Download L3/03 - Wilfrid Laurier University

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Greater Mesopotamia
The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods
Northern Mesopotamia
A parallel evolution
The development of writing
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L3 /03
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The urban explosion and writing
Karljürgen G. Feuerherm
Wilfrid Laurier University
1 March 2013
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Greater Mesopotamia
The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods
Northern Mesopotamia
A parallel evolution
The development of writing
. Outline
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1.
Greater Mesopotamia
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The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods
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Northern Mesopotamia
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A parallel evolution
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The development of writing
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Greater Mesopotamia
The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods
Northern Mesopotamia
A parallel evolution
The development of writing
. Greater Mesopotamia—definition
Mesopotamia
Greek mesos + potamoi → ‘between the rivers’
Euphrates in the west, Tigris in the east
Greater Mesopotamia
Includes some of the area to either side
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Greater Mesopotamia
The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods
Northern Mesopotamia
A parallel evolution
The development of writing
. Greater Mesopotamia—map
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.Taurus range
.Assyria
.← Tigris
.Euphrates →
{
.Babylonia .
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}
}
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.Akkad
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.Sumer
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Greater Mesopotamia
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. Greater Mesopotamia—map
2013-03-01
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.Taurus range
.Assyria
.← Tigris
.Euphrates →
{
.Babylonia .
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}
}
Greater
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.Akkad
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.Sumer
Mesopotamia—map
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1. The Tigris and Euphrates have their sources in the mountains of
Anatolia, and flow south toward the Persian Gulf.
2. Consequently, they run quickly in the north, and with great force,
cuing deep into the land. In the south, however, they flow
sufficiently slowly to deposit their silt, with the result that their
banks tend to be at a similar elevation to the plains.
3. In view of the climate and rainfall realities, dry-farming was
practicable in the north from an early period, as we have seen,
whereas in the south it was not and could not be.
4. Towards the end of the Ubaid period, surveyed sites were generally
small (< 10ha) and fairly evenly distributed; large parts of the
floodplain apparently had no permanent selements through there
may have been nomadic herders and hunters.
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5. Things were about to change …. Necessity is the mother of invention.
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Greater Mesopotamia
The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods
Northern Mesopotamia
A parallel evolution
The development of writing
. The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods
Uruk 4000–2900 
Early/Middle Uruk 4000–3500 
Late Uruk 3500–3200 
Jemdet Naṣr 3200–2900 
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The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods
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. The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods
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Uruk 4000–2900 
Early/Middle Uruk 4000–3500 
Late Uruk 3500–3200 
Jemdet Naṣr 3200–2900 
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The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods
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1. Uruk: Unfortunately, archaeological documentation for this period is
relatively poor. Some data can be obtained from surface surveys, but
problems arise in interpreting results. Sites occupied at a given period
are identified by the poery fragments on the surface of the site, and
the paern of selement reconstructed. However, there are problems:
a) some sites are buried under alluvial silt, are therefore potentially
unrepresented; b) where occupation was over a long period, early
periods may be under-represented in terms of surface finds; c) for
some sites, the later levels may be missing (erosion, reuse of
materials, etc.).
2. Late Uruk: = Uruk IV.
3. Jemdet Naṣr: = Uruk III.
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Greater Mesopotamia
The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods
Northern Mesopotamia
A parallel evolution
The development of writing
. Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) selement paerns
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The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods
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. Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) selement paerns
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Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) selement paerns
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1. The distributions shown here are based on an archaeological surface
survey conducted by Robert Adams. Keep the limitations as
discussed above in mind!
2. E/M U. Note the density of population mainly in the
north, as one would expect given the dry-farming history. The area
north and east of Nippur was densely seled from the beginning of
the 4th millennium.
3. The remains of a river meander near Nippur are still visible,
suggesting a waterway of similar size to the current Euphrates. It
appears that in this period, the Tigris and Euphrates actually joined
farther upstream and then split into a variety of channels which
coursed through the alluvial plain.
