Download Cleopatra

TimeLine
69 BC
Cleopatra VII born in Alexandria
51BC
Ptolemy Auletes dies - his will give kingdom to daughter, Cleopatra VII & her younger brother Ptolemy XIII
48 BC
Cleopatra is dethroned by Theodatas and Achillas. Murder of Popmey. Reinstatment of Cleopatra by
Caesar of the Alexandrine War
47 BC
Caesarion (Ptolemy Caesar) born
46 BC
Cleopatra goes to Rome
44 BC
43 BC
Assassination of Caesar & Cleopatra returns to Egypt
Formation of Triumvirate (Antony, Octavian and Lepidus)
41 BC
40 BC
Antony meets Cleopatra in Tarsus and follows her to Egypt
Triumvirate partition the Mediterranean (O= Western provinces, A = Eastern and L = Africa)
36 BC
Elimination of Lepidus = Octavian now controls Africa
34 BC
Antony makes the Donations of Alexandria to Cleopatra’s children
32 BC
31 BC
30 BC
Antony divorces Octavia, The western provinces become allies to Octavian & declare war on Cleopatra
Battle of Actium (Octavian wins). Antony and Cleopatra seek refuge at Alexandria
Octavian Alexandria win making Egypt a roman province, Suicide of Antony and Cleopatra (August 12)
1. Historical Context
a. Geography, topography and resources of Ptolemaic Egypt and its neighbours
Ptolemaic Empire
 After the death of Alexander the Great, his empire was thrown into disarray (323
BC) due to lack of heirs
 Divided intro three kingdoms ruled by members of the Macedonian aristocracy:
o Macedonia
o Seleucid Empire of Asia Minor and the Levant
o Ptolemaic Egypt
 These empires fought bitterly over land and prestige
o Intermarried between to form alliance -> although they shifted constantly
o Egypt emerged as the most prosperous
 The Ptolemaic kingdom extended from:
o Syria to the East
o Cyrene to the West
o Nubia to the South
Alexandria
 Found by Alexander in 331 BC
 Highly prosperous port city with access to the Mediterranean Sea
 Encouraged science, art and trade
 Largest city in the ancient world at the time of Cleopatra
o Marble monuments, palaces, theatres, amphitheatres, temples
o Library and Museum of Alexandria, largest in the ancient world
o The Lighthouse of Alexandria and causeway
 Crossroads of Europe, Asia and Africa
o Huge range of products: ivory, spices, foodstuff, arts etc.
 Three primary ethnic groups
o The Greek community
 Lived in the centre of the city
 Privileged minority
o The Jewish community
o The Egyptians
 Grid street layout similar to Greek cities
 Strabo: “the greatest emporium in the inhabited world”
Native Egyptians
 Lived in country towns and villages along the Nile
 Primarily farmers
 Builders, traders and craftworkers
Resources
 Largest producer of grain in the Mediterranean world
 Rick in vegetable oils and exporter of papyrus and linen
 Alexandria’s location promoted exportation
o Cotton, corn, barley, flax and rice
o Limestone, gypsum, alabaster, copper, iron, granite and tin
Nile
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Annual flooding and transportation of silt
Flowing water through Alexandria
o Quality of water and air (no stagnant marshes)
o Systems of canals, reservoirs and filters provided clean water for the city
b. Egypt’s relationships with Rome and with neighbouring Eastern powers
Rome
 Rome at this time was rapidly expanding through Europe and into Africa and the
East
o Establishing client-kingdoms and provinces
 Egypt represented a valued prize for Rome
o A gateway into Africa and Asia
o Almost guaranteed prosperous grain supply
o Still strong military strength
o Rich in resources – gold and other minerals
 By the time of Cleopatra, Egypt was in steep decline in terms of its power and
Rome had already outpaced Alexandria as a leading cosmopolitan
Ptolemy VI Philometer
 First to seek Roman support after his younger brother challenged him for the
throne
Ptolemy X Alexander
 Began borrowing large sums from Rome – Egypt began amassing a large debt
 Left all of Egypt to Rome in his will as repayment, although the it never occurred
o Shows Egypt’s dependence on Rome and Rome restraint from full
annexation
Independence
 Egypt was allowed to keep its independence since there was the risk that a Roman
governor of Egypt would be able to amass enough wealth and power to challenge
Rome itself
c. Overview of Ptolemaic Egypt’s political and social structure
Greek Dominance
 Since Ptolemy I founded the Ptolemaic empire, all of Egypt political and economic
activates were dominated by Greeks
 Greeks made up one fifth of the total population
 Land use strictly run and supervised by Greek officials
o Help monopoly over all produce, businesses and workshop
o Land cultivated by native Egyptians
 Introduced system of coins – replaced Deben
 Controlled the banks and treasuries
Agriculture
 Greek agricultural techniques and equipment bought by military colonists resulted
in an improved agricultural output by the country
 Wheat and barley were the main crops, with large amounts of exportation
2. Background and rise to prominence
a. Family background and feuds
Ptolemy I
 Started the Ptolemaic bloodline
 Strengthened his control of Egypt using both military and religious strategies
 Sought to synchronise Greek and Egyptian religion
o Formation of Ruler Cult
Ptolemy II
 Married sister, Arsinoe II and associated her with the kingship and also became a
god - Initiated custom of Brother-Sister marriage
Ptolemy XII Auletes – Cleopatra’s Father
 Heavily disliked by Alexandrians and Egyptians due to heavy tax collection and
sending huge sums of money to Rome for their support
 Revolts by farmers, economic problems, corruption and the deterioration of the
nation’s finances
 Rome’s military presence increased and Egypt’s dependence on Rome increased
 Rome ceased Cyprus to pay debt - 58BC Alexandrians rioted and kicked Auletes
out of Egypt
o Fled to Rome and Berenice IV became queen
Berenice IV – Cleopatra’s Older Sister
 Alexandrian’s place Berenice IV (Auletes eldest daughter) on the throne
 The Roman governor of Syria, Gabinius used his army to restore Auletes in
exchange for 10,000 talents
o Used army to reinstate Auletes and execute Berenice
 Gabinius leaves Egypt, leaving behind a military guard
Cleopatra’s Early Reign
 51 BC Auletes dies from sickness Cleopatra and Ptolemy XIII take the throne
 The first two years of her reign were tense, even though no one directly challenged
her she still had powerful enemies
 Pothinius – Ptolemy XIII chief advisor
o Disliked how Cleopatra did not consult him in important decision making
o Ptolemy was demanding his share of power
o She would display her power by minting coins with her profile without
Ptolemy shown
 In the first two years of her reign, the Nile failed to flood.
