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THE DEFINITION
OF CLEAN
The History of Safe Drinking Water in the United States
Beam, Longest and Neff
INTRODUCTION
Since the creation of early, crude drinking water systems, drinking
water treatment technologies, drinking water regulations and safe
drinking water definitions have continued to evolve. The evolution
of water treatment technologies and regulations was spurred
by new developments in analytical chemistry technologies. As
analytical chemistry technologies, such as gas chromatography and
high performance liquid chromatography, were coupled to mass
spectrometers, detection of a wider range of chemical classes of
contaminants (at detection levels in the parts per trillion (ng/L) range)
became possible. Thus, the community’s understanding about the
types of harmful substances present in our water supply has risen.
This paper presents a brief overview of early water treatment systems,
the evolution of Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) regulations, the
narrowing of the definition of clean water and a forecast of future
drinking water regulations.
Copyright © 2014 Beam, Longest and Neff, LLC.
All Rights Reserved.
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EARLY WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
The first municipal drinking water delivery system in the United States went into operation in 1799 in Philadelphia1.
By today’s standards, the initial water systems were crude. Disinfection was non-existent and distribution systems
were made from wooden pipes like the ones shown below.
Wooden water pipes from early 1800s, unearthed last year in lower
Manhattan (Photo by Joan Oeismar, with permission)
Wooden pipes were used to build early
water distribution systems.
EARLY WATER FILTRATION & DISINFECTION SYSTEMS
The use of sand filtration was the beginning of efforts to remove undesirable contaminants from water. Sand filtration
was not practiced in the United States until the 1890’s. The first use of chlorine for disinfection was in Jersey City,
New Jersey in 19082. Prior to disinfection practices, outbreaks of cholera and typhoid fever occurred frequently with
devastating effects; the frequency of outbreaks decreased once chlorination was established.
Filtration experiments began as
early as the 17th century, but the
first use of sand filters for drinking
water production did not occur
until 1829 in London3.
While sand filtration and chlorine disinfection
were effective in reducing turbidity and
bacteria in the water, thereby reducing cholera
outbreaks, it was much later in 1993 that these
same technologies failed to protect human
health in Milwaukee.
Source: http://esf.edu/ere/endreny/GICalculator/SandFilterIntro.html
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MILWAUKEE’S FILTRATION FAILURE
“The Worst Outbreak in US History”
If not properly operated, bacteria, viruses, Cryptosporidium
and Giardia (protozoa) can pass through sand filters. Unlike
bacteria and viruses, Cryptosporidium is not effectively
treated by chlorinating drinking water. In the worst outbreak
in US history, Cryptosporidium passed through Milwaukee’s
Howard Avenue Water Treatment Plant and contaminated
the City’s drinking water supply. Approximately 400,000
people became ill with Cryptosporidiosis, killing
approximately 100 people at the time4. This tragic event
resulted in a flurry of drinking water regulations that are
referred to as the Microbial/Disinfection
Byproducts Cluster.
CRYPTOSPORIDIOSIS
A protozoan infection found in animal or human
feces, causing fever and severe digestive issues.
The image on the left
is an example of what
Cryptosporidium look like after
they are extracted from the
water. They are only visible
under a microscope and have
an apple green fluorescence.
THE EVOLUTION OF DRINKING WATER REGULATIONS
As additional information was learned about germs, filtration and disinfection began to be implemented in the
late 19th and early 20th centuries, and regulations regarding the safety of potable water were also beginning to be
developed. In 1914, the US Public Health Service established a regulation for coliform bacteria. It was another 60
years before the US would have a Safe Drinking Water Act. The Safe Drinking Water Act regulation of 1974 was
limited to 23 microbiological and inorganic contaminants and interim standards for trihalomethane disinfection
byproducts (additional contaminants became regulated in 1986).
COLIFORM BACTERIA
Commonly used indicator
of bacteria for the quality
of water and foods.
