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The image of Arab Muslims' Culture in American school Textbooks
Prof. Dr. Muhammad M. Abu Laylah & Prof. Dr. Mostafa Elhalougi
Faculty of Languages & Translation, Al-Azhar University
Introduction
This paper attempts to deal with a sensitive and complicated matter,
i.e., the image of the other, the other's culture, religion, beliefs and how
they should be explained to those who are not very familiar with it.
This study aims at exchanging of opinions and information. It does
not underestimate the authors' capabilities in the USA or in Europe. This
applies also to American and European schools in general. Hopefully, such
a dialogue enriches cultures mutuality and builds bridges of understanding,
reciprocal and co-operation.
The image of Islamic civilization seems bright in some school
textbooks in the USA and in some other countries. For example, the
textbook "The World and its Peoples" deals with Islamic Civilization
and describes it as the rich culture. It states that the Islamic golden age is
best marked by education, scientific research, arts and literature. It also
deals with the Islamic scientists’ accomplishments in Algebra, Astronomy,
Chemistry, Physics, and Optics.1
In his studies, Al-Banyan notes that the American authors of The
World History – Connections to Date, 1999 say “Islam: an international
civilization… Golden age of Muslim civilization… European physicians
began to attend the Muslim universities in Spain and translate the Arabic
medical texts. For 500 years, the works of Avicenna and Razi became the
standard medical textbooks at European schools”.2
The Muslims established in the Middle Age [The House of Wisdom].
Many commercial terminologies used in English today, such as “check”
and “risk” are of Arabic origin.3
Specialists of intercultural dialogues and human rights believe that
there should be a peaceful co-existence between the peoples of the world.
Our goal is to secure an atmosphere in which humans can interact and
1
pp. 228-233
pp.219, 266, 270
3
see Ahmed A. Al-Banyan. Arab and Muslim Image in Public Education Textbooks of the United States
of America .2004, unpublished studies.
2
cooperate with one another instead of fighting, hating and distrusting each
other. More than ever before, all nations should strive to advocate mutual
understanding and trust in the world—a world in which religious values
and human principles are respected, cherished and not violated or
completely disregarded. The advancement of science and technology in our
time should be utilized in unifying humanity—regardless of color, origin
or faith. This conviction is sufficient to minimize world conflicts—if not to
eliminate them altogether.
With its noble values and universal teachings, Islam provides a striking
example in closing the gaps between nations—irrespective of their ethnic
or religious diversity—by eliminating bigotry and racism. Speaking about
the wisdom behind the diverse and pluralistic nature of humanity, the
Qur'an states clearly;
"O mankind! We have created you from a male and a female, and
made you into nations and tribes, that you may know one another. Verily,
the most honorable of you in the sight of God is he who is more righteous.
Verily, God is All-Knowing, All-Aware." (Surah (chapter) 49:13).
God created people different and required of them to know each other;
exchanging ideas, views and experiences– to be cooperative and
undivided.
The Qur'an also makes it clear that God has created humans as equal
and that they are all honored by Him.
The Qur'an states that this diversity and pluralism we see in the world
is a divine design:
“If your Lord had so willed, He could surely have made mankind one
nation or community . . .” (Surah 11:118).
This means that it is the will of God for people to be different, not to
be the same or identical. But it is us who should not misuse differences
between people and aggravate and oppress each other on the basis of
ethnicity, color, class or power. So it is against God’s plan to try to force
globalization on the people of the world, ignoring their identities, religion,
culture and distinctive trades. Religion according to the Qur’an cannot be
forced on people by the sword or any similar means. “Let there be no
compulsion in religion . . .” (Surah 2:256).
This Qur’an honors human beings:
2
“Indeed, We have honored the Children of Adam, and We have
carried them on land and sea, and have provided them with lawful things.
(Surah 17:70).
The Qur’an emphasizes that no one is forced to accept Islam as a
religion.
Agitated by the opposition to his message (which is intended for the
salvation and well-being of humanity), the Prophet Muhammad is told in
the Qur'an that he cannot force anyone to embrace the Muslim faith.
“Had your Lord willed, those on earth would have believed, all of them
together. So, will you (O Muhammad) then compel mankind, until they
become believers?” (Surah 10:99).
The problem is that, when some Islamic conceptions are mistakenly
presented to the children in USA. The textbooks sometimes take them over
of their proper conveyer to leave a wrong impression. Sometimes the
wording is dreary and misinformative. We should take that individual as
examples to put the information in its contexts.
Though these textbooks present the Islamic civilization as vivid,
somehow, they present Islam as a religion of terrorism. It is so odd to
glorify the Islamic culture and at the same time to demean its foundation.
The image of Islam is negatively taught in some school textbooks in
USA. For example, it is presented in these textbooks as a terrorist religion,
as shall be demonstrated in this paper. This image is contrary to the spirit
of Islam and its civilization.
The negative image of Islam may be traced back to the Crusades, or
to the fact that authors mix Islam, as a religion with the local practices and
common and regional customs in some Muslim countries. They identify
wrongly Islam is, as a religion, with the behavior of some radical Muslims,
or rely on unauthentic references and inaccurate translations. Some of
these authors may prefer to focus on military dimension of the religious
text, neglecting the textual, historical, cultural, or political context of the
Arabic text or the Qur'anic verses.
The dreadful September 11 attack, the war on Iraq and the rapid
growth of the Muslim community in the United States contribute to the
growing attention given to Islam in the West. Over the years, a great
number of misconceptions about Islam and Muslims has been created in
the USA. Although a negative portrayal of Islam and Muslims is equally
shared by both the media and misconceptions in school textbooks. Our
focus here is on the image of Arab Muslim culture in USA school
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textbooks. Education shapes our views and attitudes especially in the
formative age.
