimental studies enable us to draw conclusions about cause-effect relationships. d. Correlational research is more difficult and time-consuming than experimental research. •• 34. Mr. Jones, a physical education teacher, notices that some of his students are better basketball players than others. He wonders if having a basketball net at home fosters the development of basketball skills. He gives his students a short survey that asks them if they have a basketball net at home. Sure enough, Mr. Jones finds that the better basketball players are more likely to have a net at home. He concludes that having a basketball net at home facilitates the development of basketball skills. Is his conclusion appropriate? a. Yes, because he used random assignment. b. No, because he didn’t conduct an experimental study. c. No, because his study wasn’t conducted in a scientific laboratory. d. Yes, provided that his students responded truthfully to the survey. • 35. Three of the following are important considerations when reading about and evaluating developmental research. Which one is least important? a. Whether a researcher is affiliated with a large research university b. Whether a study was described in a well respected professional journal c. Whether a study showed dramatic (rather than small) differences between groups d. Whether a researcher’s pre-existing beliefs might have led to distortions or misinterpretations of the findings • 36. Teachers and others who work regularly with children and adolescents often need to gather information about the youngsters in their charge. Three of the following are recommendations for collecting and using information. Which one is not recommended? a. Collect information from a variety of sources. b. Form several different hypotheses that might explain a child’s behavior. c. Critically examine your assumptions and hunches, recognizing that they might be incorrect. d. Realize that validity and reliability are less important in daily work with children than they are in research. • 37. Teachers and other adults can learn a great deal about children and adolescents simply by observing them. Three of the following strategies should improve the quality of practitioners’ observations of young people. Which one is not necessarily recommended? a. Observe youngsters’ behaviors in a wide variety of settings. b. Keep in mind the kinds of behaviors that are typical for an age-group. c. Focus more on what children actually say than on what their body language might reveal. d. Try to keep an accurate record of what youngsters say and do, and keep your inferences separate from your observations. In an attempt to find out why 10-year-old Rosemarie has trouble working independently, a teacher aide quietly observes her one day as she works by herself at a “science center” set up in the corner of the classroom. The aide keeps a detailed record of what Rosemarie says and does during the 15-minute period she is at the center. Which one of the following observation techniques is the aide using? a. a running record •• 38. b. an anecdotal record c. a checklist d. a rating scale • 39. One very effective way of gathering information about children and adolescents is simply to talk to them. Three of the following should increase the quantity and quality of information you get when you talk with young people. Which one is not likely to be helpful? a. Make it clear that you really care what a youngster has to say. b. Try to be somewhat aloof so that you come across as an unbiased listener. c. When asking about a sensitive topic, ask what other children might think about it. d. Ask follow-up questions when you don’t understand what a child is telling you. • 40. Before beginning a unit on astronomy, a seventh-grade science teacher gives students a brief pre-test designed to identify misconceptions they might have about the solar system, asteroids, black holes, and so on. When looking at the students’ responses, the teachers should keep in mind three of the following weaknesses of paper-pencil tests. Which point is not necessarily accurate about paper-pencil tests? a. Children’s performance depends on their reading ability. b. Paper-pencil tests are rarely as reliable as one-on-one interviews. c. Paper-pencil tests provide little if any information about nonverbal behaviors. d. Paper-pencil tests provide little if any information about social-emotional factors (e.g., self-confidence). •• 41. Which one of the following is the best example of action research? a. A teacher gives her students a questionnaire that asks them to describe how often they study and what kinds of strategies they use when they study. She will use the results to develop several lessons on effective study skills. b. A graduate student quietly observes adolescents’ behaviors in the school cafeteria. He plans to describe his observations in his master’s thesis. c. d. • 42. A college professor recruits sixth graders to come to his lab, where she assesses their responses and reaction times in a variety of challenging problem-solving tasks. Her results will help her refine her theory about the development of children’s problem-solving skills. All of the school districts in a particular state are instructed to give the same mathematics achievement test to all eleventh graders. The average test scores for each district will be presented in a report that will be released to the general public. Three of the following are important ethical guidelines that teachers and other practitioners should keep in mind when