o Caused crop failures and famines
b. Education
Early Education
 Raised in royal women’s apartments and followed a centuries old system of
education that prepared them to rule alongside their husbands
 Female curriculum was the same as the males
 Sought to nurture Greek culture
o Studied classical Greek literature
 Cleopatra educated in the art of rhetoric, science, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy
and medicine
o She was a gifted drawer and could play the lyre
Language
 Cleopatra was particularly talented in foreign languages
 One of few in the royal family who could speak numerous languages – allowed for
international negotiations
 Plutarch: listed the languages spoken, saying she could “pass from one language to
another”
o “Ethiopians, Troglodytes, Hebrew, Arabians, Syrians, Medes, Parthians and
many others”
c. Marriage practice of the Ptolemies
Brother-sister Marriage: An Egyptian Tradition
 The practice of brother-sister marriage had long been a tradition in Egyptian
culture and royal family
 This practice was adopted by the Ptolemies at the start of their empire
 Allowed for no major diluting of the Greek blood line
 Most siblings were not directly related (half or step siblings)
 Ptolemy XIII was 12 at the time of his marriage to Cleopatra
o Evidence that the marriage was never consummated
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Scullard: did not have an equal alliance, as shown by archaeological evidence.
Cleopatra constantly ignored her co-regent’s presence by excluding his name from
any official decree regardless of the Ptolemaic insistence that the male presence be
first among co-rulers.
d. Role and image of royal Ptolemaic women
Status of women
 Even though it was tradition in Greek that women had less freedom than women,
the mixing with Egyptian cult allowed women to exercise more independence
 Poetry and plays portray women’s status and activities in daily life
 Figures display women dancing, reading and talking
 Women could become priestesses or even honorific magistrates, philosophers,
artists and poets
 Could become rich and undertake projects in their own name
Royal Women
 Women in the royal household were just as active as men, they were allowed to
ascend to the throne and co-rule with their husbands
 Cleopatra wore a tall headdress of gold plumes (a symbol of Amun) with a sun
disk, a pair of horns (symbols of Hathor and Isis) and a gold cobra (symbol of
Wadjet)
 Cleopatra used religion to support her claims to the throne
o Constantly aligned herself with Isis – the mother goddess of Egypt
o She payed homage to Egyptian gods and placed funds in Egyptian temples
Rome’ Perceptions of Cleopatra
 Personified many of the qualities Roman society found inappropriate for women
 Seen as presumptuous, promiscuous and lavish in her way of life
o Roman’s preferred a much simpler lifestyle than the courts of Egypt
Past Cleopatra’s
 Cleopatra I: Co-ruled with husband during his life
 Cleopatra II: Strong support from Jewish and Egyptian population, the army and
native Alexandrians
o Ruled on her own for a period
 Cleopatra III: power struggles with her sons
o Promoted herself as Isis, Cybele and Aphrodite
e. Significance of the ruler cult in the East
Rulers Cult
 Founded by Ptolemy I who adopted the style and divinity of ancient pharaohs
o Sought to synchronise Greek and Egyptian religion
o Consolidated his reign – worshipped as god
Cleopatra
 Viewed as a living goddess – worshipped by Egyptian and Greek priests
 Shortly after she became queen, she travelled down the Nile with one of the sacred
bulls of the Buchis temple
o Believed to be Amun in animal form
o Showed Cleopatra’s respect for Egyptian gods
 She needed the support of the priests as they belonged to the rich, powerful
families
o Cleopatra gave generous gifts to prominent temples
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Kleiner suggests that Cleopatra was conscious of the imagery of various events and
occasions:
o Trip down the Nile with Caesar in 47BC as a great opportunity to publicise
their alliance and combined authority
o Birth of Caesarion, she immediately reinforced her association with Isis and
Caesar’s family association with Venus by producing coins
o Birth temples or ‘mammisi’ reinforced link between Caesarion and Horus
3. Career
a. Civil war in Rome and Pompey’s murder
Civil War
 In 49 BC Julius Caesar and his once close friend Pompey became rivals for supreme
power of Rome
 Caesar lead army into Italy – illegal act of aggression that starts civil war
o Becomes enemy of the state
o Refuses to give his army back to the state
o Senate allows Pompey to oppose Caesar
 Put pressure of Eastern kingdoms as Roman leaders demanded money and troops
in return for their future support in order to fuel the war effort
o Pompey asked for the Ptolemies aid, who sent 60 ships and 500 troops
Egypt’s Instability
 Caesar wins a decisively at the Battle of Pharsalus over Pompey
o Pompey flees to Egypt where he hopes for support