The information that students in the USA receive from school about
Islam has a great impact on the way they perceive and imagine Islam and
Muslims. Sure enough, this misinformation will also affect future policies
and attitudes towards whatever is perceived or imagined.
The negative portrayal of Islam includes generalizations, distortions
of historical facts, mainly are due to the actions which are practiced in the
name of Arab customs or in the name of Islam. The challenge, we are
facing, urges us all to teach our children to be peace-lovers and peacemakers, to love truth and search for it in an objective and integral manner,
and indeed to love others as they love themselves.
The authors of “The Miseducation of the West: How Schools and
the Media Distort Our Understanding of the Islamic World” insist that
if we fail to present Islam objectively and without bias to American school
students, then the classroom would become;
“a central site for the legitimization of myths and silence
about non-Western and often non-Christian peoples. If
educators who value the power of difference were to teach about
the history of Islam, they would have to rethink the canonical
history of the West. Indeed, when school texts distort the history
of Islam, they concurrently distort all history”.4
Why should the USA students study Islamic cultural objectively?
Statistically, there are around 1.5 billion Muslims in the world which
means that Muslims make up one fifth of the world population, making
Islam the second largest religion on earth (see chart below). Islam is the
fastest growing religion in the world. The Muslim faith is not confined to a
single ethnicity, color, or region. Rather, Muslims are found in all
continents and almost all countries in the world.
4
Shirley R. Steinberg and Joe L. Kincheloe (ed.), The Miseducation of the West: How Schools and the
Media Distort Our Understanding of the Islamic World (Praeger Publishers, 2004), p. 2.
4
World Faiths Pie Chart (2002)5
The mission of school should include teaching, respect of the other's
culture, religion, history especially in multicultural society.
A century ago, America was a white Christian nation, then it became
Judeo-Christian, but now the face of America is changing and Islam is
becoming the second largest religion in the U.SA.
Moreover, removing all misleading and derogatory information about
Muslims will help in terms of the building bridges of mutual
understanding, tolerance, and trust between Islamic and Western cultures.
For that, we will review some of the U.S. school textbooks that contains
wrong or biased information against Islam and Muslims. Following are a
list of the textbooks reviewed:
- Breaking away from the textbook. Creative way to teach World History .
Volume 1 prehistory to 1600. The Scarecrow press, Inc. 2002
- Created equal. A social and political history of the United State. Volume
1 to 1877. Pearson/ Longman, 2003
- Exploring world History, ed. Globe Book Company, 1987
- Global History and Geography, 2001
- History of the World: People, Places and Concepts, ed. A hard-court
company and Steck Vaugn
- Literature – The Reader’s Choice,ed. Glencoe Me-Graw-Hill 2002
− Our World (New York: Macmillan/McGraw-Hill, 2003).
− The World and its Peoples
− The World History – Connections to Date, 1999
− World cultures, ed. Prentice Hall, 2001
− World Cultures and Geography (Illinois: McDougal Littell, 2005)
5
NewInternationalist, “Muslims—The Facts,” access: July 1, 2007:
(http://newint.org/features/2002/05/01/muslims-facts/).
5
− World Explorer, People, Places and Cultures (New Jersey (NJ):
Prentice Hall, 2004).
− World Geography and Culture, ed. Globe Fearon Educational
publisher Paramus 1994.
- World History: Continuity and change, 1999
− World Studies, Africa: Geography. History. Culture (NJ: Prentice
Hall, 2005).
− World Studies, Eastern Hemisphere: Geography, History and Culture
(NJ: Prentice Hall, 2004).
− World Studies, Foundations of Geography (NJ: Prentice Hall, 2005).
− World Studies, Medieval Times to Today (NJ: Prentice Hall, 2004).
− World Studies, the Ancient World (NJ: Prentice Hall, 2005).
It is heartening that there are some practical efforts now to edit U.S.
textbooks that contain correct information to reflect a fair and true image
of Islam and Muslims. We really appreciate the efforts of the institutions
involved to advocate truth, objectivity and oppose groundless biases and
misconceptions.
Muslim scholars and institutions have the duty to point out the
misconceptions and misinformation about Islam and Muslims. Ahmed AlBunyan's “Arab and Muslim Image in Public Education Textbooks of the
United States of America” is one of these endeavors. This present work is
a considerable contribution in this regard.
Arabs and Muslims, in turn, have also been working diligently to
review their school textbooks to make sure that the West and the U.S. are
portrayed in a fair and objective way.
It is only through fairness, objectivity, and understanding that we
can coexist peacefully and cooperate for the prosperity and well-being of
humanity. And protect civilizations from destruction.
Islamic culture in school textbooks
In World Studies, Medieval Times to Today (p. 29). Under the
heading “Mathematics and Science,” the authors state that
Arab scholars studied both Greek and Indian mathematics. They
learned about the idea of zero from Indian scholars. And they
borrowed the use of the so-called Arabic numerals that we use
today from India, too.
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It is historically factual that the zero is an Arab invention. Before that
breakthrough in the field of math, the defected Roman numerals (I, II, III,
IV, etc.) were in use. An average computer user knows exactly the
difference between Arabic numerals and Roman numerals
In World Studies, Medieval Times to Today (p. 29), under the
heading “Harun ar-Rashid: A Powerful Caliph,” we read:
Harun ar-Rashid (hah ROON ar rah SHEED) became caliph of
Baghdad in 786. His rule was a time of prosperity. For 23 years,
Harun ruled the world’s most glamorous court. He and his favorite
subjects ate of gold plates and drank from goblets studded with
jewels... Harun paid many skilled writers, musicians, dancers, and
artists to live in Baghdad. And he lavishly rewarded those whose
works pleased him. One musician is said to have received a gift
of 100,000 sil
ver pieces for a single song.