conducting research with children or adolescents. Which one is not recommended? a. Practitioners should keep their supervisors informed about any research projects. b. Practitioners should keep their findings about individual children confidential. c. Practitioners should be ready and willing to draw firm conclusions from the data. d. Practitioners should administer and interpret specialized tests only after obtaining specific training in their use. •• 43. A researcher has conducted a study with 150 students in a school district to examine the students’ attitudes concerning the use of technology in the classroom. Which instrument was the most likely one used by this researcher? a. Questionnaire b. Interview c. Observation d. Test • 44. When conducting interviews with children, which practice is not recommended? a. Pause after asking a question. b. Make a request for information that is not in the form of a question. c. Ask a combination of open-ended and close-ended questions. d. Engage in quick question and answer exchanges. • 45. A number of test items unfairly penalize some individuals because of their language. Which of the following is the term for this unfair penalty? a. Invalid bias b. Invalid c. Cultural bias d. Unreliable •• 46. Mr. Patton makes a practice of writing short descriptions of his students’ significant actions and statements. He usually writes these brief notes at the end of each day. Then, when he conferences with his students’ families, he refers to these descriptions to share with the families. Which of the following is Mr. Patton most likely using? a. Rating scales b. Checklists c. Running records d. Anecdotal records • 47. Which of the following is not part of the four steps identified in conducting action research? a. Action plan b. Data analysis c. Journal publication d. Data collection • 48. When drawing conclusion about a child’s behavior, which practice is not recommended? a. Look at test scores. b. Look at test scores and self-reports. c. Look at self-reports and observations. d. Look at observations, test scores and self-reports. • 49. Which of the following is not a recommended guideline for ethical practice by teacher researchers? a. Interpret test for which you have been adequately trained. b. Be firm and irrefutable in your conclusions. c. Take the children’s perspectives into account. d. Maintain confidentiality •• 50. Ms. Rodriguez notices that a large percentage of her students’ spelling test scores are low. She wonders if a new individualized spelling approach will improve her second graders’ spelling skills. She decides to use a differentiated spelling program that a colleague has shared with her and implements it during the second nine weeks of school. She keeps a record of her students’ spelling test scores and talks with each student about their thoughts about the new spelling program. At the end of the nine weeks, she compares the spelling scores of the second nine weeks with the spelling scores of the first nine weeks. She finds that all of the students’ scores have increased. She also sees from her conversations with her students that they enjoy the differentiated program and think that they are learning to spell better. She decides to continue the differentiated spelling program for the third nine weeks. What practice is Ms. Rodriguez using? a. Observation b. Action Research c. Running records d. Anecdotal records Essay Questions •• 51. Teachers and administrators at a particular school are concerned about a possible rise in bullying in recent months. Before deciding how to respond to the problem, they want to determine if, in fact, their perceptions are accurate. For example, they want to know how many students are considered to be bullies, how many students are victims of bullying, and how often students encounter bullying incidents at school. In three separate paragraphs, describe three different data collection techniques they might use to get the information they need. •• 52. A psychologist conducts a research study and finds that abused children have more difficulty in school than nonabused children. a. Is this an experimental, correlational, cross-sectional, or longitudinal study? Justify your choice. b. Based on the study, the psychologist draws the conclusion that an abusive home life leads to poorer school performance in school. Is this conclusion justified? Why or why not? •• 53. Imagine that you are a teacher who has just learned about a new technique for teaching children better study habits, and you want to know how effective it is. Describe an action research study you might conduct in your classroom to address this question. As you write your response: a. Identify the type of research design you would use, and explain whether it would enable you to draw conclusions about a cause-effect relationship. b. List at least five different steps you should take in conducting the research. • 54. When conducting research, it is imperative that all researchers—whether they be college professors, practitioners in the field, or graduate or undergraduate students— adhere to high ethical standards in their work. In three separate paragraphs, describe three different ethical standards that researchers should follow. Illustrate each one with a concrete example. Developmental Trends Table The table below describes information collected about the experiences of five youngsters. For each of these experiences, the table identifies factors that affect interpretations about the information, offers an implication for making