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CHAPTER 1:
INTRODUCTION
BACKGROUND
REVIEW OF INTERNATIONAL LITERATURE
REVIEW OF NATIONAL LITERATURE
GENERAL ACCOUNT OF STUDY ANIMALS
The Deer Species
Spotted Deer (Axis axis)
Brow Antlered Deer (Cervus eldi)
Sambar (Cervus unicolor)
The Antelope Species
Black Buck (Antelope cetvecapra)
Blue Bull (Boselaphus tragocamelus)
STATUS AND MANAGEMENT OF ANIMALS IN CAPTIVITY
Zoo Concept Development
Caging Space and Environment
Food and Nutritional Supplementation
Social Structure and Breeding Requirements
Man-Animal Relationship
ZOOS IN INDIA
Status of Sakkar Baug Zoo, Junagadh
Animal rescue, health and welfare
Educational activities
Research and training activities
Conservation breeding program
Visitors
Issues Related to Management
OVERALL UNDERSTANDING AND LACUNAE OF KNOWLEDGE
INITIATION OF RESEARCH IDEA
OBJECTIVES
Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity.
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INTRODUCTION
The land use pattern variations over past few decades have alarmingly
altered the environment for all the inhabitants including humans. The
anthropogenic activities further modified it consequently resulting into intense
degradation making it conspicuously unsuitable for the animals. The studies
on animal ecology have guided the development of strategies for conservation
of animals in their natural habitat. However, ex-situ conservation is also one of
the important components of long term management planning. The animals
execute wide range of strategies for survival and successful reproduction in
the wild since they are exposed to comprehensive array of ecological,
environmental, evolutionary etc factors. In the natural habitat the occurrence
of and defense against the influencing factors is mastered by different species
and exhibited as typical behavioral responses. Such factors may be coexisting
and corroboratively influencing the routine activities of an individual since
these
induce
individual-specific
responses;
although
species-specific
strategies may exist. The conservation inputs in wild therefore, need to be
multi facet and widely displaced to include greater range of species inhabiting
a particular habitat; indicating ecosystem specific conservation inputs.
The conservation model, on the other hand, in captivity may be
distinctly different. The animals in captivity are not exposed to natural threats,
community interactions or risk of reproductive failure.
However, the
influencing factors may be different and may be integrated differently with
other such factors leading to much variable set of conditions. The influencing
factors may be acting simultaneously increasing the stress and burden on a
species in captivity. The mechanisms of physiological homeostasis in captivity
may not be easily identifiable since the environment is almost constant, as
against the dynamic environmental conditions of wild, leading to a state of
allostatic burden. It may eventually result into suppression of growth,
reproduction, development etc. The stress intensity in captivity cannot be
measured by any units but can be observed/studied/analyzed/interpreted in
terms of behavioral responses of the animals. The appropriate evaluation of
Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity.
Page 2
behavior displays can indicate/advise/guide the personnel about the changing
conditions and requirements of animals.
The formation of zoos has been one of the older concepts of animal
conservation and research so far has also generated huge data on animal
ecology and behavior in captivity. However, since the conditions/conservation
strategies/short term-long term management pians/etc in distant part of the
world may not be applicable to the captivity status in India/Indian states.
Therefore, such comprehensive studies are encouraged by the Department of
Environment and Forests/Centrai Zoo Authority of India to generate data that
may contribute to the conservation and management in captivity in Indian
zoos. The literature survey is suggestive of several lacunae in the essential
research components and demand1 comprehensive analysis of animal
behavior in captivity.
Conservation needs were felt for the first time in the country in 1965.
After a detailed study that was conducted countrywide, the Government of
India came out with the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 with an aim to conserve
the depleting flora and fauna of India. Since then'this act has been amended
and changed to accommodate more variety of flora and fauna to protect them
by law. Due to continuous increase in number of endangered species of
plants and animals steps have been taken to protect and manage the wildlife
of the country. The wildlife management aims at sustainable protection of
natural habitats through controlled, limited exploitation of species and
maintenance of the viable number of species in protected areas like the
sanctuaries, national parks, biosphere reserves and reserve forests.