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L3 /03
The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods
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. Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) selement paerns
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Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) selement paerns
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1. Uruk was some 70ha at this time. In the north, there were two other
large sites of ca. 50ha each and two of some 30ha. It is not clear
whether this represents natural local population growth or an influx
of immigrants from elsewhere.
2. L U. By Late Uruk, many northern sites were abandoned in
favour of new selements farther south in the neighbourhood of
Uruk, which itself more than doubled in area. This may have been
occasioned by a change in river courses.
3. Whereas the total area of selement increased only slightly over the
previous period, the distribution shied considerably, from 60% in the
area of Nippur to 60% in the area of Uruk; in other words, there was a
20% shi in selement area from north to south, presumably with a
corresponding shi in population.
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4. Uruk grew to ca. 100ha during this period, roughly twice the size of
the next largest site.
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L3 /03
The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods
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. Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) selement paerns
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Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) selement paerns
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1. J Nṣ. The trends of the Late Uruk period continued through
this period and beyond. By the end of this period, the Uruk region
(think ‘Waterloo Region’, GTA) had expanded to 850ha (more than
double its size during the Late Uruk period) with Uruk itself
occupying nearly half that area!
2. At the same time, we see a phenomenon of centralization: other large
centres developed while the number of villages decreased. Note from
the map the tendency of small sites to ‘line up’ (perhaps due to
increased use of long canals) rather than follow a random paern.
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3. It has been estimated that previous to the Jemdet Naṣr period, the
area of agricultural land required to feed the population of Uruk was
ca. 6km in radius; farmers may have walked an hour or so to the
fields each day, as still happens in the Near East today. By this period,
the radius was likely some 16km, and much of what was consumed in
Uruk presumably car from elsewhere, perhaps via taxes and levies.
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Greater Mesopotamia
The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods
Northern Mesopotamia
A parallel evolution
The development of writing
. Uruk today–overview
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The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods
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. Uruk today–overview
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Uruk today–overview
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1. In the centre of the image, we see the ziggurat of Ur–Namma, which
we will discuss later.
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Greater Mesopotamia
The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods
Northern Mesopotamia
A parallel evolution
The development of writing
. Uruk today–side view
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Greater Mesopotamia
The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods
Northern Mesopotamia
A parallel evolution
The development of writing
. Uruk vase
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The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods
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. Uruk vase
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Uruk vase
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1. This vase is one of a pair found in the temple treasury of Uruk III but
may have been carved earlier. The whole vase shows a scene of
offerings being presented to the goddess Inana, with the ruler and the
goddess being depicted in the top register.
2. This is one of the items which was stolen during the raid of the Iraq
museum. Although it was later returned, it was broken in the process.
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Greater Mesopotamia
The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods
Northern Mesopotamia
A parallel evolution
The development of writing
. Uruk site map
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The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods
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. Uruk site map
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Uruk site map
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1. Excavations of early period Uruk (modern Warka, biblical Erech) took
place in two main areas: the E–ana complex (‘House of Heaven’) and
some 500m to the west in the area of the Temple of An (the
sky/heaven god).
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Greater Mesopotamia
The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods
Northern Mesopotamia
A parallel evolution
The development of writing
. The E–ana district
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The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods
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. The E–ana district
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The E–ana district
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1. The size, variety, and complexity of the architecture shows that the
buildings were carefully designed and intended both for religious
ceremonies and to impress the populace with the wealth and power
of those who commissioned them.
2. E–. The earliest phase, known as the Limestone Temple, had
stone foundations on a bed of mud, and measured 76m by 30m.
Confirmation of its use as a temple is uncertain, but the tripartite
structure, its intricate niching and buressing, and its location in a
sacred area all suggest that it was. In later periods, more complex
structures were used.
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3. At the west end of the area was a separate area now known as the
Stone Cone Mosaic Temple. Surrounded by a wall with buresses on
both sides, the temple was decorated with cone mosaics made of red,
black, and white stone set in gypsum.
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Greater Mesopotamia
The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods
Northern Mesopotamia
A parallel evolution
The development of writing
. Stone cones
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The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods
Northern Mesopotamia
A parallel evolution
The development of writing
. Stone cone mosaic columns
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The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods
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. Stone cone mosaic columns
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Stone cone mosaic columns
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1. The monumental structures which emerge at this time point to a
change from territorially organized society to one based on ties of
kinship, divided by class and ruled by religious, military, and political
elites.