 Pompey is murdered by Ptolemy XIII men on arrival
o Advised by Pothinius who believed it would make Ptolemy favourable to
Caesar
 Caesar reportedly wept, lamented and denounced the murders when he saw the
head of Pompey
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Plutarch: “It was tragic that the fate of Pompey the Great be decided by three men
(Achillas, Theodotus and Pothinus)”
Chauveau: suggests that Caesar’s distress over Pompey’s murder was feigned
o Saved Caesar criticism for the necessary execution
b. Co-regency with Ptolemy XIII and Alexandrian civil war
Co-regency
 Auletes’ death: Ptolemy XIII was only ten, thus co-rule with Cleopatra who was 18
 Ptolemy XIII was only pharaoh by name, for the first three years of their rule
Cleopatra was nearly completely dominant
o Gave edicts, orders and instructions, aided by courtiers
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The country at this time was fought with difficulties
o Corruption in Egyptian bureaucracy
o Indigenous people unsettles and unsatisfied
o Famines and bandits pillaging the countryside and rebellions
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Tension also existed within the royal family
o Cleopatra’s younger sister Arsinoe desired the throne
o Ptolemy XIII’s advisors (Pothinus, Achillas and Theodotus) wished to
dethrone Cleopatra
Cleopatra devalued the current by a third in order to increase the exports
necessary to kick state the Egyptian economy
She was determined to avoid a war with Rome which would have been disastrous
for Egypt
Revolt
 In 48 BC Cleopatra is forced to flee Alexandria after discovering plot to kill her
(organised by Pothinus and Ptolemy)
o Seek refuge among the Arab tribes east of Egypt’s border
 Cleopatra was able to raise an army of mercenaries and led them against Ptolemy’s
troops at Mount Cassius, although Pompey’s unexpected arrival occurred before
the confrontation
Meeting Caesar
 Cleopatra takes advantage of Caesar’s arrival in Alexandria to meet him and gain
his support in the sister-brother feud
 Caesar becomes entranced by Cleopatra’s famous carpet entrance and goes on to
support her goal to become to sole ruler of Egypt. – Recorded by Plutarch
 Caesar tried to resolve the conflict by re-reading Auletes will, saying that the two
were to live together and co-rule, as followed by Egyptian customs
Alexandrian Civil War
 Cleopatra, Caesar and Ptolemy lived together in Alexandria for a time, Cleopatra on
the throne while Ptolemy had little authoritative power
o Ptolemy (along with Arsinoe and Pothinus) continue to oppose Cleopatra
 Pothinus begins to plot against Caesar, although is discovered and executed
 At the same time, Arsinoe escapes Alexandria to join forces with General Achillas
and the Egyptian army who are planning to march against Caesar
 Cleopatra immediately sided with Caesar, while Ptolemy XIII used conspirators
and elaborate lies to turn the Alexandrians against Cleopatra
 48 BC Achillas marches 20,000 Egyptian infantry and 2000 cavalry against Caesar
o The palace was under siege by the Egyptian army
o Ptolemy joins the army and a full civil war begins
 72 Egyptian warships and 50 Roman ships were anchored in the harbour
o Caesar ordered for them all to be set on fire
o The fire spread to the quays, burning many buildings and granaries and
damaging the Library
 The battle continued in the streets of Alexandria for many weeks
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Reinforcement arrived from Rome and were able to force the Egyptians towards
the Nile, where many drowned
Ptolemy XIII is one such drowned
Arsinoe is sent into exile at the Temple of Artemus
With Ptolemy dead and the Civil War won, Cleopatra marries Ptolemy XIV to
reconfirm her power
Southern explain that Cleopatra was now free from rivals and protected by the
most powerful individual in the world
c. Relationship with Julius Caesar
Caesar
 Caesar was famous all through his life for his love affairs which allowed Cleopatra
the opportunity to form an intimate alliance
 After the death of Pompey he was the most powerful individual in Rome, which
made him a strongly desired ally with Cleopatra
 Gives Cleopatra a chance at a wider role in the world outside of Egypt
Meeting Caesar
 When Caesar arrives in Alexandria, he orders both Cleopatra and Ptolemy XIII to
disband their armies and meet him for peaceful negotiation
 Cleopatra knew that if she was to openly travel into the city, Ptolemy’s henchmen
would assassinate her
o Travel in by rug, charms Caesar and become lovers that night
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Plutarch: “Caesar was first captivated by Cleopatra’s bold wit and was afterwards so
overcome by the charm of her society”
Southern: Rather than succumbing to her scheming and being deceived by the ‘evil
temptress’, Caesar probably reviewed the available royal talent and decided that
she was the “most sensible, knowledgeable, conscientious, independent and
resourceful of the four”. In a word, the most fit to rule.