This passage portrays Muslim rulers as the slaves of their lusts and
desires. As the fifth Abbasid caliph, Harun ar-Rashid ruled from 786 to
809, and his time was marked by scientific, astronomic, architecture,
cultural, and arts prosperity. This prosperity of civilization is against
violence and aggression.
Jihad in school textbooks
The textbook The World and its Peoples (pp. 222-3) portrays Jihad
as a way of occupying lands in order to spread the religion of Islam. It also
speaks about how Muslims forced others to adopt their religion, which was
then adopted by the majority of those nations occupied. On page 222, the
authors state in clear terms that
The Arab warriors swept everything before them. They believed
that they had been chosen to spread God’s word. Muslims went
to battles with the belief that death would carry them to
paradise.
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The textbook: “The World and its Peoples” deals with Muslims’
Jihad in occupying land in order to spread the religion of Islam and how
Muslims forced others to adopt their religion, which was then adopted by
the majority of those nations occupied (pp. 222, 223). The book mentions
only one battle in which the Muslims were defeated in the year 732 in
France (pp. 223, 224).
World Cultures, 2001 textbook describes Jihad as the “Holy War”
to purify Islam (p. 92). The book states: “Islam taught that Muslim
warriors who died in the service of Islam would win a place in paradise”
(p. 572).
In the History of the World: People, Places and Concepts, the
author mentions that Muhammad “forced the people of Madinah to
acknowledge Allah as their only God”, (p. 144).
Global History and Geography, 2001, p. 144 says that Muhammad
"attacked Mecca and forced the people there to acknowledge Allah as their
God".
Jihad is often mistakenly described as "holy war." Linguistically, the
word Jihad stems from the Arabic root word Ja-Ha-Da, which means
"strive." Essentially, Jihad is classified either as al-jih d al-akbar (the
greater Jihad), the struggle against one’s own lusts and desires, or working
hard to maintain and support one’s own family and dependants. Al-jih d
al-asghar (the lesser Jihad), is a defensive tactic (it may imply fighting) to
protest against oppression, persecution and aggression.
Forcing someone at the point of a sword to choose death or Islam is
a strange idea about Islam in spirit and in historical practice. There is
absolutely no question of waging a Jihad to "spread the faith" and compel
people to embrace Islam. The Qur'an also declares, "There is no
compulsion in religion" (2:256).
In Islamic culture God created people different, and ask them to
know each other; exchanging ideas, views and experiences – to be
cooperative and undivided.
The Qur'an also makes it clear that God has created humans as equal
and that they are all honored by Him. The Qur'an states that this diversity
and pluralism we see in the world is a divine design:
8
“If your Lord had so willed, He could surely have made mankind
one nation or community . . .” (Surah 11:118).
This means that it is the will of God for people to be different, not to
be the same or identical. But it is us who should not misuse our differences
and aggravate and oppress each other on the basis of ethnicity, color, class
or power. So it is against God’s plan to try to force globalization on the
people of the world, ignoring their identities, religion, culture and
distinctive trades. Religion according to the Qur’an cannot be forced on
people by the sword or any similar means. “There is no compulsion in
religion . . .” (Surah 2:256). The Qur’an emphasizes that no one is forced
to accept Islam as a religion.
Agitated by the opposition to his message, the Prophet Muhammad
is told in the Qur'an that he cannot force anyone to embrace the Muslim
faith.
“Had your Lord willed, those on earth would have believed, all of
them together. So, will you (O Muhammad) then compel mankind, until
they become believers?” (Surah 10:99). In this verse God tells the Prophet
to convey the message to people and not to be troubled by their rejection.
The Qur’an forbids aggression against others, and only approves the
defense, as it says:” And fight in the cause of God those who fight you, and
do not transgress, as God loves not transgressors” 2/190. The imperative
form of the verb ‘fight’ is directed to Muslims, and is restricted only to the
case of being under attack. That is, the Qur’an prohibited aggression.
The Qur’an emphasizes the human right to live and speaks about
illegal killing one human being, whether a Muslim or a non-Muslim, as
killing all people on earth. Whoever saves the life of a human being,
whether a Muslim or a non-Muslim, is as good as saving the life of all
human beings 5/ 32. This verse shows how much Islam sanctifies the lives
of the other. It also indicates that Islam protects the human life.
Most battles at the time of the Prophet Muhammad, such as the
battles of Badr, Uhud and Al-Ahzab, took place near the city of Medina
because of the non-believing Meccans’ aggressions against Muslims. The
Meccans have previously expelled Muslims form Mecca.
Muslim scholars agreed in the past and present on that the
relationship between Muslims and non-Muslims is built in principle on
peace not war. Hence, Muslims at the time of the Messenger did not fight
but for self defense, deterring an offensive act, or launching a preventive
battle against an enemy preparing to attack them. Muslims did never
9
breach an agreement holding between them and their neighbors at the time
of the Messenger Muhammad.
Muslims only fought those who concluded agreements with
Muslims then breached them, as happened with the people pf Mecca when
they breached their treaty with the Messenger Muhammad, and with some
Jews of Medina who breached their treaty with the Muslims and helped the
Meccan enemies who launched an attack against Muslims during the battle
of Al-Ahzab . Muslims were always keen on spreading Islam by reasoning,
persuasion, and respecting other’s freedom, and worked hard towards
living in peace.
