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After gaining independence, Americans faced the task for forming independent governments at both the state and national
levels.
The Making of a Republic
SS.8.A.3.9, LA.8.1.6.1, LA.8.1.6.2, LA.8.1.6.3
What kind of government was created by the Articles of Confederation?
After throwing off British rule, the independent states faced the challenge of governing themselves. The 13 states needed a plan of
government that would satisfy all their needs. Would the states be able to work together and still maintain their independence? How
would each individual state govern itself?
States Write Constitutions
The Continental Congress took up this last question even before declaring independence. In May 1776, Congress asked the states
to organize their governments. Each state adopted a state constitution, or plan of government. Eight states had drafted constitutions
before the end of the year. New York and Georgia followed in 1777 and Massachusetts in 1780. Connecticut and Rhode Island
decided to use their colonial charters as state constitutions.
Limits on Power
After years of British rule, Americans were determined not to place too much power in the hands of one ruler or body. They crafted
constitutions that limited the power of the governor. Pennsylvania's constitution replaced the office entirely with an elected 12­person
council.
States also divided power between the governor (or council) and the legislature. Most states set up two­house, or bicameral (bye •
KAM • ruhl), legislatures to divide the work of government even further.
The first state constitutions aimed to keep power in the hands of the people. For example, voters chose the state legislators, and
states held elections often. In most states, only white males who were at least 21 years old could vote. These men also had to own a
certain amount of property or pay a certain amount of taxes. Some states allowed free African American males to vote.
Because state constitutions limited the powers of the governors, the legislatures became the most powerful branch of government.
The state legislatures tried to make taxes fair for everyone, but disagreements arose. The shift from British colonies to self­governing
states held many challenges.
A New Republic
In addition to forming state governments, the American people had to form a national government. People agreed the new country
should be a republic, a government in which citizens rule through elected representatives. They could not agree, however, on what
powers the new republic's government should have.
At first, most Americans wanted a weak central government. They expected each state would remain free to act independently on
most issues. The states would rely on a central government only to wage war and handle relations with other countries.
The Articles of Confederation
In 1776 the Second Continental Congress appointed a committee to draw up a plan for a new central government. The result of this
committee's work was the Articles of Confederation. After much discussion, Congress adopted the Articles—the nation's first
constitution—in November 1777.
The Articles of Confederation established a weak central government. The states kept most of their power. For the states, the Articles
of Confederation were "a firm league of friendship" in which each state retained "its sovereignty, freedom and independence."
The Articles of Confederation gave the Congress limited powers. Congress could conduct foreign affairs, maintain armed forces,
borrow money, and issue currency. Congress did not have the power to regulate trade, force citizens to join the army, or impose
taxes. If Congress needed to raise money or troops, it had to ask the states. States were not required to contribute.
The new central government had no chief executive. This is an official, such as a president or a governor, who carries out the laws
and leads the government in its day­to­day operations. Under the Articles of Confederation government carried on its business, such
as selling western lands, through congressional committees.
All the states had to approve the Articles and any amendments. Yet not every state supported the Articles of Confederation at first.
Under the new plan, each state had one vote regardless of population. States with large populations believed they should have more
votes.
Disputes over land also threatened to block approval of the Articles. By the 1780s, seven of the original states lay claim to areas in
the West. Maryland refused to approve the Articles until New York, Virginia, and other states abandoned their land claims west of the
Appalachian Mountains. This done, Maryland joined the other 12 states in approving the Articles. On March 1, 1781, the
Confederation formally became the government of the United States of America.
The Confederation Government
The next several years were critical ones for the young republic. It soon became clear that the new national government was too
weak to handle the problems facing the United States. The weak Congress could not pass a law unless nine states voted in favor of
it. Changing the Articles required the approval of all 13 states. This made it hard for Congress to pass laws when there was any
disagreement.
Even with these challenges, the new government managed some key achievements. Under the Confederation government,
Americans negotiated a peace treaty with Britain and expanded the country’s foreign trade. The Confederation also helped with
settling and governing the country’s western lands.
Specifying How many votes did each state have in the new Congress?
Policies for Western Lands
SS.8.A.3.9
What process allowed new states to join the union?
The Articles of Confederation did not propose a way to add new states to the United States. Yet there were settlers living west of the
Appalachian Mountains, outside the existing states. These Western settlers wanted to organize their lands as states and join the
Union.
Under the terms of the Treaty of Paris, the British gave up control of the land north of the Ohio River and west of the Appalachian
Mountains. Many Americans were eager to settle in this region. The new United States government had to establish policies for
settlement of these western lands. Another challenge was to come up with an orderly process by which new territories could achieve
the status of statehood.
The Ordinance of 1785
In 1785 the Confederation Congress passed an ordinance, or law, that set up a process to survey and sell the lands north of the Ohio
River. The new law divided this large area into townships 6 miles long (9.7 km) and 6 miles wide (9.7 km). These townships were to
be further divided into 36 sections of 640 acres (259 ha). The government would sell each section at public auction, or sale, for at
least a dollar an acre. Concerned about lawless people moving into western lands, Richard Henry Lee, the president of the
Congress, urged that "the rights of property be clearly defined" by the government. Congress drafted another law to protect the
interests of hardworking settlers.