accurate conclusions about the information, or both. Apply what you’ve learned about making accurate inferences about children and adolescents to fill in the empty cells in the table. Drawing Reasonable Conclusions About Children and Adolescents Age A Youngster’s Experience Infancy (Birth–2) An 18-month-old baby, Harriet, is drowsy when an unfamiliar adult tries to examine her recognition of common household words, such as ball. The girl fails to point to particular objects when the adult asks her to do so. Early Childhood (2–6) Four-year-old Seth takes a children’s picture book, points at each page, and tells the teacher what each page says. Developmental Concepts Considering the Accuracy of Information The fact that Harriet is not alert, the task is somewhat artificial, and the adult is a stranger raises questions about the task’s validity as an indication of the child’s ability. Implications 56) The researcher realizes that more observations are needed to determine whether Seth can read. It may also be helpful to talk with the boy about his interests and abilities in reading. Drawing Appropriate Conclusions 55) Middle Childhood (6–10) A teacher is conducting action research on her students’ performance in mathematics. One 9-year-old boy, Ryan, turns in a blank paper each time the class does math worksheets. Ryan has recently moved from another state, and the teacher does not yet know what Ryan’s skills are. He is very quiet. The teacher examines each child’s written work, talking with children individually about their interests in math and watching them as they perform mathematical operations. The teacher appreciates that she is just getting to know Ryan and that there are many reasons why he might not be completing the math problems. The inference that Ryan is not able to do the work may not be valid. The teacher cannot draw firm conclusions about Ryan’s mathematical skills. There are countless reasons why he is not doing well on the worksheets—perhaps he has not yet been exposed to multiplication, feels anxious about math, or is bored with the task. Alternatively, he might be shy and worried about being in the new classroom. The teacher realizes that she needs more information before she can draw any conclusions about Ryan’s abilities. Early Adolescence (10–14) Twelve-year-old Mary completes a survey related to sexual harassment at school. In her responses to some items, Mary reports that she has been touched inappropriately while walking down the school hall and has been the recipient of unwanted comments about her physical appearance. On other items, Mary responds that she has not been a victim of sexual harassment. The researcher notices that Mary’s responses are not consistent (that is, not reliable) and therefore may not be valid. It is possible that Mary interprets some of the items differently than the researchers do or perhaps she completed the survey while distracted or unmotivated to give her honest responses. The researcher determines that it will be necessary to look at all students’ responses before drawing conclusions about sexual harassment at school. The researcher may choose to implement other surveys or follow up with informal interviews among a few of the students. Late Adolescence (14–18) Seventeen-year-old Melinda has had a brain scan. Her scan seems to show that some brain areas, especially those areas devoted to planning ahead and using good judgment, are less mature than those in typical adult brains. Adolescent brains are undergoing continuous refinement as they change with maturational processes and experience. The results of a single brain scan should not be taken too seriously, however. Any single result cannot be assumed to be completely valid or reliable. 57) CHAPTER 2 ANSWER KEY Multiple Choice Questions 1. C 2. D 3. A 4. A 5. C 6. D 7. B 8. C 9. D 10. D Correct Answer: Researchers can publish data about specific participants in local newspapers if the descriptions are flattering ones. Feedback for Correct Response: One of the specific ethical standards that researchers must follow to protect the rights of children is to preserve the privacy of the children. If a researcher does identify a child in the research, a fictitious name is provided and any identifying information is withheld. Text Reference: See Principles of Research, p. 38, Objective 2.1 Correct Answer: Keeping the results and conclusions secret for at least five years Feedback for Correct Response: Researchers share their study results. This can be done at conferences and in journals. This sharing promotes scientific progress. Text Reference: See Principles of Research, p. 39, Objective 2.1 Correct Answer: Those individuals who are asked to participate and choose to do so Feedback for Correct Response: Researchers first determine the population which they want to study. From that population, they select a smaller subset of that population. This is the sample. Then, possible participants are identified within that sample and are asked to participate in the study. It is the participant’s choice to participate or not to participate. Text Reference: See Principles of Research, p. 39, Objective 2.1 Correct Answer: a self-report questionnaire Feedback for Correct Response: Self-reports are an effective means of gathering data of the participants’ own statements about themselves. Self-reports can be gathered primarily through interviews and questionnaires. Text Reference: See Analyzing Developmental Research, p. 40, Objective 2.2 Correct Answer: They take very little