2. This in turn meant the emergence of professional cra workers and
increased long-distance trade. Poery and other objects of southern
Mesopotamian styles have been found far away; and some
selements in southern Iran (i.e. across the Zagros range) and
northern Mesopotamia shared so many cultural traits that they
probably had direct contact with southern Mesopotamia.
3. The erection of public buildings affirms the existence of a society with
a central authority whose resources allowed for such work to be
carried out.
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Greater Mesopotamia
The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods
Northern Mesopotamia
A parallel evolution
The development of writing
. Tell Uqair leopard
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The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods
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. Tell Uqair leopard
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Tell Uqair leopard
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1. At Tell Uqair, located ca. 80km south of modern Baghdad (so north of
Nippur), a Late Uruk temple stood on a high platform approached by
steps whose edge was also decorated with mosaic cones. The upper
stage was covered with bitumen (similar to tar) and the temple walls
were built upon this. Only half of the temple has been preserved, but
it was clearly on a tripartite plan with an altar and offering table. The
walls were covered with paintings, preserved because the building
was filled up as a platform for later construction.
2. Here is a painting of a leopard of a type still found in Iran today, from
that temple. Remember the leopard reliefs at Çatal Höyük?
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Greater Mesopotamia
The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods
Northern Mesopotamia
A parallel evolution
The development of writing
. Bevel-rimmed bowls
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The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods
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. Bevel-rimmed bowls
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Bevel-rimmed bowls
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1. Bevel-rimmed bowls such as those shown here were mass-produced
from coarse straw-tempered clay by being pressed into a mould (as
opposed to turned on a wheel).
2. In the Late Uruk and Jemdet Naṣr periods they occurred in great
quantity in southern Mesopotamia and the region of Susa (Iran).
Eventually, they spread across the Fertile Crescent (excluding the
Levant), showing the influence of southern Mesopotamian culture.
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Greater Mesopotamia
The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods
Northern Mesopotamia
A parallel evolution
The development of writing
. Tepe Gawra
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Northern Mesopotamia
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. Tepe Gawra
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Tepe Gawra
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1. Following the Ubaid period, northern Mesopotamia developed its
own local culture, known as Gawra culture, in light of Tepe Gawra, a
site east of modern Mosul in northern Iraq.
2. In later levels, there were numerous graves including 80 mud brick
tombs. Some contained beads; several tombs had thousands of them,
with one having more than 25,000! These were made of various
materials, including turquoise, jadeite, carnelian, lapis lazuli and
diorite, white faïence, gold, electrum, shell, and ivory. The closest
source of lapis lazuli was northern Afghanistan, more than 2,000km
away!
3. Seen here in the middle of the photo is what remains of the so-called
Round House, believed to have been the fortified residence of the
chief. It contained stores of grain and pear-shaped mace heads.
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Greater Mesopotamia
The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods
Northern Mesopotamia
A parallel evolution
The development of writing
. Tepe Gawra site map
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Northern Mesopotamia
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. Tepe Gawra site map
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Tepe Gawra site map
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1. Here we see a site map of Tepe Gawra. Note how the Round House is
centrally located.
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The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods
Northern Mesopotamia
A parallel evolution
The development of writing
. Round House reconstruction
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Northern Mesopotamia
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. Round House reconstruction
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Round House reconstruction
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1. Here is one artist’s reconstruction of the Round House in three
dimensions.
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Greater Mesopotamia
The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods
Northern Mesopotamia
A parallel evolution
The development of writing
. Tell Brak idols—eye dolls?
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Northern Mesopotamia
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. Tell Brak idols—eye dolls?
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Tell Brak idols—eye dolls?
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1. Another important site from this period, Tell Brak in the upper Habur
region (northeastern tip of Syria) features an interesting temple
known as the Eye Temple for obvious reasons.