As mentioned above, the outbreak of Cryptosporidiosis in Milwaukee ushered in
modern drinking water regulations. These included the Information Collection
Rule, Stage 1 and Stage 2 Disinfectants/Disinfection Byproducts Rules, the Interim
Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule, Long Term 1 and Long Term 2 Enhanced
Surface Water Treatment Rules and the Ground Water Rule. These regulations
were called the Microbial/Disinfection Byproducts Cluster.
MODERN DRINKING WATER REGULATIONS & CONTAMINANTS
The two most important events that led to a greater focus on the definition of clean
drinking water after the initial 1974 Safe Drinking Water Act, were the amendments
to the Safe Drinking Water Act in 1996 and the Microbial/Disinfection Byproducts
Cluster regulations. Among other requirements, the 1996 amendments directed EPA
to evaluate unregulated and “emerging” contaminants. EPA was required to identify
up to 30 contaminants every five years and mandate drinking water testing for the
selected contaminants from a sample of public water supplies across the nation.
There have been three Unregulated Contaminant Monitoring Rules to date.
Several types of contaminants have been studied during the Unregulated
Contaminant Monitoring Rules. EPA has reviewed microbiological contaminants
such as microsporidia, helicobacter pylori and viruses, flame retardants, pesticides
and pesticide metabolites, explosives, newly discovered disinfection byproducts,
hormones, volatile organics, inorganics, metals and products of radioactive decay
such as lead-210 and polonium-210.
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THE DISCOVERY OF ENDOCRINE DISRUPTORS
Prior to, and concurrent with, EPA’s Unregulated Contaminant Monitoring Rules, studies began to show that mixtures
of chemicals were present in water sources in the parts per trillion (ng/L) range. As additional information became
available on waterborne contaminants, it was noted that some of the chemicals were having an adverse effect on
wildlife and people. Some of these newly discovered chemicals act like estrogen in human bodies and disrupt natural
endocrine system functioning.
In November of 2012, EPA published a list of contaminants called the Endocrine Disruptor Screening Program
Universe of Chemicals. This list contains approximately 10,000 potential contaminants that come from a variety
of different chemical classes. All of the contaminants on the list may not be harmful, but this list represents a
starting point for further study. EPA has begun testing 67 of these contaminants for endocrine disrupting effects.
Evaluation of contaminants in the Endocrine Disruptor Screening Program Universe of Chemicals will likely spur future
drinking water regulations.
THE FUTURE OF DRINKING WATER REGULATIONS
The future of drinking water regulations will likely be influenced by additional advancements in detection of trace
levels of the tens of thousands of possible contaminants that may be in natural waters. There are thousands
of pharmaceuticals, metabolites of pharmaceuticals, pesticides and pesticide metabolites, disinfection byproducts,
algal toxins, and other contaminants not yet included in EPA’s Endocrine Disruptor Screening Program Universe
of Chemicals.
While the Endocrine Disruptor Screening Program Universe of Chemicals is broad, there are notable absences.
When pharmaceuticals are taken, they are excreted as many metabolites. Pesticides also break down into numerous
metabolites through interaction with microbes, air, sunlight and water in the environment. The existing universe
of chemicals is missing many of these contaminants. Furthermore, as technology advances, many new types of
contaminants are created. An example of this is the emergence of nano technology. Nano participles will likely
become a major water quality concern in the future.
Nano particles represent a major threat to water supplies. The ability to dope
a nano particle with chemicals is both a great advance in chemistry and a
potential disaster for drinking water safety. Uncontrolled, or in the wrong
hands, nano technology could result in widespread illness and unintended
consequences for public health. Regulatory agencies have not yet formed a
strategy to regulate these particles toward the goal of protecting human health.
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HITTING THE “WATER QUALITY BULLSEYE”
Observing the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) regulations is similar to viewing a dart board, with the center of the
dartboard representing the “Water Quality Bullseye”. Once the drinking water treatment industry is able to achieve
a level of water quality that protects public health from a wide array of emerging contaminants and endocrine
disrupting compounds, it will hit the “Water Quality Bullseye”.
ENDOCRINE DISRUPTORS RULE?