It is, therefore a myth that Islam was spread by the sword. Islam
forbids killing, torturing and even threatening. It should be clear that Jihad
is limited to absolute necessity. Thomas Carlyle when writing about
Muhammad's heroism said: how could a single person force the entire
world to follow him and accept his beliefs. Muhammad suffered extremism
and persecution in Maccah and never raised or ordered a sword to be
raised in his enemies face. He came to spread mercy, justice and peace.
Peace In Islam
In Islam, peace is the basis of relationship between Muslims and nonMuslims. Other verses which urge Muslims to fight the non-Muslims are
linked to historical, geographical, religious, social, and political contexts.
These contexts show clearly that Muslims only fought for self-defense or
to prevent a war against them.
Peace can be felt in the word Islam, whose root consists of three
letters S L M, which means in all Semitic Languages peace, safety, and
security. Islam highly sanctified peace, as it is a one of God’s names which
is mentioned in the Qur’an accompanied by the holy name “The All-Holy,
the Peace”59/23. The night in which the Qur’an was revealed was named
the night of peace, 97/5 and Islam, in order to stress spreading peace in the
world, made the word peace in, and at the end of, every prayer, and made
the greetings of Muslims: Peace be upon you.
Positive attitudes in the school textbooks about Jihad:
It deserves our appreciation that the definition of Jihad in some
school texts is presented in its proper context. For example, The World
History – Connections to Date, 1999, in p 258 states that “Jihad has often
been mistakenly translated simply as holy war. In fact it may include acts
10
of charity or an inner struggle to achieve spiritual peace, as well as any
battle in defense of Islam”, in p.188, “Within 200 years, Muslims had built
a great empire and a major new civilization”. The same book adds that, for
Christians and Europeans, Islam was a source of threat and worry. Even
after Islam had become no longer a source of threat, the Christians
continued with their aggressive attitude towards the Islamic World . See
Al-Banyan ibid.
World History: Continuity and change, 1999 states that “The
term jihad also means the constant inner struggle of the people experienced
in their effort to obey God’s will or any effort in the cause of faith”.
In this context, it is worth mentioning here that the study related to
the introduction of the concept of Jihad in the French history textbooks,
according to its faults and rights, indicates correction, for example,
Before correction : The picture displays that Muslims attack non
Muslims to force them to adopt Islam in the name of jihad which is
described as holy war
11
Belin 5e 2001 p.27
12
After correction: This text defines jihad as : to exert an effort, to combat
one’s whims and desires and self defense.
Belin 5e 2005 p.30
Islam in school textbooks
In World Studies, Medieval Times to Today (p. 31), the authors state
regarding the beginning of Islam,
The Muslim prophet Muhammad preached in
Mecca and Medina. His teaching became the
religion of Islam.
From an Islamic perspective, this is a confusing piece of information
which gives the reader the impression that Muhammad is the founder and
maker of Islam. Muslims believe that God is the source of Islamic
teachings and guidance. The role of Prophet Muhammad, like all the
prophets and messengers before him, was to convey the message of Islam
embedded in the revelation he received from God. The Prophet’s own
words, actions, etc. - still based on the teachings of the Qur'an - constitute
what Muslims call the Sunnah.
In World Explorer, People, Places and Cultures (p.495), we read,
Christianity, Judaism, and Islam all developed in
Southwest Asia. Judaism is believed to have
started with Abraham 3,000 years ago.
13
The Muslims believe that Islam as a religion was not developed but
was received from God intact. “Development” involves human
intervention, but Islam was not subject to any such. People can develop
understanding of religion, develop speculative religious knowledge, but
not develop the religion itself.
In World Studies, Medieval Times to Today (p. 23), we read,
The larger group, called Sunnis (SOO nee) . . . They believed that
no one man, not even the leader of Islam, should tell Muslims what
God’s messages meant.
Islam encourages its followers to reflect and reason. The Muslim
teachings were expounded by the Prophet Muhammad himself during his
life time, then by his companions, and subsequent generations of Muslim
scholars. The Islamic heritage of classical and contemporary works on
different branches of Islamic knowledge is an indisputable proof of that
fact. There are many verses of the Qur’an to support this. To think and to
use ones reasoning is a divine command. Muslims should think and reflect
about the universe around them to understand its mysteries and rules that
point clearly to God. To say that no one can tell them about God’s
messages is a mistaken statement.
The textbook, The World and its Peoples, in more than one place
(pages 221, 222, and 223 for example), correlates Islam to the Arabs in an
attempt to infuse the concept that Islam is an integral part of the lives of
the Arabs.
It is a common misconception that all Arabs are perceived in the
West as Muslim and all Muslims are perceived as Arab. But the truth is:
Arabs make up only 15% of the Muslim population in the world. Most
westerners do not realize that there are more Muslims, for example, in
Indonesia than the entire Arab world (stretching from the Arabian Gulf to
the Atlantic Ocean). Other countries with the biggest Muslim population
include Bangladesh, India, Pakistan, Turkey, Malaysia, and Nigeria - none
of them is an Arab country. The population of the Arabic world not all of
them are Muslims, for example the Copts of Egypt.
God in Islam in school textbooks:
14
In Our World (p. 289), the author argues that Islam as well as
Christianity and Judaism are monotheistic religions. In relation to this he
states,
The most important teaching in the Quran is: there is only one God in
the universe—Allah. This belief in only one God makes Islam a
monotheistic religion, like Judaism and Christianity.