Herbivores are one of the important species that inhabit any ecosystem
and their diversity in a particular area often is a biological indicator to measure
the health of that ecosystem. Extinction of a species from any ecosystem is
today viewed as a result of major human-induced changes in the world’s
ecosystems. These ecosystems provide vital services such as maintaining
global climate patterns, mediating the carbon cycle, safeguarding watersheds
etc. To prevent extinction we need better knowledge of threatened species,
Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity.
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effective legal and social actions and better sustainable use of natural
resources.
Conservation of a species requires knowledge of its physiological
responses
to
environment
and
comprehensive
behavioral
displays.
Behavioral studies of species ranging from various non chordates to
chordates have been conducted in laboratory and field to sketch the range
and specificity of responses of animals to variety of stimuli. These studies are
also aimed at assessing the process of species extinction through inbreeding
often caused due to domestication. Recent studies on conservation biology
are well beyond cataloguing and describing few basic animal behaviours and
the methodology involves comprehensive and integrated behavioral response
evaluation using extensive scientific and statistical analysis aimed at better
understanding of animal life (Millspaugh and Washburn, 2004; Buchholz,
2006). Laboratory studies, e.g. on smaller mammals, however may bypass
the natural behavioral patterns that are unique in wild conditions (2005).
Present investigation aims at studying animals in park/enclosures that
are ‘controlled’ conditions with ample ‘natural element’ to it.
Present study
analyses various behavioral patterns of rare/endangered ungulate species in
‘man-made’ habitat with comparatively less intensive methods and human
disturbance. A comparison of behavior of population of ungulates inside zoo
enclosures, with the existing data on ‘natural’ groups observed in wild may
reveal potential variables that manifest changes in behavioral patterns and
reproductive cycles.
Captive conditions like limited foraging space, super abundance of
food, protection against natural predators and overlapping territory for bucks
during breeding season may greatly alter the time activity budget for each
species of ungulates being studied. A comprehensive study for two years
would probably define variations in reproductive performance and behavioral
of ungulates due to the captive conditions. Since the population in captivity
share many features with those inhabiting isolated forest fragments, this
Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity.
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study will also enable us to predict behavior and reproductive success of
fragmented populations in wild.
The ungulates are most common animals of attraction in a zoo.
Among these Spotted deer/Chital (Axis axis), Schedule III (5), Manipur Broantlered or Sangai deer (Cervus eldi eldi), Schedule I (3), Sambar (Cervus
unicolor), Schedule III (16), Blackbuck (Antelope cervicapra), Schedule I (3)
and Blue bull or Nilgai (Boselaphus tragocamelus), Schedule III (6) are
selected for present study. The Sangai deer is of course restricted to Manipur
and found only in captivity in Gujarat. Black Buck is predominantly distributed
in districts of Bhavnagar, Ahmedabad, Surendra Nagar and Kutch. Axis,
Sambar and Nilgai are found all over Gujarat.
REVIEW OF INTERNATIONAL LITERATURE
The ungulates form social groups of different types and age/sex ratios
in wild, in polygynous ungulates, sexual segregation is influenced by social,
spatial and temporal factors such as the periodicity of mating opportunities,
population densities, resource distribution and environmental conditions
(Bowyer, 1984; Verme, 1988; Main and Coblentz, 1990; Koga and Ono,
1994). Sexual segregation, therefore, is a behavioral pattern that may occur at
different scale at different ecological scenarios. The sexual segregation may
be explained by three most common hypotheses; Reproductive strategy,
Sexual dimorphism or Social factors hypotheses (Beier and McCullough,
1990; Weckerly, 1993; Main et al, 1996). Reproductive strategy hypothesis,
the most accepted one, is based on the fact that the groups of females and
young offspring will be restricted to habitats that provide adequate forage and
water resources for offspring raising and security (McCullough et al, 1989),
while the groups of males segregate to prepare for the energetic demands of
competing for mates or to recover from the energetic drain of rut (Koga and
Ono, 1994; Main, 1994). The foraging behavior among ungulates, therefore,
Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity.