2. Is this evidence of alien invasion or of mutants?
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Greater Mesopotamia
The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods
Northern Mesopotamia
A parallel evolution
The development of writing
. Overview of economic evolution
Situation
increased production ⇒
increased wealth ⇒
increased population ⇒
class specialization ⇒
social stratification
How to keep track of it all?
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The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods
Northern Mesopotamia
A parallel evolution
The development of writing
. Uruk cylinder seal
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A parallel evolution
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. Uruk cylinder seal
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Uruk cylinder seal
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1. Seals had already been in use since some time to control contents and
access to commodities.
2. Here is an Uruk period seal from the Louvre; jasper, showing
monstrous lions and lion-headed eagles, themes which continue
through Mesopotamian history.
3. However, such seals eventually proved inadequate to the task.
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Greater Mesopotamia
The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods
Northern Mesopotamia
A parallel evolution
The development of writing
. Partial solution: tokens
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A parallel evolution
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. Partial solution: tokens
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Partial solution: tokens
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1. Seen here are tokens; in this case, lile clay objects of various shapes
and sizes, with in some cases some kind of markings to differentiate
them.
2. Each type of token was understood to represent a type and/or count
of a given commodity. By means of tokens, records could be kept
concerning various commodities in a manner similar to the
representation of numbers on an abacus.
3. Tokens were not an invention of the Uruk period: recent research has
shown that tokens came in to use in the 9th millennium, however
they did become more prolific as the economy grew and became
more complex.
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Greater Mesopotamia
The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods
Northern Mesopotamia
A parallel evolution
The development of writing
. Tokens from Susa (Iran)
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A parallel evolution
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. Tokens from Susa (Iran)
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Tokens from Susa (Iran)
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1. In the le column, we see examples of the five most common token
shapes: sphere, hemisphere, disc, cone, tetrahedron.
2. Some tokens in last two columns are similar in shape to certain
characters of the later Sumerian script. Note in particular the ‘circle
and plus sign’ at the boom of the next to last column.
3. Now: how do we control these many tokens? Well…. How do we
control important things now? Put them into a safe!
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Greater Mesopotamia
The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods
Northern Mesopotamia
A parallel evolution
The development of writing
. Enter the bulla
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A parallel evolution
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. Enter the bulla
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Enter the bulla
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1. Illustrated here is a hollow clay egg shape known as a bulla, also from
Susa.
2. Inside were found a large cone, three small cones, and three discs.
These were found to match the indentations on the outside, i.e. they
were impressed into the surface of the bulla before being enclosed in
it, presumably as a mnemonic of what was inside.
3. Evolution: a) tokens; b) bulla to store tokens; c) impression of tokens
on the outside to avoid having to open the bulla every time a count
was required. Presumably by this time, breaking the bulla open was
reserved for those occasions when one was challenged. Note that in
most cases, however, bulla indentations were made by stylus (a reed
writing instrument) or thumb rather than using the tokens
themselves.
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4. About 70 such bullae are known so far, dating as far back as 3000 .
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Greater Mesopotamia
The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods
Northern Mesopotamia
A parallel evolution
The development of writing
. The token theory of writing
A few notable facts concerning tokens and bullae
tokens come in many shapes and sizes
in a number of cases, shapes resemble later Sumerian characters
tokens are enclosed in bullae, later tablets in cases
Token theory of writing
Denise Schmandt–Besserat
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A parallel evolution
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. The token theory of writing
2013-03-01
A few notable facts concerning tokens and bullae
tokens come in many shapes and sizes
in a number of cases, shapes resemble later Sumerian characters
tokens are enclosed in bullae, later tablets in cases
Token theory of writing
Denise Schmandt–Besserat
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The token theory of writing
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1. shapes and sizes: presumably these represent qualities—i.e. various
commodities—and quantities
2. resemble: suggesting a possible genetic relationship between the two
3. cases: clay envelopes placed around early tablets, usually with a brief
résumé of the contents of the tablet inscribed on them; another
apparent parallel
4. Schmandt–Besserat: inspired by these parallels, D. S–B has proposed
that Sumerian writing evolved more or less directly from tokens and
bullae. This has been accepted by many scholars.