time relative to other data-collection techniques. Feedback for Correct Response: Interviews are a time-consuming method of gathering self-report data. Text Reference: See Analyzing Developmental Research, p. 41, Objective 2.2 Correct Answer: selecting a sample Feedback for Correct Response: The five general steps of the scientific method for developmental scholars are: posing a question, designing an investigation, collecting data, analyzing data, and sharing the results. Text Reference: See Principles of Research, p. 39, Objective 2.1 Correct Answer: Can be useful in obtaining information about children’s cognitive processes Feedback for Correct Response: Tests are useful to gather data about knowledge, skills, and abilities. Tests can also be used to measure the effectiveness of educational programs. Text Reference: See Analyzing Developmental Research, p. 41, Objective 2.2 Correct Answer: a physiological measure Feedback for Correct Response: Physiological measures can be used to learn more about how infants’ respond to different stimuli. Text Reference: See Analyzing Developmental Research, p. 42, Objective 2.2 Correct Answer: observation Feedback for Correct Response: Observations allow researchers to carefully study participants’ behavior. Observations can be conducted over time and provide a rich picture of the behavior of the participants who are being observed. Text Reference: See Analyzing Developmental Research, p. 43, Objective 2.2 Correct Answer: Begin data collection almost as soon as you enter the research setting. Feedback for Correct Response: Researchers often spend an extended period of time in the research setting before collecting data formally. This helps the participants to become used to the researcher in order to reduce self-consciousness or anxiety and promote more natural behavior by the participants. Text Reference: See Analyzing Developmental Research, p. 44, Objective 2.2 11. D 12. B 13. A 14. C 15. A 16. A 17. C 18. B 19. D 20. B Correct Answer: validity Feedback for Correct Response: Validity is the extent to which the data collection method assesses what the researcher is seeking to assess. Text Reference: See Analyzing Developmental Research, p. 44, Objective 2.2 Correct Answer: Yields similar results on different occasions Feedback for Correct Response: Data collection techniques have reliability when they provide consistent and dependable results in a variety of conditions. Text Reference: See Analyzing Developmental Research, p. 45, Objective 2.2 Correct Answer: Ms. Arthur assesses children’s overall physical fitness on Monday; she then assesses it the following Monday. Children who perform well one week are not the same ones who perform well the following week. Feedback for Correct Response: The same type of result needs to be attained if there is to be a measure of reliability for a particular data collection method. Reliability is lowered when undesired influences affect results. Children typically perform differently on some occasions than others depending on individual variations in behavior and other factors such as the amount of rest that the children are getting. Text Reference: See Analyzing Developmental Research, p. 45, Objective 2.2 Correct Answer: A researcher wants to observe the natural play interactions of children on the playground in a public setting. Feedback for Correct Response: Written permission does not need to be obtained when the researcher does not intrude on children’s customary activities. Institutional authorities would need to review the study but would not require written consent of the participants and their families. Text Reference: See Principles of Research, p. 38, Objective 2.1 Correct Answer: Manipulating an aspect of the environment Feedback for Correct Response: In an experimental study, the researcher needs to manipulate one aspect of the environment and measure its effect upon the participants. Often this is accomplished through an intervention which involves a treatment group (the group that receives the intervention) and a control group which receives no treatment or a less effective treatment. Text Reference: See Analyzing Developmental Research, p. 45, Objective 2.3 Correct Answer: experimental Feedback for Correct Response: Three programs (interventions) were studied. The children were randomly assigned to three groups. The effects of the programs were assessed to measure the effects upon the children. This reflects an experimental design. Text Reference: See Analyzing Developmental Research, p. 45, Objective 2.3 Correct Answer: Some drugs administered during pregnancy affect a child’s prenatal development. Feedback for Correct Response: The drugs are the treatment which are the aspect of the environment that are being manipulated by the researcher. Text Reference: See Analyzing Developmental Research, p. 45, Objective 2.3 Correct Answer: Treatment and control interventions are administered to pre-existing groups. Feedback for Correct Response: There are times when a random assignment to groups is not possible. When this is the case, the treatment and control are given to existing groups. This is a quasi-experimental design. Text Reference: See Analyzing Developmental Research, p. 46, Objective 2.3 Correct Answer: quasi-experimental Feedback for Correct Response: The schools were existing groups. There was no random assignment for treatment and control groups which makes this a quasi-experimental design. Text Reference: See Analyzing Developmental Research, p. 46, Objective 2.3 