Page 5
exhibit age and sex related variations. It implies to other behavior patterns
also. However, in captivity some of these peculiar events are altogether
absent and, therefore, the study of behavioral patterns in captivity provide
new dimensions of understanding animal behavior.
Studies carried out in wild and captivity suggested that in ungulates the
reproductive strategies, mating success, fawn sex ratio, survival rate and
growth of fawn-sex wise, milk production and lactation duration etc. play
significant role in overall behavior displays. Understanding of these patterns,
distinctly and discriminately, can give an insight into the biology of these
animals and be suggestive for defining conservation management strategies
(Kelly et al, 1987; White et al, 1995; Birgersson and Ekvall, 1997; Hosack et
al, 1997; Deem et al, 2001; Jiang et al, 2002; Olson et al, 2005; LandeteCastillejos et al, 2008).
Male cervids in captivity exhibit a protracted reproductive season
compared to their wild counterparts and the unmated captive female exhibits
repeated estrus cycle for 4-7 months (Knox et al, 1988; Wemmer and
Grodinsky,
1988; Hosack et al, 1997). The influence of photoperiod,
exogenous hormonal stimuli, estrus modifications etc. were studied both in
temperate and tropical species which indicated that the tropical species have
little reproductive seasonality in native habitats and remain alseasonal when
translocated to temperate zones probably due to an absence of strong
circannual photoperiodic rhythms (Verme and Ozoga, 1981; Loudon and
Brinklow, 1992; White et al, 1995). Fluctuations in local food and habitat
resources rather than photoperiod may be influencing factors in tropical
species (Wemmer and Grodinsky, 1988; Hosack et al, 1997). The group
composition is reported to influence the sex ratio of offspring; with few mature
males, there may be an increase in the reproductive fitness for female to
produce more male offspring (Verme and Ozoga, 1981; White et al, 1995).
Successful captive breeding and the development of sustainable musk
extraction methods from living Alpine musk deer has significant implications
for the conservation of deer resources (Meng et al, 2006). Major failure is due
Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity.
Page 6
to high neonatal mortality, shortening of life span and low production of musk
(Parry-Jones and Wu, 2001; Yang et al, 2003; Meng et al, 2006). It was
realized that appropriate understanding of behavioral responses of the animal
may provide clues for better management in captivity (Meng et al, 2003;
Holand et al, 2006). Meng et al. (2008) recommended that these behavior
patterns could be utilized as the behavior criteria to differentiate the potential
reproductive success in the next year.
The huge literature on ungulates is species specific and related to
temperate zone. During almost one and half decade much work has been
carried out on endocrinology and reproduction using modern technological
advances to enhance reproductive success, increase fawning ratio and
survival rate. Deer farming is approved in several countries and therefore, the
literature is over burdened by reports attributing reproductive performance
and management of farm species. At large, temperate species are being
farmed the most and now tropical deer species are also being used for
farming (Chappie, 1989; Semiadi, 1994). High fawn mortality was seen in
farming experiments with Axis, Cervus and Antelope species in different
countries (Kelly and Drew, 1977; Mylrea, 1991; Semiadi, 1994). The studies
on general behavior, feeding, antler cycle, breeding and health status were
indicative of normal patterns and encouraging for Cervus and Axis deer
farming.
The studies in captivity, therefore, are better correlated with farming
and the findings may be used as indicative only because the basic aim of
behavior and
captive breeding
studies in
India
is focused towards
conservation and management of species, most of which are protected by law
in India.
Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity.
Page 7
REVIEW OF NATIONAL LITERATURE
India’s rich biodiversity resources have given it a place as one of the 12
mega-biodiversity countries in the world. The ungulate diversity in India is
represented by 2 orders, 7 families, 23 genera and 34 species:
Orders: Artiodactyla and Perissodactyla.
Families: Bovidae, Cervidae, Equidae, Moschidae, Rhinocerotidae, Suidae
and Tragulidae.