1914 US Public Health Service Regulates Coliform Bacteria
1962 US Public Health Service Issues Standards
for 28 Contaminants
2013 BLN Adds Missing Pharmaceuticals,
Pharmaceutical Metabolites, Pesticide
Metabolites, Fragrances, Algal Toxins and
Disinfection Byproducts to EPA's List
1974 Safe Drinking Water Act
1976 National Primary Drinking
Water Regulations
1979 Total Trihalomethanes
Regulated
2013 & Beyond
Rules In Progress Perchlorate, VOCs
1979 Secondary Standards
1986 Fluoride Standard
Revised
2013 Total Coliform
Rule, Revised
1987 - Phase I VOCs
2012 Unregulated
Contaminant
Monitoring Rule
3 (UCMR 3)
1989 Total Coliform
Rule, Revised
November, 2012 EPA
Releases Endocrine
Disruptor Screening
Program Universe
of Chemicals
1989 Surface Water
Treatment Rule
THE
FUTURE
1991 Phase II VOCs,
SOCs and IOCs
2010 Second List
of Endocrine
Disrupting Chemicals
1991 Lead and Copper
Rule
1992 Phase V - VOCs,
SOCs and IOCs
2009 Initial List
of Endocrine
Disrupting Chemicals
1995 - Nickel is Remanded
2007 Unregulated Contaminant
Monitoring Rule 2 (UCMR 2)
1996 Amendments to Safe
Drinking Water Act
2006 Stage 2 Disinfectant/
Disinfection Byproducts Rule
1996 The Information Collection
Rule (ICR)
2006 Long Term 2 Enhanced Surface Water
Treatment Rule
2006 Ground Water Rule
1998 Stage I Disinfectant/Disinfection
Byproducts Rule
2002 Long Term 1 Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule
2001 Unregulated Contaminant
Monitoring Rule 1 (UCMR 1)
1998 Interim Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule
2001 Filter
Backwash
Recycling
Rule
2001
Arsenic
Revised
2000 Radionuclides
Rule
As the bullseye shows, efforts to regulate drinking water quality have been undertaken since 1914, and the
definition of “clean” water has gotten narrower as time has progressed. Development of new analytical
technologies has allowed for detection of trace level contaminants at the parts per trillion (ng/L or ppt) level.
As our understanding of pollution has progressed, the range of regulated contaminants has increased greatly.
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KEY POINTS IN US DRINKING WATER HISTORY
1799
First municipal
drinking water
delivery system.
1890’s
Sand filtration
introduced.
1908
First use of chlorine
for disinfection.
1914
1974
Safe Drinking
Water Act (SDWA)
enacted.
1993
Milwaukee
Cryptosporidium
outbreak.
1996-2006
Microbial/Disinfection
Byproducts Cluster
Regulations enacted.
US Public Health
Service Regulation
for coliform
bacteria.
1986
Additional
contaminants
regulated.
1996
Amendments
to the SDWA Unregulated
contaminant
monitoring required.
2012
Endocrine Disruptor
Screening Program
Universe of Chemicals
published by EPA.
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CONCLUSION
By reviewing the history of drinking water regulations, it is clear that the
definition of clean water has evolved over time. Advances in analytical
technology have shown that natural waters contain many contaminants.
In response, EPA is now focused on emerging contaminants and potential
endocrine disrupting compounds. It is expected that future drinking water
regulations for these contaminants will continue to evolve.
REFERENCES
1. 25 Years of the Safe Drinking Water Act: History and Trends. http://
permanent.access.gpo.gov/websites/epagov/www.epa.gov/saf
water/consumer/trendrpt.pdf (Accessed 2/5/2014)
2. “The History of Drinking Water Treatment” US Environmental
Protection Agency. EPA-816-F-00-006. February 2000. http://
www.epa.gov/safewater/consumer/pdf/hist.pdf (Accessed 2/5/2014)
3. “History of water filters”. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of
water_filters (Accessed 2/5/2014)
4. “1993 Milwaukee Cryptosporidiosis outbreak”. http://en.wikipe
dia.org/wiki/1993_Milwaukee_Cryptosporidiosis_outbreak
(Accessed 2/5/2014)
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