Correct Answer: Investigators look for naturally occurring associations. Feedback for Correct Response: In a correlational study, two variables are studied that are related to each other such that when one variable changes, the other variable changes in an identifiable manner. Researchers look for naturally occurring associations between variables such as existing behavior and characteristics. Text Reference: See Analyzing Developmental Research, p. 47, Objective 2.3 21. D 22. A 23. B 24. D 25. D 26. C 27. C 28. B 29. D 30. A 31. B Correct Answer: Children who have low levels of anxiety tend to be more skillful in social situations, but with many children being exceptions to the rule. Feedback for Correct Response: The size of the coefficient shows how strong the relationship between the variables is in a correlational study. The closer, positive or negative, the coefficients to 1, the stronger the relationship is between the variables. The closer, positive or negative, the coefficients are to zero, the weaker the relationship is between the variables. The coefficient in this study indicates a weaker relationship between the variables. Text Reference: See Analyzing Developmental Research, p. 47, Objective 2.3 Correct Answer: Students who think more abstractly are likely to have higher grade-point-averages than their classmates. Feedback for Correct Response: The coefficient in this study shows more than a moderate (+.50 or .50) relationship between the variables. Text Reference: See Analyzing Developmental Research, p. 47, Objective 2.3 Correct Answer: correlational Feedback for Correct Response: The researcher is studying the relationship between two variables, television viewing and gender stereotypes. Text Reference: See Analyzing Developmental Research, p. 47, Objective 2.3 Correct Answer: There is a correlation between weight and athletic performance. Feedback for Correct Response: This study examined the two variables of student weight and athletic ability. The researcher was looking to see the correlation between these two variables. Text Reference: See Analyzing Developmental Research, p. 47, Objective 2.3 Correct Answer: Students’ achievement test scores can be predicted to some extent by the kind of school they attend. Feedback for Correct Response: The conclusion based on this correlational study shows that there is a relationship between the two variables of kind of school and achievement test performance. However, a correlational study cannot explain why these two variables are related. Text Reference: See Analyzing Developmental Research, p. 47, Objective 2.3 Correct Answer: cross-sectional design Feedback for Correct Response: A cross-sectional design examines participants in different age levels at the same point in time. Text Reference: See Analyzing Developmental Research, p. 47, Objective 2.3 Correct Answer: cross-sectional design Feedback for Correct Response: A cross-sectional design examines participants in different age levels at the same point in time. Text Reference: See Analyzing Developmental Research, p. 47, Objective 2.3 Correct Answer: Examines how certain characteristics and behaviors change over time Feedback for Correct Response: A longitudinal study examines a group or groups of participants over a length of time to see the changes that occur over time. The length of time can vary from years to decades. Text Reference: See Analyzing Developmental Research, p. 47, Objective 2.3 Correct Answer: longitudinal design Feedback for Correct Response: This researcher studied the same group of children for six years to compare the pictures that they drew over time. This reflects a longitudinal design. Text Reference: See Analyzing Developmental Research, p. 47, Objective 2.3 Correct Answer: longitudinal study Feedback for Correct Response: This researcher studied the same group of children for six years to compare the pictures that they drew over time. This reflects a longitudinal design. Text Reference: See Analyzing Developmental Research, p. 47, Objective 2.3 Correct Answer: It examines the behavior of people in their day-to-day environments. Feedback for Correct Response: Researchers study children’s experiences in their families, schools, clubs, and other settings which are natural to their daily life in naturalistic studies. Themes emerge from naturalistic studies that the researcher may not have expected which permits an aspect of discovery in this type of research design. Text Reference: See Analyzing Developmental Research, p. 48, Objective 2.3 32. C 33. C 34. B 35. A 36. D 37. C 38. A 39. B 40. B 41. A Correct Answer: A naturalistic study Feedback for Correct Response: The researcher, John, is observing the adolescents in their natural settings and gathering data from their behavior in their own environment in order to learn more about them. He discovers information from this form of research design that allows him to make some observations to help him to be successful in his work with these students in his school district. Text Reference: See Analyzing Developmental Research, p. 48, Objective 2.3 Correct Answer: Experimental studies enable us to draw conclusions about cause-effect relationships. Feedback for Correct Response: Experimental studies manipulate variables which allows for an examination of cause and effect with those variables. Text Reference: See Analyzing Developmental Research, p. 45, Objective 2.3 Correct Answer: No, because he didn’t conduct an experimental study. Feedback for Correct Response: Mr. Jones did