In India the ungulates are distributed in about 360 Protected Areas
(PAs) spread over approximately 111296 Km2 land cover (Kathayat and
Mathur, 2004). The representation of species under present study in PAs is:
Axis axis-176, Cervus eldi eldi- 01, Cervus unicolor- 217,
Antelope cervicapra- 64 and Boselaphus tragocamelus-148.
State-wise, distribution of maximum number of Ungulate species is
seen in Uttar Pradesh (12), and Gujarat stands third with 10 species. The
distribution is presented in the graph below:
Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity.
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Westbengal
Uttar Pradesh
Uttaranchal
Tripura
Tamil Nadu
Sikkim
Rajasthan
Punjab
Orissa
Nagaland
Mizoram
Meghalaya
Manipur
Maharashtra
Madhya Pradesh
Kerala
karnataka
Jharkhand
Jammu & Kashmir
Himachal
Haryana
Gujarat
Goa
Chhatisgarh
Bihar
i
Assam
Arunachal Pradesh
Andhra Pradesh
cn
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
Bibliographic survey of literature published on ungulates in India has
been prepared by Agarwal et al. (2004). This is the first compilation on
Ungulates of Peninsular India that contains 1101 references published
between 1867 and 2005, almost 139 years. Publication articles in the
bibliography have been categorized into 14 broad subject headings. The
distribution of number of publications is presented in the graph below:
Taxonomy
Wildlife trade
Ecology
Reproduction
Habitat
Captivity
Population'
Wildlife Health
Status
Distribution
Morphology
Natural Hist
Conser& Manag
Behavior
50
100
150
200
250
Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity.
300
Page 9
The database cover total 18 species of Indian ungulates and the
literature categorization is presented in the graph below:
Sus salvamus
Tragulus merninna
Equs hamionus
Tetracerus quadricornis
Axis porcinus
Sus scrota
Muntiacus muntjac
j**3®*
j"
-i
I1""1""........
Cervus eldi
0
50
100
150
200
The distribution of number publications for the species under present
studies is:
Axis axis-137, Cervus eldi- 40, Census unicolor-130,
Antelope cervicapra-161 and Boselaphus tragocamelus- 74.
Over 861 authors have been indexed in the bibliography (Agarwal et al,
2004) and their contributions in-terms of number of publication ranged from 1
to 21. The leading authors who contributed 10 or more articles were: A.J.T.
Johnsingh, A.R. Rahmani, C.G. Rice, H.S. Panwar, E.P. Gee, E.R.C.
Davidar, K. Sankar, K.U. Karanth, L.N. Acharjyo, P.C. Kotwal, R. Gopal, R.C.
Morris and R.K. Pandey.
The trends in the chronological development of Indian literature are
shown below:
Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity.
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CO
o oo o ooN o oo o o
in
fO
in
in
tr-
2001-2005
1991-2000
1981-1990
1971-1980
1961-1970
1951-1960
1941-1950
1931-1940
1921-1930
1911-1920
1901-1910
1867-1899
in
Ungulates have been studie^ mostly in the tiger reserves, since they
form the prey base for large carnivores (Schaller, 1967; Johnsingh, 1983;
Karanth, 1988; Chakraborty, 1991; Johnsingh et al, 1993; Sankar, 1994; Khan
et al, 1995; Sanquist et al, 1999; Bagchi et al, 2003; Kotwal and Mishra, 2004;
Edgaonkar, 2008). Other studies exhibited interest in the ungulate habitat,
habitat utilization,
density and
composition
dynamics,
and
distribution,
reproduction,
social organization,
ecology
and
group
conservation
management etc (Dharmakumarsinhji, 1978; Menon, 1982; Ranjitsinh, 1982;
Chattopadhyay and Bhattacharya, 1986; Karanth and Sanquist, 1992;
Bharucha and Asher, 1993; Shankar Raman et al, 1996; Gangadharan,
2005).
A detail survey of Indian literature is described with the general account
of study animals.
Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity.
