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Table of Contents CHAPTER PAGE NO I Circulatory System 1 II Digestive System 3 III Endocrine System 4 IV Immune System 5 V Lymphatic System 6 VI Integumentary System 7 VII Muscular System 9 IX Nervous System 11 X Reproductive System 13 XI Respiratory System 15 XII Skeletal System 16 XIII Urinary System 18 0 Circulatory System The circulatory system is the body's transport system. It is made up of a group of organs that transport blood throughout the body. The heart pumps the blood and the arteries and veins transport it. Oxygen-rich blood leaves the left side of the heart and enters the biggest artery, called the aorta. The aorta branches into smaller arteries, which then branch into even smaller vessels which travel all over the body. When blood enters the smallest blood 1 vessels, which are called capillaries, and are found in body tissue, it gives nutrients and oxygen to the cells and takes in carbon dioxide, water, and waste. The blood, which no longer contains oxygen and nutrients, then goes back to the heart through veins. Veins carry waste products away from cells and bring blood back to the heart, which pumps it to the lungs to pick up oxygen and eliminate waste carbon dioxide. 2 Digestive System The digestive system is made up of organs that break down food into protein, vitamins, minerals, carbohydrates, and fats, which the body needs for energy, growth, and repair. After food is chewed and swallowed, it goes down the esophagus and enters the stomach, where it is further broken down by powerful stomach acids. From the stomach the food travels into the small intestine. This is where your food is broken down into nutrients that can enter the bloodstream through tiny hair-like projections. The excess food that the body doesn't need or can't digest is turned into waste and is eliminated from the body. 3 Endocrine System The endocrine system is made up of a group of glands that produce the body's long-distance messengers, or hormones. Hormones are chemicals that control body functions, such as metabolism, growth, and sexual development. The glands, which include the pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, adrenal glands, thymus gland, pineal body, pancreas, ovaries, and testes, release hormones directly into the bloodstream, which transports the hormones to organs and tissues throughout the body. 4 Immune System The immune system is our body's defense system against infections and diseases. Organs, tissues, cells, and cell products work together to respond to dangerous organisms (like viruses or bacteria) and substances that may enter the body from the environment. There are three types of response systems in the immune system: the anatomic response, the inflammatory response, and the immune response. The anatomic response physically prevents threatening substances from entering your body. Examples of the anatomic system include the 5 mucous membranes and the skin. If substances do get by, the inflammatory response goes on attack. The inflammatory system works by excreting the invaders from your body. Sneezing, runny noses, and fever are examples of the inflammatory system at work. Sometimes, even though you don't feel well while it's happening, your body is fighting illness. When the inflammatory response fails, the immune response goes to work. This is the central part of the immune system and is made up of white blood cells, which fight infection by gobbling up antigens. About a quarter of white blood cells, called the lymphocytes, migrate to the lymph nodes and produce antibodies, which fight disease. Lymphatic System The lymphatic system is also a defense system for the body. It filters out organisms that cause disease, produces white blood cells, and generates disease-fighting antibodies. It also distributes fluids and nutrients in the body and drains excess fluids and protein so that tissues do not swell. The lymphatic system is made up of a network of vessels that help circulate body fluids. These vessels carry excess fluid away from the spaces between tissues and organs and return it to the bloodstream. 6 Integumentary system The integumentary system, commonly called the skin, enwraps the body and serves several purposes. First it offers protection to the underlying layers from the sun. It also serves in body temperature regulation. The skin is also home to millions of nerves that respond to temperature, touch, pressure, and pain. The skin has two layers: the epidermis and the dermis. The epidermis is the upper layer of the skin. It has up to five layers, called strata. Under the epidermis is the dermis. This layer connects the skin to the underlying tissue. It is in the dermis that hair follicles and sweat glands reside. Fingerprints are a result of dermal ridges which produce looped and whirled ridges on the epidermis. This gives the fingers and toes extra gripping ability. Skin color is determined by three pigments: melanin, carotene, and hemoglobin. However, only melanin is made in the skin. Melanin can be gradated into many different shades. It is this ability of Melanin that gives different races different skin coloration. Exposure to sunlight can also cause a temporary change in the color of melanin. Carotene has a yellow-orange color and is primarily found in the palms and the soles. Hemoglobin gives fair-skinned people a pink hue to their skin due to the lack of melanin in the epidermis, which makes it almost transparent. Hair on other mammals serves them to keep them warm. However, the sparse covering of hair on the human body serves other purposes. It is able to sense insects on the skin before they are able to sting. The hair on the 7 head serves to control and prevent heat loss as well as guard against sunlight and physical trauma. Hair is produced by hair follicles in the skin. These follicles are heavily vascularized and are surrounded by nerve fibers. Goose bumps occur when small muscles pull the follicles upright producing a bump on the surface of the skin. Sweat glands are distributed throughout the skin. Their basic function is to cool the body. This is accomplished by evaporation. Evaporation of sweat off of the body dissipates body heat. 8 Muscular System 9 Smooth muscle is involuntary; a person can not directly tell the muscle what to do. Smooth muscle tissue is commonly found in hollow organs such as the stomach, the bladder, and the respiratory passages. Smooth muscles tissue main function is to propel objects down a certain path. Smooth muscle tissue is spindle shaped. Smooth