For Muslims, it is a mistake to locate God in the universe. God is
above time, space and matter. He is neither inside nor outside this universe,
not in person but with His infinite knowledge, wisdom and authority.
Is some faith influenced Islam?
In World Studies, the Ancient World (p. 64) under the title
“Effects on Later Religions,” the writers state,
Judaism had an important influence on two later religions,
Christianity and Islam. Both religions have their beginnings in
Judaism. Both faiths originated from the same geographical
area. Both were monotheistic. Jews, Christians, and followers
of Islam all honor Abraham, Moses, and the prophets. They
also share the same moral point of view that the Israelites
first developed.
Global History and Geography, 2001 p.144 states that when
Muhammad was young, he traveled in the Middle East and, “he had been
influenced by the beliefs of the Jews and Christians he met”.
In the History of the World: People, Places and Concepts, the
author assigned a section titled “The Life of Muhammad”, where he states:
“Muhammad became caravan manager. Meeting people along the trade
route, Muhammad probably heard the teachings of Judaism and
Christianity”, (p. 157).
In Breaking away from the textbook. Creative way to teach
World History . Volume 1 prehistory to 1600. The Scarecrow press, Inc.
2002, p. 99 we read “Mohammad was more influenced by the monotheists
around him”.
15
Some school textbooks in USA mention the difference between
Islam and Christianity. The textbook The World History – Connections
to Date On page 262, states: “Islam had no religious hierarchy or class of
priests. In principle, it emphasized the equality of all believers, regardless
of race, sex, class, or wealth”.
In general, the image of Islam, Muslims and Arabs has been dealt
with in an objective manner in some school textbooks in USA.
Similarities and dissimilarities should not be explained as borrowing
from other religions but as having one origin in God. It is not accurate to
say that a certain faith influenced another faith. From an Islamic
perspective, the similarities between Islam, Christianity, and Judaism are
due to the fact that they originally came from the same source, i.e., God.
Muslims also believe that the message of Islam (which, in essence, entails
the belief in One God) was conveyed by a great number of prophets and
messengers ; starting from Adam all the way to Muhammad. It is to be
noted that revealed religions do not influence each other but complement
each other being all of these religions come from the same source.
Qur’an in school textbooks
In Our World (p.286), the writer claims that the words of the Qur'an
are Muhammad’s own. A caption of a Muslim holding a copy of the
Qur'an reads,
A MUSLIM IN YEMEN STUDIES THE WORDS OF MUHAMMAD
The Muslims in Yemen, like all other Muslims all over the world,
study the Qur’an and Muhammad’s words in the Hadiths, they are not
distinguished in this.
The textbook The World and its Peoples (p. 226) states that
When Muhammad preached in Medina, some of
his followers wrote down his messages. They were
gathered in a book known as the Quran, which is
the holy book of Islam.
16
The authors must differentiate between the Qur’an and the Hadith.
The Hadiths of the Prophet Muhammad were separate from the Qur’an.
When he preached in Medina some of his companions wrote down what he
said. To Muslims, it is not accurate to say that the Prophet Muhammad’s
followers wrote down his sayings to be the holy book of Islam.
The Muslims were absolutely certain that the Qur’an was sent to
Muhammad over a period of time in different places, in Maccah and
Medina and the surroundings.
In World Cultures and Geography (p. 438), the author’s state,
For the next 22 years, Gabriel continued to send
revelations to Muhammad.
Muslims believe that the Qur'an is God’s Word revealed in Arabic to
Prophet Muhammad over a period of 23 years through arch-Angel Gabriel.
The Qur'an is distinct from Hadith, which are the sayings of Muhammad.
It would be proper to say that Gabriel conveyed (not sent) the Qur'an to the
Prophet, because for Muslims God is the actual sender.
Prophet Muhammad in school textbooks
The U.S. textbook authors are not less biased when they write about
Prophet Muhammad. We read, for example, in World Studies, Africa:
Geography, History and Culture (p.80),
The founder of Islam was a man named
Muhammad. Muslims believe that Muhammad
was a Prophet or a religious teacher who speaks
for God or a god.
In Created equal. A social and political history of the United
State, p.18, we read “The religion founded by Muhammad, born at Mecca
in 570, had spread rapidly across North Africa from Arabia”.
In World Cultures and Geography, p. 437-38, we read “Muhammad,
was born in Mecca about A.D. 570. He is the founder of Islam”.
The authors of textbooks in USA can say: according to Islamic
tradition, Mohammad is the prophet of Islam. The authors of textbooks
have the right to write about Islam from their point of view but they ought
to respect Islam and Muslims.
17
If there is a possibility here that the author is referring to Muhammad
himself as a “a god” we must say; Muslims unanimously believe that
Muhammad was only a prophet of God—and not a god. The claim that
Muhammad was a “god” has not even been upheld by what mainstream
Muslims call heretical or deviant Muslim sects. The Prophet Mohammad
himself never laid any claim to divinity or godhood. On the contrary, he
was acclaimed for his unmatched humility and self-effacement. He even
ordered his companions not stand up for him as a sign of respect to him
whenever they saw him walking through the door.
In Our World, under the title “The Birth of Islam” and specifically
under the sub-heading “Muhammad’s Vision,” (p. 287) the authors write,
Muhammad had time to devote himself to thinking about
religion. He was about 40 years old, according to Islamic
traditions, when he went to a mountain cave to pray.