Page 11
GENERAL ACCOUNT OF STUDY ANIMALS
The Deer
Depending on their species, male deer are called bucks, harts or bulls,
and females are called hinds, does or Cows. Young deer are called fawns or
calves. The highest concentration of large deer species in temperate Asia
occurs in the mixed deciduous forests, mountain coniferous forests, and taiga
bordering North Korea, Manchuria (Northeastern China), and the Ussuri
Region (Russia).
The highest concentration of large deer species in the tropics occurs in
Southern and Southeast Asia; in India, Nepal, and at one time, Thailand.
Northern India's Indo-Gangetic Plain Region and Nepal's Terai Region consist
of tropical seasonal moist deciduous, dry deciduous forests, and both dry and
wet savannas that are home to Axis, Hog Deer, Barasingha, Indian Sambar,
and Indian Muntjac. Axis and Barasingha live in large herds, and Indian
Sambar may also be found in large groups. Of all these deer species, Hog
deer are solitary and have the lowest densities. All these deer can coexist in
one area because they prefer different types of vegetation for food. These
deer also share their habitat with various herbivores such as Asian elephants,
various antelope species (such as nilgai, four-horned antelope, blackbuck,
and Indian gazelle in India), and wild oxen (such as gaur, banteng, and
kouprey).
Deer generally have lithe, compact bodies and long, powerful legs
suited for rugged woodland terrain. Deer are ruminants, selective feeders, are
usually browsers, and primarily feed on leaves. The teeth of deer are adapted
to feeding on vegetation, and like other ruminants, they lack upper incisors,
instead having a tough pad at the front of their upper jaw. Nearly all deer have
a facial gland in front of each eye. The gland contains a strongly scented
pheromone, used to mark its home range and to express aggression. Deer
also have a Tapetum lucidum which gives them sufficiently good night vision.
Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity.
Page 12
Doe usually come into heat (estrus), and remain in heat for about 24
hours. If she is not bred, a second heat cycle occurs around 22 days later.
Estrous cycles can occur well into January, gestation generally lasts 200
days, and a single fawn is normal in the doe's first birth. Male newborn fawns
are larger than female fawns. Newborn fawns are subject to predation, and
the doe immediately licks the fawn clean, in order to protect it from detection
by predators. Healthy fawns nurse immediately; usually 2-3 times a day.
During the first 24-36 hours of life, the colostrums in the doe milk provides
essential anti-bodies to help fight off disease. Doe milk is far richer in protein,
fat, energy, Vitamin A and dry solids than cow's milk. Fat and vitamin A levels
decrease quickly in early lactation. Surprisingly, the quality of milk in a
starving doe does not decrease rnyeh; but the quantity of milk production
does. Fawns double their birth weight in the first two weeks, and triple it in the
first month. Fawns are able to walk soon after birth, and are often seen
grazing with the doe after they are only one month old. Fawn rumination
begins at about 2 weeks, and by 10 weeks of age most fawns are completely
weaned.
Axis axis (Erxleben, 1777)
Order: Artiodactyla
Family: Cervidae
Sub-Family: Cervinae
Genus: Axis
Species: A. axis
Common name: Spotted deer or Chital
Conservation Status:
WPA (1972): Schedule III (5)
IUCN RED DATA BOOK: Not listed
Cites: Not listed
Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity.
Page 13
Axis axis is the third largest deer (height 90 cm at the shoulder)
inhabiting the plains and undulating terrain of India. The coat is reddish-fawn,
spotted with white, and with white under parts. The curved antlers have up to
three branching points. It is an endemic species of south Asia, occurring in
India, Sri Lanka, Nepal and Bangladesh (Prater, 1934; Schaller, 1967). In
India it is distributed along the foothills of Himalaya from Uttaranchal to
western Assam, Eastern Rajasthan, and Gujarat and sporadically in forested
areas of peninsular India (Prater, 1934; Schaller, 1967). Although dry
deciduous scrub/forest is preferred habitat, they are distributed in moist
deciduous, thorn and mangrove forests also (Eisenberg and Seidensticker,
1976). The mean home range of Axis buck is around 3.5 Km2, doe is around
2.5 Km2 while, estimated annual horag..range is around 16 Km2 (Sankar 1994;
Moe and Wegge, 1994).