not manipulate variables in the students’ environment. Therefore, he cannot draw a conclusion that basketball nets at home facilitate the development of basketball skills. Text Reference: See Analyzing Developmental Research, p. 45, Objective 2.3 Correct Answer: Whether a researcher is affiliated with a large research university Feedback for Correct Response: When evaluating developmental research, it is important to look at the integrity of the study. A reputable professional journal accepts research that is reviewed by experts in the field. Make sure that the differences that are found in a study are significant. Check to see if the results are biased by the researcher’s beliefs which may have led to a distortion in the report of the findings. Text Reference: See Analyzing Developmental Research, p. 51, Objective 2.4 Correct Answer: Realize that validity and reliability are less important in daily work with children than they are in research. Feedback for Correct Response: Researchers collect data on children in ways that are valid and reliable. It is important for educators to do the same. Their strategies may differ; however, the diligence for collecting and using information is the same. Text Reference: See Gathering Data As An Educator, p. 52, Objective 2.4 Correct Answer: Focus more on what children actually say than on what their body language might reveal. Feedback for Correct Response: It is important to observe the non-verbal cues. These cues carry important information and insight in children’s behavior, thoughts, and experiences. Text Reference: See Gathering Data As An Educator, p. 55, Objective 2.4 Correct Answer: a running record Feedback for Correct Response: A running record provides a narrative summary of a child’s activities during a particular time period. The running record is written at the same time of the activity. This method of observation allows for an analysis of developmental information that is shown by individual children. Text Reference: See Gathering Data As An Educator, p. 56, Objective 2.5 Correct Answer: Try to be somewhat aloof so that you come across as an unbiased listener. Feedback for Correct Response: It is important to show children and adolescents that you care. When you have earned a level of trust, the child or adolescent will be more likely to openly talk with you. Text Reference: See Gathering Data As An Educator, pp. 52, Objective 2.5 Correct Answer: Paper-pencil tests are rarely as reliable as one-on-one interviews. Feedback for Correct Response: Paper-pencil tests can give information on what children have and have not learned. Some results of paper-pencil tests can be due to a child’s reading and writing skills and would not reflect an accurate picture of the child’s learning. Also, paper-pencil tests do not give much information about social-emotional factors or nonverbal behaviors. Text Reference: See Gathering Data As An Educator, p. 53, Objective 2.6 Correct Answer: A teacher gives her students a questionnaire that asks them to describe how often they study and what kinds of strategies they use when they study. She will use the results to develop several lessons on effective study skills. Feedback for Correct Response: Action research is a systematic approach to a problem which has the goal of improved outcomes for children. In this case, the teacher identified an area of focus (study skills). She collected data (questionnaire). She will analyze the data and develop an action plan to new strategies for her students to promote effective study skills. 42. C 43. A 44. D 45. C 46. D 47. C 48. A 49. B 50. B Text Reference: See Gathering Data As An Educator, pp. 59-60, Objective 2.5 Correct Answer: Practitioners should be ready and willing to draw firm conclusions from the data. Feedback for Correct Response: It is important to be tentative in your conclusions. Wrong inferences can do more harm than good. Even when collecting data from multiple sources, be sure to acknowledge that these are your interpretations of the data and not unquestionable facts. Text Reference: See Gathering Data As An Educator, p. 60, Objective 2.5 Correct Answer: Questionnaire Feedback for Correct Response: Questionnaires are used by developmental researchers when they need to gather information from a large number of participants. Text Reference: See Analyzing Developmental Research, p. 41, Objective 2.1 Correct Answer: Engage in quick question and answer exchanges. Feedback for Correct Response: Many conversations between adults and children are in the form of short ask-a-question-and-get-an-answer interchanges. Lengthier dialogues can provide more information. Text Reference: See Gathering Data As An Educator, p. 52, Objective 2.4 Correct Answer: Cultural bias Feedback for Correct Response: A test is tainted with cultural bias when it unfairly penalizes individuals due to their ethnicity, gender, socioeconomic status, or cultural background. Errors can be observed in tests due to language differences if a test shows cultural bias. Text Reference: See Gathering Data As An Educator, p. 54, Objective 2.4 Correct Answer: Anecdotal records Feedback for Correct Response: Anecdotal records are descriptions of brief incidents that are observed by teachers. They are briefer than running records and can be written later in the day. These anecdotal records can be used to share information with families and identify individual needs. Text Reference: See Gathering Data As An Educator, p. 56-58, Objective 2.4 Correct Answer: Journal publication