Post-Civil War
 After the civil war, Caesar had control over Alexandria which he bestowed again to
Cleopatra
o Caesar could have kept the kingdom of Egypt to himself, although bestowed
all of it back to Cleopatra and even gave away Roman territory in the
process
 Cleopatra was secure for the first time
o Enemies were dead or defeated and had promised protection from Caesar
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The two enjoyed a two-month cruise on the Nile
o This gave Cleopatra a chance to show off the strength of her alliance with
Caesar to the Egyptian people
Becomes pregnant with Caesarion at this time and gave birth to him in 47 BC
The poet Lucan paints an image of the decadences of life in Alexandria and the
extravagance of their tastes
Travel to Rome
 After the cruise Caesar returns to Rome, leaving three legions in Alexandria to
protect Cleopatra
 A year later, he invites Cleopatra to Rome, who arrives in 46 BC with Caesarion and
Ptolemy XIV
o She claims she is negotiating a peace treaty between Egypt and Rome but
she also wanted to ensure Caesar’s protection
o Brought Ptolemy as she didn’t want him or his advisors to cease power
when she was gone
 Caesar had accepted a lifelong dictatorship in 44 BC, sat on a golden throne in the
Senate and was rumoured to wish to be king of Rome and overthrow the Senate
 She was declared a friend and ally of the Roman people and Egypt was protected
from annexation
 Caesar erects a statue of Cleopatra in the temple of Venus Genetrix
o Integration of Cleopatra into Roman tradition
o Southern: an elevation beyond what any woman could hope to attain
Marriage Possibility
 Apparently Caesar wished to pass a law to make it legal to marry Cleopatra
 Cleopatra would have strongly wished to marry Caesar
o She was the mother of his only living heir
o It would tie Rome and Egypt together and secure her power and protection
o Would likely make Caesarion future king of both empires
Disapproval of Cleopatra
 The Roman elites strongly disliked Cleopatra:
o She represented a shift towards a monarchy of Rome, which threatened the
republican aristocracy
o The threat of foreign Oriental ways tainting ‘Roman society’
 Cicero: “I hate the Queen. The Queen’s insolence too when she was living in Caesar’s
house in the gardens beyond the Tiber, I cannot recall without indignation.”
 It was thought that it was Cleopatra who encouraged Caesar to use force to
become a dictator
Ides of March 44BC
 Caesar is murdered in the Senate building by a crowd of conspirators who had
become fearful of his growing power
o Cleopatra, aware of her danger fled back to Egypt
 Before or immediately after their return to Egypt, Ptolemy XIV dies
o Possibly poisoned at Cleopatra’s command
o Makes Caesarion her co-regent
 Rome returns to a bloody civil war
 42 BC: formation of the Second Triumvirate between Octavian (Caesar’s great
nephew and adopted heir), Antony and Lepidus
 Antony takes control of Eastern Mediterranean region, which includes Egypt
Return to Alexandria
 Cleopatra was once more in danger as her protector was dead and many hostile
nations way Egypt as a rich prize and hoped to conquer it
 Fearful that Caesar’s enemies would attempt to murder her and Caesarion
 She tries to win the support of the Alexandrian nobles
o Offering rich rewards
o Threw money and gifts into the crowd
 Many viewed her as a traitor for her relationship with Caesar had her two years
spend in Rome
o Angry that Cleopatra did not assist the famine victims
d. Relationship with Mark Antony:
The Second Triumvirate – 42BC
 Antony: long and decorated military career, trusted consul of Caesar, admired for
loyalty and honest, control of East
o Suetonius: “the gentlest and kindest of soldiers
o Travels to the East to consolidate support
 Octavian: young, little military experience, adopted heir of Caesar (rejects
Caesarion)
Meeting between Antony and Cleopatra – 41BC
 Antony summons Cleopatra to his military camp in Tarsus to question her about
whether she had assisted his enemies, primarily Cassius
o This was largely a pretext to meet Cleopatra and gain her military and
financial support for the growing power struggle between himself and
Octavian
 Antony also had wished to invade Parthia, thus emanating the conquests of
Alexander the Great. This military achievement would make him the obvious
power among the triumvirate
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Plutcarch gives detail on the meeting
Even though Antony invites Cleopatra multiple times, she ignored these invitations
and comes on her own accord “as if in mockery of them”
She sailed a barge up the river that with “money, gifts and ornaments of value, such
as so wealthy a kingdom might afford”
o She herself was dressed in the image of Venus, attended to by Cupids and
Sea Nymphs
o “Venus was come to feast with Bacchus [Antony]”
Antony invites Cleopatra to dine with him, although refuses and makes Antony
come to her.
Cleopatra answers to allegation of supporting Cassius
o She explains she sent four of her Roman legions to aid in the battle against
Cassius and would have sent ships if the weather permitted
An alliance was formed
o He needed Egypt’s resources to aid his ambitions of conquest in Parthia
o He represented Roman protection her. Antony sent an assassin to kill
Arisone IV (her last rival to the throne)
Winter in Alexandria
 Plutarch suggests the Antony was seduced to Cleopatra and “carried away be her to
Alexandria, there to keep holiday”
 There he forgot his responsibility and was wasting the time and money when he
was meant to be invading Parthia and consolidating his support in Rome
o Octavian has an opportunity to build a strong support group in Rome and
consolidate his resources
o They engaging in luxuries, behaving “like a boy, in play and diversion,
squandering and fooling away in enjoyments most costly”
o Romans found Antony’s adoption of Alexandrian customs disturbing.