Axis deer have declined drastically throughout their range, and are now
only locally abundant within Protected Areas of India and some forest tracts.
They have been studies by many researchers in National Parks; mainly tiger
reserves, and Sanctuaries: Corbett (De and Spillit, 1966), Kanha (Schaller,
1967), Bandipur (Johnsingh, 1983), Nagarahole (Karanth and Sunquist,
1992), Sariska (Sankar,1994), Gir (Khan et al, 1995), Guindy (Raman, 1997),
Pench (Biswas and Sankar, 2002), Ranthambore (Bagchi et a!, 2003) in India,
Chitwan (Mishra, 1982) and Karnali-Bardia (Dinerstein, 1980) in Nepal, and
Wilpattu (Eisenberg and Lockhart, 1972) in Sri Lanka. Introduced Axis deer
populations occur in USSR, Yugoslavia, USA, Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay,
Australia, Hawaii and several private ranches in the Western Cape, South
Africa (Lever, 1985).
,,
Axis is known to feed on more than 160 species of plants (Schaller
1967; Johnsingh and Sankar, 1991). Rodgers (1988) had categorized Axis as
a generalist feeder, with a diet consisting of grasses, forbs, and leaves of
woody plants. Axis usually drinks water once a day but more frequently in
summer. In wild they are therefore, distributed in regions which may have
distantly located water points. Axis spends a major portion of their life in
foraging, resting, and wandering within their ranges, though the extent of
Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity.
Page 14
these activities determined by season (Schaller, 1967). In a day, peak feeding
times are around dawn and dusk. They usually have two major resting periods
- before dawn and mid-day, expected to vary in captivity.
Axis deer are essentially social animals and rarely seen as solitary
individuals. The usual herd is composed of two or more family units and is
often accompanied by individual deer of mixed sex and age-classes. The
basic social unit is a matriarchal family group, normally consisting of an adult
doe, her offspring from the previous year, and a fawn (Schaller, 1967; Abies
1974; Mishra, 1982; Barette 1991). The group size is widely variable from one
to 150 or more individuals (De and Spillit, 1966; Schaller, 1967; Eisenberg
and Lockhart, 1972; Krishnan, 1972; Fuchs, 1977). Under various conditions
throughout the year and during different seasons the group size and
composition
changes (Schaller
1967;
Eisenberg
and
Lockhart
1972;
Dinerstein, 1980). The information on group size is summarized in the
following table:
Group
Size
(Range)
Group
Size
(Average)
Reference
Location
Texas, USA.
2 to 15
“
Abies (1974)
01-91
05-10
10.7
7.5
Dinerstein, 1980
Mishra 1982
02-125
4%
1-50
02-88
12
6
Barrette 1991
Karanth and Sunquist 1992
Khan et ai 1995
Sankar199
Biswas and Sankar 2002
Bagchi et ai. 2004
Karnaii-Bardia, Nepal
Chitawan
National
Nepal
Wilpattu, Sri Lanka
Nagarahole
Gir
Sariska
Pench
Ranthambore
Park,
-
-
7
3.4
4.6
The development, growth and annual cycle of antlers are indicators of
reproductive and breeding states of Axis deer. However, the onset and peak
of rut is reported to be variable at different locations. Gestation period is 210225 days, after which a single fawn is born. Fawns are weaned off at about
six months, and sexual maturity is reached by the 12th-14th month (Prater,
1971 ).ln Texas, USA, breeding season lasts from late May till August, which
Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity.
Page 15
included one breeding peak (Abies, 1974). In Hawaii, USA, the rut was seen
in April through August with sporadic mating observed throughout the year.
At Kanha, breeding continued throughout the year with greater frequencies
during March to June and peak in May (Schaller, 1967). In Karnali-Bardia,
53% of bucks were observed with hard antlers up to one meter size in July
(Dinerstein, 1980). The peak rut varied between April-May at Chitwan (Mishra
and Wemmer, 1987), April- July at Bandipur (Sharatchandra and Gadgil,
1975; Johnsingh, 1983), March-July at Guindy (Raman, 1998). At other
places breeding season was reported to be occurring during the entire year.