The Northwest Ordinance
The Northwest Ordinance, passed in 1787, created a single Northwest Territory from lands north of the Ohio River and east of the
Mississippi River. The lands were to be divided into three to five smaller territories. When a territory had 60,000 residents, the people
could seek statehood. Each new state would have the same standing as the original 13 states.
The Northwest Ordinance had a bill of rights for the settlers in the territory. It guaranteed freedom of religion and trial by jury. It also
stated, "There shall be neither slavery nor involuntary servitude in said territory." This clause, or condition added to a document,
marked the first attempt to stop the spread of slavery in the United States. The Ordinance of 1785 and the Northwest Ordinance
attempted to make possible the settlement of the Northwest Territory in a peaceful and orderly way. In general, the laws were
successful.
The United States Congress would later take a similar step in the South. In 1798 it created the Mississippi Territory from land west of
Georgia. Congress organized the government of the territory in the same basic way as in the Northwest Territory—except that slavery
was allowed.
Land Act of 1800
The Ordinance of 1785 and the Northwest Ordinance aimed to encourage settlement in the Northwest Territory. In time it became
clear that people needed even more help. In 1800 Congress passed the Land Act. This law made it easier for people to buy land in
the territory. For example, the act made it possible for people to pay for land a little at a time. Under the terms of this law, a person was
required to buy at least 320 acres of land at a price of $2 per acre. The buyer could pay half of the money at the time of purchase and
the rest in four yearly payments.
Explaining What did the Northwest Ordinance say about slavery?
Problems at Home and Abroad
SS.8.A.3.9, SS.8.E.2.2
In what ways was the Confederation government weak?
Because of its weakness, the Confederation government had trouble with financial issues. Continentals, paper bills the Continental
Congress printed during the war, did not hold their value. By 1781, the currency had depreciated (dih • PREE • shee • ayt • ed), or
fallen in value, so far that it was worth almost nothing. As more continentals appeared, people realized that Congress could not
exchange or trade in the bills for gold or silver. The public began to doubt the money was worth anything. In 1779 it took 40
continentals to buy a single Spanish silver dollar. By 1781, a person needed 146 continentals to buy that Spanish coin. "Not worth a
continental” became a common saying. At the same time, the price of food and other goods soared. In Boston and some other areas,
high prices led to food riots.
In the 1780s, the Continental Congress faced a large debt. During the Revolutionary War, Congress had borrowed money from
American citizens and foreign governments. It still owed Revolutionary soldiers pay for their military service. Without the power to tax,
the Confederation could not easily raise money to pay its debts. The Continental Congress asked the states for money, but it could
not force the states to pay. In fact, the states provided less than half of the money the federal government asked them to contribute.
Plan for Import Tax
Congress faced a collapse of the country's finances. In 1781 it created a department of finance led by Philadelphia merchant Robert
Morris. While serving in Congress, Morris had proposed a 5 percent tax on imported goods to help pay the national debt. The plan
required a change to the Articles of Confederation. Twelve states approved the plan, but Rhode Island opposed it. Under the Articles,
the single "no” vote was enough to block the plan. A second effort in 1783 also failed to win approval by all the states. The financial
crisis grew worse.
Relations With Britain
Trouble with foreign governments also revealed the weaknesses of the American government. For example, American merchants
complained that the British were blocking Americans from the West Indies and other British markets. In the Treaty of Paris of 1783,
Britain had promised to withdraw from the lands east of the Mississippi River. British troops, however, continued to occupy several
forts in the Great Lakes region.
In 1785 Congress sent John Adams to London to discuss these problems. Adams found the British unwilling to talk. They pointed to
the failure of the United States to honor its promises made in the Treaty of Paris. The British claimed that Americans had agreed to
pay Loyalists for the property taken from them during the Revolutionary War. Congress had proposed that the states pay the
Loyalists. The states simply refused, and Congress could do nothing about it.
Relations With Spain
The United States had even greater problems with Spain. This European power, which controlled Florida as well as lands west of the
Mississippi River, wanted to stop American expansion into its territory. To do this, Spain closed the lower Mississippi River to
American shipping in 1784. Western settlers could no longer use the Mississippi River, which they relied on to ship goods to market.
In 1786 American diplomats reached a new trade agreement with Spain. Representatives from the Southern states, however,
blocked the agreement because it did not include the right to use the Mississippi River.
The weakness of the Confederation and its inability to deal with problems worried many leaders, including George Washington.
Americans began to agree that the country needed a stronger government.
Analyzing Why did Spain close the lower Mississippi River to American shipping in 1784?
LESSON 1 REVIEW
Review Vocabulary
1. Use each of these words in a sentence about the newly independent United States. LA.8.1.6.1
a. bicameral
b. republic
2. Explain the significance of the following words:
LA.8.1.6.1
a. ordinance
b. depreciate
Answer the Guiding Questions
3. Explaining Why did most states limit the power of their governors and divide their legislatures into two bodies? SS.8.A.3.9, LA.8.1.6.2
4. Specifying What were some of the successes of the Articles of Confederation? SS.8.A.3.9
5. Explaining What were the weaknesses of the Confederation government? SS.8.A.3.9
6. PERSUASIVE WRITING You are a delegate to the Second Continental Congress. Congress is debating whether to allow the
central government to impose taxes. Take a stand on this issue, and write a short essay defending your position. Give specific
reasons for your opinion. SS.8.A.3.9