There he had a vision. In the vision, the angel Gabriel
appeared to him and said, “O Muhammad, you are the
prophet of Allah.” As you learned in Chapter 2, a prophet
is believed to speak for God. Muhammad’s vision would
lead to the creation of a new religion called Islam (iz
To respect the other and his religion, the author can say Muslims
believe the prophet Mohammad saw Gabriel in the cave of Hiraa. The
writers envisage what the Prophet saw in the Cave of Hiraa as a “vision,”
while some Muslims believe that it was in real life. Calling the Prophet’s
encounter with arch-Angel Gabriel (Jibreel in Arabic) a vision makes it
sound like illusion and fanciful—thus rendering the whole message of
Islam a piece of Muhammad’s imagination.
For Muslims, Muhammad was able to recall everything he heard
from the angel and conveyed it to others and he translated God’s words
into practices. The Qur’an was revealed to him over a long period of time,
twenty-three years. Was Muhammad’s life based on “vision” illusion,
Muslim civilization was imaginary?
The proper pronunciation of the word Islam is “islam” not “izlam.”
The word “Muslim”—derived from the same root s.l.m as Islam—should
be pronounced with a <s> sound not a <z> sound. The Word Muzlim in
Arabic means dark, not the follower of Islam. Islam means “peaceful
submission” to God in full conviction and being in peace with him, with
18
ones own self and with everyone and everything around. Submission to
God in the positive sense means a Muslim is responsible for his deeds.
In Our World (p. 288) under the sub-heading “Opposition in Mecca,”
we read:
They (the leaders of Mecca) also looked
down on Muhammad because of his
humble birth
.
This statement intends to denigrate the Prophet Mohammad who was
in fact acclaimed, among other things, for his noble birth. He was a
member of the Tribe of Koreish, the most powerful and influential tribe in
Arabia at that time. Koreish controlled trade routes, hosted pilgrims during
Hajj, maintained the Sacred House (the Ka’bah), etc.
In World Studies, Medieval Times to Today (p. 22), the authors say,
Muhammad saw himself as the last prophet in a
long line of prophets that included all these men.
Muhammad felt respect for Jews and Christians,
whom he called “People of the Book.”
In these words, the writers suggest the wrong idea that Muhammad’s
being the last prophet was of Muhammad’s own imagination. Throughout
Islamic history, Muslims have always believed that Muhammad is the seal
of God’s prophets and messengers. This firm belief is supported by the
verses of the Qur'an (Surah 33:40) and prophetic sayings.
Moreover, the Prophet’s relationship with the Jews and Christians of
his time was based on peaceful co-existence and honoring of mutual
treaties rather than mere respect.
Another misconception in the above passage is that it was the
Prophet who gave the Jews and Christians the title “People of the Book.”
According to the Muslim teachings, it was the Qur'an that gave them that
name (see for example: 3:64, 3:98-99, 5:19, and 5:15-16). The Prophet
Muhammad designated them as protected by God and him.
Shar'iah (The Islamic Law) in school textbooks
19
Generally speaking, the definition of the Islamic Shari’ah in the U.S.
textbooks is usually insufficient. For example, in World Studies, Africa:
Geography, History and Culture (p.110) as well as World Studies,
Eastern Hemisphere: Geography, History and Culture (p.458), the
Shari’ah is defined as
Islamic law based on the words and deeds of
Muhammad and on comments written by Muslim
scholars and lawmakers.
This definition completely ignores the role of the Qur'an as the first
and primary source of Muslim legislation. The second source is the Sunnah
(i.e. the way, sayings, deeds and approvals of Prophet Muhammad). Other
sources of legislation, based on the Qur'an and the Sunnah, include Ijma’
(consensus of Muslim scholars), Qias (analogical deduction), Ijtihad
(juristic reasoning), Maslalih Mursalah (public interest), etc. The Shari’ah
is so comprehensive that it governs:
The ‘ibadat (acts of worship) which include ritual purification
(wudu), prayers (salah), fasting (sawm), Charity (zakah), and
pilgrimage to Mecca (Hajj).
The mu'amalat (human dealings) which include financial
transactions; endowments; laws of inheritance; marriage, divorce,
and child care; foods and drinks (including slaughtering and
hunting); penal punishments; warfare and peace; judicial matters
(including witnesses and forms of evidence); etc.
The Black stone in school textbooks:
The Black stone is considered a sacred stone to Muslims as it was to
the Arabs before Islam, however, some school textbooks introduced it to
the readers in the context of myths and exaggerated of its holiness.
In World cultures, ed. Prentice Hall, 2001, p. 570 says “Also in the
Ka'bah was the sacred Black stone, a meteorite that Arabs believe that it
was sent from heaven”.
In Our World (p. 287), we read about the Ka’bah,
The Kaaba housed a sacred black stone and
honored the gods and goddesses worshipped by
the people of Mecca.
20
The pupils must know that
• For Muslims, the Ka’bah was not built to honor the gods and
goddesses of Mecca before Islam. It is believed that the Ka’bah was
first built by Prophet Abraham upon receiving orders from God. The
aim of building the Ka’bah is to worship and exalt God as well as
perform the Hajj (pilgrimage)—not to honor the idols of the
disbelievers.
• the Black Stone is not inside the Ka’bah. Rather, it is fixed on a
niche made on one of the Ka’bah’s outer walls.
Idols were later placed in the Kaaba but it was not originally built to
house them. This was a deviation from its purpose. When Islam came they
were declared out.
Caliphate in school textbooks:
In World Cultures and Geography, the authors insist that the Muslim
Caliphate was an “empire.” On page 440, for example, a section is titled
“Muslim Empires.” We read on page 441,
The caliph’s duty was to spread God’s rule. In
carrying out this task, the caliphs founded a new
empire, the caliphate. The caliphate was a
theocracy, a government ruled by a religious
leader.