o Cleopatra never left Antony’s side for the rest of the year
 Amimetobis – ‘Inimitable life’
o A group of intellectual and social elite, devoted to pursuing an endless joy,
freedom and intoxication of life
 Grant: The official coinage link Antony and Cleopatra, not only as God’s, but as
human leaders in the partnership of Romans and Greeks
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By winter of the next year, Antony left Egypt due to growing tensions elsewhere in
the empire
o Parthian armies had occupied southern Asia Minor, Syria and Judea,
becoming an increasing threat to Rome
o He was loosing support in Rome due to Octavian
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Six months after Antony had left, Cleopatra gave birth to twins, Cleopatra Selene
and Alexander Helios
It was four years until she saw Antony again, through which time he had married
Octavia
o This was a political marriage arranged by Octavian in order to tie Antony to
their family and discourage further relationships is Cleopatra
o Suetonius: “marriage was an alliance between families. Octavian arranged a
marriage between his sister Octavia”
Antony Leaves
 Antony and Octavian spend 39BC – 37 BC in Athens. During this time, tensions
between the two men increased though war was narrowly averted through
Octavia’s pacifying interventions
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Antony, Octavian and Lepidus meet in Tarentum in 37BC and renew the
triumvirate for 5 more years
o Octavian gives Antony two of his legions to assist in the Parthian wars,
Antony repays him with 100 armed galleys
o Octavian goes to fight Sextus, Pompey’s son in Sicily
o Antony sets sail for Asia
Antony Returns
 Antony leaves Italy and sails to the Syrian city of Antioch
o Uncertain whether this was due to plan for an expedition against Parthia or
to be reunited with Cleopatra and renew their alliance
 In 36 BC Antony and Cleopatra are married in Antioch under Egyptian laws
 Cleopatra doesn’t lose sight if her political ambitions and asks Antony to give her
the territories of Coele-Syria and Judea
o Antony denies although still gives her Chalcis, the Syrian coast, Cyrus and a
number of other scattered areas
 Later that year, with the financial and military backing of Cleopatra, Antony moves
to engage the Parthians
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Cleopatra returns to Alexandria and mints coins to commemorate her enlarged
empire. They depict Cleopatra and Antony as Dionysus and Aphrodite, or Osiris
and Isis
o Cleopatra gives birth to Ptolemy Philadelphus
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Antony suffers a heavy defeat in Parthia – 36 BC
o Forced to retreat in the midst of an icy winter
o Many of his army killed by dysentery, hunger, cold and Parthian archers
o He lost 20,000 infantry and 40,000 cavalry
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Antony’s infatuation with Cleopatra have been said to have been one of the causes
for defeat
o Began too late in the season (close to winter) because he didn’t want to
leave her
o Conducted a rushed and haphazard assault because he wished to quickly
return to her
Cleopatra arrived with provision, clothing and money, taking the survivors back to
Alexandria
Cleopatra and Diplomacy
 During 35 BC, Cleopatra engaging in many diplomatic dealings with surrounding
states
o Alliance with Armenian king, sealed by the betrothal of her son Alexander
Helios with the king’s daughter
o Allows asylum for Alexandra, Herod’s mother in law
o Treaty with King of Media that allows Cleopatra and Antony to reclaim lost
parts of Syria and would supply Egypt with Cavalry troops
Antony and Octavia
 Octavia wished to visit Antony, for she had remained loyal to him even though he
was bigamous
 Cleopatra refused to allow them to meet
o Plutarch describes the dramatic behaviour she performed to get her way
 Antony cancels the meets and Octavia returns to Rome
 The Roman people were disgusted by this treatment of Octavia and angry about
Antony and Cleopatra’s claims to divinity
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This outrage in Rome was heightened by the donations of Alexandria and
acknowledging Casearion as Caesars true son and heir
With this anger against Antony, Octavian was able to easily convince the Senate to
declare war on Egypt and Antony
Eastern acquisitions and the ‘donations’ of Alexandria
Acquisitions
 Antony had planned to set a new empire in North Africa and the Middle East to
challenge Rome
o Cleopatra supported him as this would greatly increase her power and
influence of Egypt
o She wished to reclaim Syria, Lebanon, Phoenicia and parts of Asia Minor
 Antony installed local kings loyal to him, thus expanding his and Cleopatra’s
sphere of influence – wished to create stable political climate
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Romans were critical of the favour Antony showed to Cleopatra
o By giving her territory, he was taking land away from Roman governors
These expansions meant Cleopatra was better equip to assist Antony’s military
ambitions
o Had greater access to timbre needed to supply a powerful navy
Defeat in Parthia (36BC)
o Cost Antony and Cleopatra vast sums of money, significant portion of their
army and also some of his pride
o Cleopatra paid the troops as there was no plunder/ booty
o Major set-back in ambitions for Eastern control
o “Depleted his war-fund and sapping his self-reliance, made him for dependent
on Cleopatra’s financial assistance” - Cary
Donations
 After the conquest of Armenia (34BC), Antony did not hold a triumph in Rome,
instead commemorated his victory in Alexandria
 The ceremony:
o Procession of Armenian king in gold chains
o Public banquets
o Antony wore a crown of ivy, a gold robe, boots that characterised him as a
god, carried an staff and rode a sacred chariot
o Procession culminated with a presentation of Antony’s spoils of war to
Cleopatra
o Both sat on golden thrones as titles and territories were granted to
Cleopatra and their children
 Coins feature Antony as “Armenian conqueror” and Cleopatra “Queen of Kings”
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These proclamations were sent to the Senate for confirmation, although were
denied
o Many of the regions were Roman territories and although he controlled
them, they were not his to give away
Honours, Titles and Announcements
Cleopatra
- Antony proclaimed her Queen of Egypt, Cyprus, Libya and
central Syria.