muscle tissue is arranged in sheets or layers. There are usually two layers running together, these two layers alternately contract, changing the size of the organ i.e. the biceps. Skeletal muscle tissue is always connected to bones. Skeletal muscle tissue is long, and somewhat thin. Skeletal muscle tissue is the longest type of muscle tissue in the body. This tissue is the strongest and hardest working in the body. Skeletal muscle tissue is also known as striated muscle tissue, because of its striations. Striations are fibers of muscle tissue that cross over each fiber causing an appearance of crisscrossing thought the muscle. Skeletal muscle tissue is the only type of muscle tissues that is voluntary. These muscle cells are small and very fragile. Even though its cells are fragile skeletal muscle tissue is very strong due to a sheath that covers every skeletal muscle fiber. Cardiac muscle tissue is only found in the heart. The heart is entirely made up of cardiac muscle. Cardiac muscle tissue is responsible for pumping blood throughout the heart. Cardiac muscle tissue is protected by a connective tissue. This tissue is arranged in a figure eight formation. Cardiac muscle is striated and is involuntary. Skeletal muscles help the body move. Smooth muscles, which are involuntary, are located inside organs, such as the stomach and intestines. Cardiac muscle is found only in the heart. Its motion is involuntary 10 Nervous System 1. Olfactory Bulb 2. Optic Nerve 3. Oculomotor Nerve 4. Trochlear Nerve 5. Trigeminal Nerve 6. Abducens Nerve 7. Facial Nerve 8. Vestibulocochlear Nerve 9. Glossopharyngeal Nerve 10. Vagus Nerve 11. Accessory Nerve 12. Hypoglossal Nerve The nervous system is made up of the brain, the spinal cord, and nerves. One of the most important systems in your body, the nervous system is your body's control system. It sends, receives, and processes nerve impulses throughout the body. These nerve impulses tell your muscles and organs what to do and how to respond to the environment. There are three parts of your nervous system that work together: the central nervous system, the peripheral nervous system, and the autonomic nervous system. The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord. It sends out nerve impulses and analyzes information from the sense organs, which tell your brain about things you see, hear, smell, taste and feel. The peripheral nervous system includes the craniospinal nerves that branch off from the brain and the spinal cord. It carries the nerve impulses from the central nervous system to the muscles and glands. The autonomic nervous system regulates involuntary action, such as heart beat and digestion. 11 12 Reproductive System The reproductive system is the system that allows for the continuation of the human species. This system is different in both males and females. The role 13 of the male’s reproductive system is to manufacture sperm and then to deliver them to the female’s reproductive tract where fertilization may occur. The role of the female’s reproductive system is basically the same except that it goes further if the sperm meets an egg. If fertilization occurs the female reproductive system is designed to nurture and care for the cell that will soon grow into a baby. The sperm is produced in the male's testis and then travels through a series of ducts to reach the body exterior. The eggs are produced in the ovary of a female. When an egg is to be expelled or ovulated a “blister forms on the exterior of the ovary. When the “blister” bursts the egg is collected by the ends of the fallopian tubes and travels through the fallopian tubes where it can be fertilized by a single sperm. If an egg is fertilized it travels down into the uterus where it embeds in the wall of the uterus. There it divides rapidly and the cells begin to specialize into the different organs of a pregnancy. Some of the cells form the amniotic sac while some form the placenta and the umbilical cord. Only a small number of these cells will eventually form the fetus. 14 Respiratory System The respiratory system brings air into the body and removes carbon dioxide. It includes the nose, trachea, and lungs. In breathing, air enters your nose or mouth and goes down a long tube called the trachea. The trachea branches into two bronchial tubes, or primary bronchi, which go to the lungs. The primary bronchi branch off into even smaller bronchial tubes, or bronchioles. The bronchioles end in the alveoli, or air sacs. Oxygen follows this path and passes through the walls of the air sacs and blood vessels and enters the blood stream. At the same time, carbon dioxide passes into the lungs and is exhaled. 15 Skeletal System The skeletal system is made up of bones, ligaments and tendons. It shapes the body and protects organs. The skeletal system works with the muscular system to help the body move. Marrow, which is soft, fatty tissue that produces red blood cells, many white blood cells, and other immune system cells, is found inside bones. The skeleton makes up the general framework of the body. It is composed of 206 named bones of various shapes and sizes. Strong bands of connective tissue called ligaments hold the bones together. Between many of the bones there are pads of firm, smooth, slightly elastic connective tissue called cartilage. The cartilage works to cushion the ends of the bones where they bump together at a joint. Bones are alive and continue to grow until about age 25. They are hard due to the high concentration of certain minerals such as calcium and phosphorus. All of the minerals, which the body needs for bone growth or repair, are found in food. 16 Here are the five important reasons: 1. To support the soft parts of the body. Without your skeleton, your body would fall to the ground. 2. To help muscles move your body by providing places for muscles to attach, while acting as levers themselves. 3. To provide protection for many of the vital organs of the body such as the brain, heart, and lungs. 4. To provide essential minerals, especially calcium, to the body when necessary – such as during pregnancy. 5. To supply the body with certain blood cells. All red blood cells and some white blood cells are formed in the bone marrow. 17 Urinary System The urinary system eliminates waste from the body, in the form of urine. The kidneys remove waste from the blood. The waste combines with water to form urine. From the kidneys, urine travels down two thin tubes called ureters to the bladder. When the bladder is full, urine is discharged through the urethra 18