It was outside the intentions of the Caliphs to build an empire nor
were they commanded to do so. The rules of the Caliph were to maintain
the order among people to help the oppressed.
The same concept is repeated on page 442. The authors also state (p.
442) that under the Muslim rule,
Christians and Jews could pay a tax that allowed
them to worship as they pleased.
21
It is not a proper to compare the Muslim caliphate to the Roman,
Byzantine, and Persian empires.
Non-Muslims were required to pay an affordable tax (jiziah) so they
can be protected by the Muslim army from the aggression of outsiders and
to live together in peace. The Copts of Egypt, for example, paid the jiziah
to the Muslims to protect Egypt from the Roman invaders. So, it is not
accurate to say that Muslims collected taxes from the Jews and Christians
just to let them practice their religion freely. Under Islam, non-Muslims
enjoyed all the privileges and had the same responsibility that Muslims
had. Those who were unable to pay the jiziah were exempted and even
supported financially by the Muslim treasury! The clergy especially were
aided by the state to fulfill the expectation of their congregation. This is in
one hand, and on the other we should remember that Muslims pay Zakah
charity in money or in kind.
Status of woman in Islam in school textbooks:
In World Cultures and Geography (p. 458), the authors state:
In some [Muslim] countries . . . religious beliefs limit the roles
women can play. For example, Saudi Arabian women are
not allowed to attend gatherings with men, and they are
forbidden to drive cars. A Saudi woman may have only one
husband but a Saudi man is allowed by Islamic law to have
up to four wives. Very few Saudi women work outside the
home.
The same concept is repeated on page 459,
Exploring World History, ed. Globe Book Company, 1987 in
chapter(3), the authors state that man is allowed by Islam to have four
wives but the woman may have only one husband.
In some Islamic countries, women wear chadors,
floor-length cloaks that cover everything but the
woman’s eyes. In Iran and Saudi Arabia, such
clothing is not a choice; it’s the law.
22
World Geography and Culture, 1994 describes women in the Arab
countries as being restricted, and that they must cover their faces. Page 225
of the book reads, “some Islamic countries are stricter than others. Saudi
Arabia, for example, is a very strict Islamic country. In Saudi Arabia,
women cannot show their full faces in public; cannot drive the car or travel
alone; and cannot take jobs outside the home”.
Global History and Geography, 2001, p 187 mentions “The Quran
does not give a woman equal rights of inheritance with a man”
Al-Banyan notes some negative remarks about the Arab and Islamic
countries:
-Certain incidents were presented on a selective basis with pictures
supporting them. The textbook Literature – The Reader’s Choice
addresses modern African literature. Under one of the pictures used, a
footnote reads: “An Egyptian School” (p. 104). The picture reflects an old
building with a water collection point, little children, and a veiled teacher
in front of them. The question here is: does this picture represent all of the
Egyptian schools? The book also shows the picture of a woman in a poor
condition walking on a dirty road along a mud wall on a sunny day. It was
placed as an introduction to the translation of a poem by the poet Nazek
Al-Mala’ika titled, “The Elegy of a Worthless Woman”!
The writers portray Muslim men as being suppressive of their
women—in terms of marriage, work, and participation in public life. As far
as Muslim women are concerned, misconceptions are resulted when the
western authors confuse the teachings of Islam (which are based on
granting equal rights and responsibilities to Muslim men and women) with
some aspects of the Arab culture (which is sometimes restrictive when it
comes to women).
In Islam, women have complete control over their own property and
are allowed to participate in public life. Women also have the right to
inheritance, education, work, etc. Surah 4, 34 summarizes the
responsibilities of the man as follows: "Men are the protectors and
maintainers of women, because God has given the one more (strength) than
the other, and because they support them from their means." .Men are
responsible for all the necessities of life (an appropriate standard of
clothing, housing, etc.). The Quran added "And women have as many
rights as they have of obligation in equity" Surah 2: 228
23
They are also allowed to uncover their faces and hands in public. The
Quran refers that veil is to protect women from harm 33:59. Both men and
women are required to be modest and decent when they speak, dress, work,
etc.
Moreover, many Saudi women work (outside the home) as doctors,
engineers, businesswomen, etc. During the 1990s, for example, over 500
Saudi women were working at Aramco as engineers.
The practice of polygamy (with unlimited number of wives) had been
practiced in almost all faiths before the coming of Prophet Muhammad.
The Hebrew Scriptures document approximately 40 polygamists, including
prominent figures such as Abraham, Moses, Isaac, Jacob, Solomon, and
David. We read in the Bible (1 Kings 11:3) that Prophet Solomon, for
example, had 700 wives as well as 300 concubines. It was Islam that
limited polygamy—allowing a man to have as many as four wives, but all
were to be treated as equals and with kindness. The Qur'an stipulates that if
a man is afraid of being unable to treat his wives equally, then he should
marry only one (Surah 4:3).
The complete verse of polygamy (Surah 4:3) should be mentioned,
because it is a conditional sentence with specific meanings. So, if we
mention half of the conditional statement, incomplete meaning will come
out. The complete verse is “And if you fear that you shall not be able to
deal justly with the orphans, then marry women of your choice, two or
three, or four but if you fear that you shall not be able to deal justly with
them , then only one or your slaves. That is nearer to prevent you from
doing injustice” (Q:4/3). Reading the complete verse gives the correct
meaning which allows polygamy on conditions which are not easy to
apply. The polygamy verse which everyone in the East and the West
repeatedly talks about it goes as follow: “And if you fear that you will not
be able to deal justly …..”4/3.