Caesarian (13 years old)
- He was still Cleopatra’s co-ruler; was officially
proclaimed the son of Caesar and was given the title of
King of Kings.
Alexander Helios (Aged 6)
- He was declared king of Armenia and overlord of Media
and the Parthian territory extending as far as India.
- He received an honour guard of Armenian soldiers.
- Would marry the King of Media’s daughter and gain the
throne there as well
Cleopatra Selene (Aged 6)
- She received parts of Cyrenaica and parts of Crete.
Ptolemy Philadelphis (aged 2) - He received Phoenicia, Syria and Cilicia.
- He received an honour guard of Macedonian soldiers.
e. Conflict with Octavian: The Battle of Actium
Lead up
 During 32BC Octavian became is intense Roman propaganda campaign to provoke
war against Antony and Cleopatra
o Lucan: “Cleopatra…the lascivious fury who was to become the bane of Rome”
o Plutrach: “Antonius, like Hercules in the picture where Omphale is seen
removing his club… was over and over again disarmed by Cleopatra and
beguiled away
o Dio: “Let no one count him a Roman, but rather an Egyptian”
 Rumours:
o The Caesarion was not Caesar’s son
o Antony engaged in orgies with Cleopatra
o He was under the spell of a sorceress
 In 32BC, Antony and Cleopatra were living in their strong military base in Ephesus
(Turkey)
o Cleopatra appeared publicly as a queen, dispensed justice, escorted by
Roman soldiers, presided over meetings and reviewed troops
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Antony wished to avoid conflict and remain in senatorial law, although after a
report of the ‘donations’, Antony’s divorce Octavia and his will to be “buried in
Alexandria by [Cleopatra’s] side” (Dio); Octavian, the Senate and the Roman people
all reacted violently
o Due to this, many of those who still on Antony’s side went back to Octavian
o Antony was stripped of his authority and Octavian made a spectacle of his
declaration of war against Cleopatra and Antony
The Battle
Support
Infantry
Archers
Cavalry
Navy
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Antony and Cleopatra
o Libya
o Cilicia
o Arabia
General: Canidius
20,000 infantry as well as
additional auxiliary troops
2,000
12,000
290 Roman ships (mostly large
battle ships with 30-50
Transports)
60 Egyptian Warships
Octavian
o Gaul
o Africa
o Sicily
o Sardina
General: Marcus Agrippa
16,000 infantry
3,000
12,000
400 warships (mostly small liburnian
vessels)
Octavian’s forces arrive in Greece, patrolling the coast, fighting Antony’s soldiers,
capturing his forts and sinking his ships
He was able to trap the bulk of Antony and Cleopatra’s fleet in the gulf of
Ambracian
o Food and water supplies where blocked
o The area as marshy and damp and during the summer many became ill with
malaria
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Octavian aimed to lure Antony out of the Ambracian gulf to surround and
overpower him with a much larger fleet
By September, the situation had become desperate and they had two options
1. Attack by land – Antony’s land forces were superior, more experience and
Antony was more of an experienced general
2. Break through their navy – Antony and Cleopatra’s navy was smaller,
although their ships were larger and they had a chance to break through
their blockade with speed
The first plan would seem more logical although they decide on the second plan,
likely due to suggestions made by Cleopatra
Agrippa was able to quickly outflank and surround Antony’s larger and slower
ships, although in doing so he created a gap that allowed Cleopatra to escape (and
her 60 ships) and followed by Antony (with about 20 ships)
Why Cleopatra escapes (three myths spread by victors – Grant)
1. Cleopatra had “betrayed” Antony, her escape was not organised, and “she
wished to save herself” at the first sign of defeat
2. Antony deserted his troops because he was “hopelessly infatuated”
a. Propertius: “how infamous a love was she/ Who bade him turn his
ships and flee”
3. The battle was complete exaggerated by Octavian’s propaganda which
wished to display it is the climactic defeat of Antony and Cleopatra and thus
the consolidation of the empire
a. Virgil: “the whole ocean boiled…high mountains crashed against high
mountain”
There is also the modern interpretation that this escape was prearranged
The rest of Antony’s forces where quick to surrender or be destroyed
Wallace-Hardill:
o “It was a battle for Roman values ”
o “Antony was (almost) an innocent victim”
Goedecke says Cleopatra can be held accountable for the war since the idea of civil
war was hated by Romans
Aftermath
 After the battle, Antony and Cleopatra return to Alexandria where Antony lives
alone for a time while Cleopatra prepared for an invasion of Rome
o Octavian did not have enough gold to pay his armies so he could not invade
immediately
o Many of Cleopatra’s ships were burned by supports of Octavian, making
escape was impossible - Flamarion
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Octavian continues with his propaganda campaign
o Octavian presented as the saviour of Rome in the face of barbarism and
corruption
In 30BC Octavian reaches Alexandria and Antony marches his army out of the city
(for higher ground) although he watches as his fleet and cavalry desert him in
favour of Octavian
o Myth that Dionysus had left the city that night
o Plutarch: “The god [Dionysus] whom Antony had always made it his study to
copy and imitate, had now forsaken him”
Antony’s forces are quickly defeated and he commits suicide shortly after
f. Portrayals of Cleopatra as a ruler: Greek and Egyptian
Cleopatra’s Dress
 She would have presented herself in different ways for different occasions/
audiences
o Everyday dress would have been Hellenic Greek
 Coins display her in Greek fashion with a diadem
o On special occasions she presented herself in Egyptian fashion
 Isis – a form of political propaganda and forms a connection with
native Egyptians
 Plutarch: “She was addressed as the New Isis”
 A relief at the temple of Dendra shows her in Egyptian style
Greek
 Poems (Theocritus, Callimachus) depict the extravagances of court life, religion in
Egypt and the influence of earlier queens
 Plutarch
o Bias due to his stoic philosophy and thus tends to paint Cleopatra as an
extravagant seductress
o Also a Roman citizen
 Appian
o Tends to blame Antony’s ruin on Cleopatra
 Coins
o On coins found in Greece, she appears with Antony as son and heir. Early
coins show a young feminine queen while later ones show a less flattering
and authoritative queen.