Feedback for Correct Response: The four steps of action research include identifying an area of focus, collecting data, analyzing and interpreting the data, and developing an action plan. Text Reference: See Gathering Data As An Educator, pp. 59-60, Objective 2.6 Correct Answer: Look at test scores. Feedback for Correct Response: When making conclusions about students, it is recommended to use multiple sources of information. No one source of data will yield “perfect” validity and reliability. Text Reference: See Gathering Data As An Educator, p. 59, Objective 2.6 Correct Answer: Be firm and irrefutable in your conclusions. Feedback for Correct Response: When drawing conclusions, it is recommended to be tentative and not to make wrong inferences. When sharing your perceptions with families, be sure to let them know that these are inferences that you have drawn that are based upon the data that you have observed. Text Reference: See Gathering Data As An Educator, pp. 60-62, Objective 2.6 Correct Answer: Action Research Feedback for Correct Response: Action research involves identifying an area of focus and identifying a problem (spelling scores), collecting data (test scores and interviews), analyzing and interpreting the data (comparing the first and second nine weeks’ test scores and examining the interview results), and developing an action plan (continue to use the differentiated spelling program in the third nine weeks). Text Reference: See Gathering Data As An Educator, pp. 59-60, Objective 2.6 Essay Questions 51. Suggested Response: The following are possible strategies (the response should refer to at least two of them): Administer a questionnaire that asks students whether they have witnessed or been a victim of bullying behavior Interview students regarding peers whom they perceive to be bullies or frequent victims of bullies Observe students in various settings during the school day, looking for possible incidents of bullying Text Reference: See Gathering Data As An Educator, pp. 52-56, Objective 2.5 52. 53. 54. Suggested Response: Responses to the two parts of the question are as follows: a. It is a correlational study because it investigates the extent to which two variables, abuse and school performance, are associated. (An experimental study looking at the possible effects of abuse would, of course, be unethical.) b. The conclusion is not justified. Conclusions about cause-effect relationships cannot be drawn from correlational studies. Text Reference: See Analyzing Developmental Research, p. 56, Objective 2.3 and Objective 2.6 Suggested Response: The response should describe a study that might reasonably address the question. In addition, it should: a. Reflect an experimental study, a quasi-experimental study, or a correlational study. A well-designed experimental study could reveal a cause-effect relationship, whereas other designs might suggest—but could not actually prove—that the new technique fosters better study habits. b. List at least five of the following steps: Identify the area of focus Design an appropriate study Seek permission from students and their parents Inform a supervisor about the project, and seek his or her permission Identify a valid means of assessing students’ study habits Deliver the new technique to some or all students Collect data about students’ study habits Analyze the data Draw conclusions from the data Inform students and parents about the results Develop an action plan (i.e., decide whether to use the new technique and, if so, how) Text Reference: See Gathering Data As An Educator, p. 59, Objective 2.5 Suggested Response: The response should include and illustrate at least three of the following guidelines: Consider any detrimental effects that a research effort might have on children’s welfare, and make adjustments accordingly. Obtain the consent of participants and their parents. Keep your supervisor informed of what you are doing; seek the supervisor’s permission for the research endeavor. Respect children’s privacy by keeping their individual performance confidential; report only group results. Be honest with participants about what you will be asking them to do. Use only those tests and research instruments for which you have been specifically trained. Address any questions or concerns that participants or parents might have. Be tentative in reaching conclusions, recognizing that they are interpretations rather than facts. Share your results with children, parents, and professional colleagues. Text Reference: See Principles of Research, p. 38, Objective 2.1 Developmental Trends Table 55. Implications in Infancy: The researcher realizes that the task may not be a valid measure of the infant’s knowledge of object names. The researcher needs to observe the infant on other occasions, particularly when the infant is interacting with a familiar caregiver. 56. Developmental Concepts in Early Childhood: An observer wonders whether Seth knows how to read. She realizes that the boy might know how to read, but it is also possible that this book is a favorite of the boy’s and one that he has memorized after listening to it repeatedly. Without additional information, the validity of her inference about Seth’s reading is questionable. 57. Implications in Late Adolescence: The researcher realizes that any single physiological measure should be confirmed with other data. If the immaturity is confirmed, it may be age typical and would not mean that Melinda should be excluded from activities that require judgment and restraint.