We should note that this verse gives a conditional meaning and giving
only one part of the verse will be nonacademic and unfair, none of its parts
should be ignored. Whoever gives himself the right to split the conditional
sentence is doing wrong to the verse. The first part of the verse shows the
context of its revelation and it may also indicate that polygamy is related to
the female orphans. The verse emphasizes the concept of justice which has
been repeated three times in the verse. The Qur’an emphasizes justice.
24
One of the verses of the same chapter indicates that it is almost impossible
to be fair among women. So the verse clearly recommends marrying only
one woman. It is noticed here the Qur’an honors women when it names
one of its long chapters “Women”. None of the chapters in the Qur’an is
named “Men”.
As for polyandry (a woman having more than one husband), it is not
allowed in any religious or moral system. It occurs rarely in history. It is
more like prostitution than marriage. It is against the rights of the woman
and her status in society.
Error / mistake /fault
In World cultures and geography (p. 437), the authors state that:
Less than 600 years after Christ’s death, a third
monotheistic
religion
arose
in
Southeast
(correction Southwest) Asia.
Conclusion
As we have seen in the above samples from the U.S.A textbooks
collected and analyzed here, the negative portrayal of Islam and Muslims
includes generalizations, distortions of historical facts, degradation of
Muslim culture and civilization (for example, by constantly showing Arabs
and Muslims as uncivilized people living in the desert, riding camels, and
grazing sheep) and blaming Islam for actions which are done in the name
of Arab customs and social traditions. This reveals to us that some
textbooks in the USA hold Islam and other non-western civilizations to
different standards than those applied to non-Muslim western cultures.
According to Fred M. Donner, an academician who is wellacquainted with Islamic studies, “Nothing is guaranteed to open students’
eyes like dismantling misconceptions, discrediting stereotypes and
exchanging honest differences of opinions.” Unless social study Educators
and textbook editors open their eyes and minds, Donner’s vision will
25
remain unfulfilled and the distortions of the image of Islam and Muslims
will continue, and perhaps, grow even worse.6
We would like to urge our American colleagues to look at and
consider the Islamic evidence presented in this paper and correct the
misunderstanding and misconceptions about Islam and Muslims. We
should keep our children’s minds free of denigration of others or thinking
that only they are right and everyone else is inferior and misguided and an
enemy presenting a threat to their way of life.
Other dimensions, like the social, the economic, the national, the
political and the military perspective in addition to the two axes of
civilization and religion need also to be discussed.
Some books provide only limited information about the Arab and
Islamic countries. It does not exceed a small number of lines in some
books and is neglected in others. On the opposite side, justification is
noticed in dealing with other countries, such as Israel.
This kind of study should also deal with other subjects as
Geography, Social Studies and Literature, as well. Some of the texts in the
books assigned for the study of Arabic as a second language also need to
be revised. In France, for example, the books which study Arabic
Grammar give model reading with emphasis on specific verbs like “ to
kill”, “to beat”, “to break” etc. Such words carry negative meanings and
connotations. On the other hand, the French books of French grammar and
the English books of grammar emphasize positive verbs like “to love”.
The American authors and scholars can distinguish between the
teachings and principles of Islam on the one hand, and the behavior of
some Muslims on the other, as they seemed to have forgotten that Islam is
a religion of peace. Islam enjoins justice which is a principle and base in
international law, as well as reading, seeking knowledge, working, and
bearing responsibility.
Correcting the errors in textbooks worldwide, and the dialogue
between cultures leads to enrich these cultures, rid the world of these
conflicts, fight terrorism, exist cooperation, and living in peace and
security.
6
The Free Press Journal, “Reviewing textbooks: the American experience” by M. V. Kamath
(http://www.hvk.org/articles/0303/23.html), access: July 7, 2007.
26
These textbooks should instead have presented the verses which are
considered Islamic principles, i.e., the verses that forbade aggression and
permit self-defense, or the verses that allow combats within their context.
Islam is clear of violence, aggression, and terrorism. Presenting
Jihad in schools textbooks from a radical perspective may lead to
linking it to terrorism and may lead terrorists to recruit Muslim
students especially those who fail in their study in American or in
European countries.
Shall school worldwide bear its full responsibility in educating the
citizen and teaching him the culture of tolerance and peace? And correct
the erroneous image of the other, of his History, his religion and of his
culture in school textbooks in order to get out of the state of war to the
state of peace and cooperation and collective work against ignorance,
illness, and poverty for the sake of the happiness and progress of mankind?
The world is leading a war against terrorism that costs the lives
of thousands of innocent people. Not war, but education of peace must
begin at schools by presenting the right concepts about the other and
his culture for the sake of building the tolerant, peaceful, and helpful
citizen.
Recommendations
•
A strong coordination should exist between the Muslim
communities in the U.S.A. and the American Textbook Council
(ATC).
•
Muslim scholars should be consulted with regard to anything that
involves the Muslim law (Shari’ah), Islam, the Qur'an, the life of
Prophet Muhammad, etc. in the U.S. school textbooks.
•
Controversial issues such as Jihad, treatment of women, the status
of non-Muslims in Islamic society, slavery, and the relationship of
religious and political authority should neither be ignored nor
portrayed subjectively.
•
Maximum efforts should be exerted to revise and change the
contents of those school books which reflect bias against Islam and
Muslims, with emphasis on developing mutual respect mechanisms
with others to achieve this goal.
27
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