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Greater Mesopotamia
The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods
Northern Mesopotamia
A parallel evolution
The development of writing
. Comparison of token types and later Sumerian characters
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A parallel evolution
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. Comparison of token types and later Sumerian characters
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Comparison of token types and later Sumerian
characters
1. Here one can see a representative set of tokens thought to correspond
to Sumerian script counterparts. The theory seems to work!
2. But…there are a few problems….
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Greater Mesopotamia
The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods
Northern Mesopotamia
A parallel evolution
The development of writing
. Inscribed bulla
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A parallel evolution
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. Inscribed bulla
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Inscribed bulla
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1. This inscribed bulla from a second millennium palace at Nuzi (in
northern Mesopotamia) seems to confirm the theory: the cuneiform
inscription discusses 48 animals, and there are 48 tokens inside.
2. Note however that this item has full-fledged cuneiform, leading to at
least two questions:
2.1 can this evidence be adduced for the previous millennia, when
clear evidence of writing emerges?
2.2 if writing is an evolution from tokens, why do they continue to
co-exist once writing comes into full swing? does this not
suggest divergent purposes to some extent at least?
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Greater Mesopotamia
The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods
Northern Mesopotamia
A parallel evolution
The development of writing
. Other issues
Token classification
Variety of materials
Use extends beyond the life of the writing system
Unique token types
Uruk evidence
Sheep
Non-tokens
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A parallel evolution
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. Other issues
Token classification
Variety of materials
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Use extends beyond the life of the writing system
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Unique token types
Uruk evidence
Sheep
Non-tokens
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Other issues
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1. classification: there are at least 16 types of tokens with 492
subtypes—rather complex
2. materials: 14% of objects thought to be tokens are not made of clay
(e.g. stone [tombs], bitumen)
3. beyond: the Mesopotamian script was in use for over three millennia;
however, tokens, which came into use no later than the ninth
millennium continue to be used through the Seleucid/Parthian
periods, i.e. beyond the conquest of Alexander
4. Unique: 58% of complex tokens are unique; 15% occur only twice, and
only 18% occur more than four times
5. Uruk: 812 tokens spread over 3000 years and 237 subtypes; 156
represented by one token only, only 20 dated later than the 4th
millennium; Uruk is central to the issue, as we shall see
6. Sheep: only 15 ‘sheep’ tokens are known: by millennia, 1 × 7th, 3 ×
4th, 3 × 1st, 8 undateable; this is significant given the role of sheep in
the economy!
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Greater Mesopotamia
The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods
Northern Mesopotamia
A parallel evolution
The development of writing
. Early Uruk tablets
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The development of writing
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. Early Uruk tablets
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Early Uruk tablets
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1. Le: one of the earliest pictographic tablets from Uruk. We are now
aware that the dating of the Uruk objects is precarious and ultimately
not possible with any degree of precision in light of find spots and the
notes of excavators: ‘Although …difficult to interpret, it is clear that
the signs can stand for nothing else but objects and persons’.
2. However, radiocarbon dates of stratigraphically clear tablets suggests
34th century  for the first examples of actual recognizable writing.
3. Right: ledger tablet from Uruk with cases of numbers and personal
names—which don’t sum up to the ‘total’ on the reverse!
.
.
Greater Mesopotamia
The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods
Northern Mesopotamia
A parallel evolution
The development of writing
. From pictograph to cuneiform
.
.
.
55 / 56
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L3 /03
The development of writing
.
. From pictograph to cuneiform
2013-03-01
.
.
.
From pictograph to cuneiform
.
1. This table shows the traceable evolution of pictographs (concrete
representations) to later cuneiform.
2. Second last column: early Sumerian cuneiform.
3. Last column: neo-Assyrian cuneiform of the first millennium .
.
.
Greater Mesopotamia
The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods
Northern Mesopotamia
A parallel evolution
The development of writing
. Some early tablets
.
.
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.
57 / 56
.
Greater Mesopotamia
The Uruk (and Jemdet Naṣr) periods
Northern Mesopotamia
A parallel evolution
The development of writing
. Pythagoras before Pythagoras
.
.
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58 / 56