Egyptian
 Temple of Dendra
o Reliefs show Isis, loving of Caesarion and highly maternal (breast feeding)
g. Manner and Impact of her Death
Preparations
 Cleopatra seemed determined not be to taken by the Romans and paraded through
Rome as her sister had done
 Build a tomb and started to experiment different poisons on criminals to see of
they were painless or not
o Plutarch: “She found the bite of an asp induced a quiet sleep without pain”
 Cleopatra attempted to reason with Octavian, although he feared that as long as
she and her children where live, they were a threat to Rome
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Antony’s infantry was quickly defeated by Octavian in his final stand in Alexandria
Antony rushed back to the city, shouting the Cleopatra betrayed him
o Cleopatra locks herself in her mausoleum (along with her riches) and has
servants tell Antony she killed – she fears Antony will harm her
o Antony, as Plutarch recounts believes it and cries “No, Antonius, why delay
longer? Fate has snatched away you only reason for living”
Antony stabs himself and passes out although does not die
o Wakes up and is told that Cleopatra is still alive and wants to see him
o Scared to let herself out due to the dangers of Octavian’s army, Cleopatra
was Antony brought through a window by ropes
o Plutarch: “she called him her lord, her husband, her emperor”
Octavian wanted to take Cleopatra alive – for a triumph in Rome and for her
treasures
o Octavian’s men enter the tombs and disarm her
Octavian takes control of the city and gives a lengthy speech explaining his mercy
for the Alexandrians and admiration for the city
Cleopatra is allowed to bury Antony
o She is kept under close guard for fear of suicide
When Octavian visits her, she flings herself to his feet and pleads for her life and
her children’s safety
o Dio accuses Cleopatra of attempted to seduce Octavian
o Plutarch accounts differently, stating that her grief had left her in no
condition to seduce though she had offered other gifts
Cleopatra visits Antony’s tomb one final time
o She is bathed, adorned in cosmetic and dressed in royal robes by her
servants
o A servant was allowed to enter with a basket of figs (found to be
unsuspicious)
 Dio: “No one knew for sure how she died”
 Two pricks found on her arm suggested asp bite
o She sends a letter to Octavian wishing to be buried with Antony
 This wish is granted
o Bradford: “While Octavian was now in complete control of Rome, in a way she
had defeated him, as she had not allowed him to parade her in Rome”
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Octavian ordered the destruction of the image of Antony although allowed many of
Cleopatra’s to stay intact (due to bribes from Alexandrians)
Impact
 End of the Ptolemaic dynasty
 Made it easy for Rome to complete its conquest of Egypt
 Roman soldiers defaced ancient Egyptian monuments and destroyed official
documents
 Alexandria continued to be a great centre of learning and trade but elsewhere,
Egypt’s power and prosperity began to decline
 Because Caesarion was Julius Caesar's son and might pose a threat to Octavian's
power, Octavian had the boy strangled by his tutor.
 Cleopatra's other children were sent to Rome to be raised by Octavia.
o Cleopatra Selene married King Juba II of Mauretania and had two children,
Ptolemy and Drusilla.
o No one knows what happened to Alexander Helios and Ptolemy
Philadelphus
 Octavian awarded arches, crowns, honours, titles, powers and a triple triumph on
his return to Rome
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Egypt did not become a normal province, it became a private possession of future
Roman emperors and was administered by special appointees
o Egypt was administered by the equestrian order
o The emperor was able to choose offices
Introduced new Roman tax
The countries wealth allowed Octavian to satisfy his veterans and build a loyal
clientele
Was the new primary source of grain for the empire
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Scullard: “the century of civil wars that had started with the murder of Tiberius
Gracchus was ended. The Republic and liberty had gone; men turned gratefully to
their new saviour”
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Her suicide was considered noble by Romans
o Horace and Virgil: reveals how she undergoes a transformation from a
monster, to a sympathetic figure, to a noble ruler
4. Evaluation
a. ‘Impact and Influence on her Time’ and ‘Assessment of Life and Reign’
Cleopatra had 2 main goals in her life and in her reign; to keep Egypt’s independence and
to protect her children and their inheritance. However during her life and reign she did
many different things including:
 Donating books and restoration of the Alexandrian library
o Some books are believed to be written by her
 Repaired building + ships
 Reorganised the army and increased the naval fleet
 Instructed Caesarion in the complex hierarchy of the Throne, Religion and Court.
 When she was on the throne, Alexandria was the greatest city of the eastern
Mediterranean. Her kingdom showed all signs of peace, order and prosperity
 Increased Egypt’s land
 Saved her people from poverty
 Improved irrigation systems for farming
Caesar
 Encouraged Caesar to make decisions
o “Under her influence… Caesar began several plans for improvement and
reform” - Flamarion
 The Senate saw her as a threat to Rome, her coming to Rome signified a change in
Caesar, their steadfast leader, and a possible change to the way in which the
Roman Republic would operate politically.
 She provided ships and wealth during the civil war
Antony
 Greatly influenced his ambitions of increased power
o She donated large amounts of wealth to aid Antony’s conquests
o This was advantageous for both Egypt and Rome -> larger territories
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Flamarion: “Most brilliant of Cleopatra’s deep political perceptions was the clear
understanding that Egypt could never be saved from Rome except by a Roman”
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Bevan: “Dominion stretching not only over the lost ancestral lands, but over wider
territories than Ptolemy I or Ptolemy II or Ptolemy III had ever dreamed of”
Legacy
Tarn: “For Rome, who had never condescended to fear any nation or people, did in her time
fear two human beings; one was Hannibal, and the other was a woman"
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Cleopatra was able to do the unthinkable: she brought Egypt into a powerful
position that could oppose Rome
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End of the Ptolemaic empire
o She was the last pharaoh of Egypt
o Egypt was now completely under the control of Rome
Pervasive influence of Egyptian religion throughout the Roman empire
o Identified herself as Isis, which picks up due to her and is found all through
the Empire – Rome, Pompeii, Africa etc.
o An interest in Egyptian paraphernalia
Propaganda campaign
o The fact that Roman writers talked about her was part of her legacy
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Ancient and modern images and interpretations of Cleopatra
Booth: “imagery and myths of Cleopatra have changed, often reflecting the morals of their
time rather than those of her time”
Chauveau: “an empty figure without an existence of her own” that can be used to suit any
authors political or social agenda
Ancient
Negative Perspective
 Propertius (Latin poet): “Indeed, the whore queen of sinful Canopus”
 Lucan (Roman poet): “She was Egypt’s master and Rome’s whore”
 Florus (Roman historian): focuses on sexuality
 Octavian’s propaganda campaign greatly influenced
 Her wig and cosmetics made Roman’s view her as a whore
 Focus on her seduction, sorcery, lust, extravagance and degeneracy
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Booth: “Roman’s saw her as an unnatural women who went against the current
culture by choosing her own lovers and exerting political and erotic power”
Positive Perspective
 Many ancient sources agree that she was intellectual and had an attraction of
nature
o Dio: “Impossible to converse with her without being immediately captivated
by her”
 Plutarch condemns some of her extravagances (due to his stoic philosophy)
although still represents an accurate picture
 Recognize her culture, intelligence, patronage to the arts, donations of 200,000
books to library in Alexandria – all seen as alien traits in Roman women
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Little archaeological evidence: a few inscriptions, papyri and coins
Modern - Historical
Positive
 An reevaluation of facts lead many to view Cleopatra in a positive light
 Fletcher: “one of the most dynamic figures the world has ever seen”
 Crawford: “The real Cleopatra had charisma and her sexiness stemmed from her
intelligence
Negative
 Some, influenced by their society view her differently
 Knight (early 20th century): “there is in her a streak of mysterious and obscene evil’
Western Culture
Renaissance
 Booth: “Believed there was a certain nobility in her actions, as dying for love”
 Chaucer: traditional courtly lady
 Boccaccio: epitome of vice and debauchery
o Culture of blaming women for men’s sexual desires
Elizabethan
 Booth: “A morality tale about fidelity and passion”
 Shakespeare: the dangers of excessive love -> tragic heroine
 17th – 18th century view her as a weak and passionate woman caught up in male
politics
o Followed culture of the time that viewed educated women as superfluous
Romantics
 Focused on drama and passion surrounding her death
19th – 20th Century
 Increased popularity of her image
 Movies:
o Portrayed as decadent fashion
o Over 25 films made in the 20th century
o Theda Bara (1917): ‘divinely, hysterically, insanely malevolent” (Davis)
o Claudette Colbert (1934): “presented her as an ideal wife and lover, but not a
businesswoman” (Booth)
o Vivian Leigh: young, frightened and childlike
o Elizabeth Taylor
Kahn: "By fusing the xenophobia that fostered Roman national identity with patriarchal
gender ideology, they demonized Cleopatra as Rome's most dangerous enemy, a foreigner
and a woman ruler whose power was fatally inflected by her sexuality"
Bradford: “She was a woman of infinite courage and political resource. She has fought to
free her country from the iron dominance of Rome and secure its inheritance of her first son”
Appearance
 Popular image of beautiful, Femme Fatale able to easily manipulate men through
seduction – Elizabeth Taylor
 Plutarch:
o “Her beauty, so we are told, was not that of an incomparable kind…but the
charm of her presence was irresistible”
 Depicted on ancient coins with a long hooked nose and masculine features
 Dio: Octavian refused to look Cleopatra in her eyes less he was bewitched