These observations suggest that the captive conditions influence the breeding
season and is distinctly variable at different places. However, a precise
pattern is usually seen in the wild.
The sex ratio is generally seen to be biased towards female in Axis
deer. An account of the sex ratio and fawning ratio is presented in the table
below:
-Location
Hawaii
Corbett
National
Park
Keoiadeo Sanctuary
Kanha
Karnali Bardia
Bandipur
Nagarahole
Sariska
Gir
Hawaii
Buck:
Doe
Ratio
0.7:1
0.6:1
0.7:1
0.7: 1
0.5-1
0.6:1
0.7: 1
0.4:1
0.4: 1
0.7:1
Doe:
Fawn
Ratio
-
Reference
Graf and Nicholas, 1966
-
-
1:.5
1-.4
0.4: 1
1: 0.2
1: 0.2
-
Schaller, 1967
Dinerstein 1980
Johnsingh 1983
Karanth and Sunquist 1992
Sankar1994
Khan et al. 1995
Graf and Nichols 1966
In wild the main reasons for Axis mortality are predation and diseases
or during an accident; which occur rarely within protected areas. (Johnsingh,
1983; Patel 1992; Karanth and Sunquist,1995). Rate of predation was
reported to range to about 31-52% by tiger and 44-59% by leopard in different
Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity.
Page 16
Pas in India (Schaller, 1967; Johnsingh, 1983; Karanth and Sunquist, 1995;
Biswas and Sankar, 2002; Bagchi et al, 2002).
Though the species has thrived well and, is now locally abundant within
protected areas, the remaining population is highly vulnerable to poaching,
habitat destruction and livestock-borne diseases. The conservation measures
in wild will lead to depredation of livestock and minimize conflicts with human.
The Axis deer is considered well adaptive to the captive conditions and in
most of the zoos they breed easily.
Cervus eldi eldi (M’ Cielland, 1842)
Order: Artiodactyia
Family: Cervidae
Sub-Family: Cervinae
Tribe: Bovini
Genus: Cervus
Species: C. eldi eldi
Common name: Sangai, Manipur Brow antlered deer
Conservation Status:
WLPA (1972): Schedule I (1)
IUCN RED DATA BOOK: Critically endangered
Cites: Appendix l
Traditional taxonomy divides Eld’s deer into three subspecies viz.
Sangai or Manipur brow-antlered deer C. e. eldi: Thamin or Myanmar brow
antlered deer C. e. thamin; and Siamese brow-antlered deer C. e. siamensis.
It is highly endangered Southeast Asian cervid. Past distribution include areas
of Southeast Asia extending from Manipur in north eastern India to Indochina
Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity.
Page 17
and southern China but now it occurs in patches in Northeast India, Myanmar
and Southern China including Hainan islands. The Sangai deer is the rarest
with a localized population of around 180 animals in the southern fringe of
Loktak Lake in Manipur. The Indian subspecies was considered extinct until a
small population of around 14 individual was rediscovered in the early 1950s,
since then effective conservation measures have reestablished the population
and are believed to be secure (Ranjitsinh, 1975).
Cervus e. eldi is a medium sized deer (height 115 to 125 cm at
shoulder level and weighing approximately 95 to 110 kg) with uniquely
distinctive antlers, measuring 100 to 110 cm in length and an extremely long
brow line which forms the main beam such that the two form a continuous
curve at right angles to the closely set pedicles. The forward protruding beam
appears to come out from the eyebrow signifying its name, brow antlered
deer. Sangai attains sexual maturity in the fourth year and survives for
approximately 20 years.
The Sangai is now restricted to the Keibul Lamjao National Park
(KLNP, 40 Km2) in the Southeastern fringe of Loktak Lake (286 Km2 at the
elevation of 768.5 m) in Manipur valley. The habitat in Park consists of
phumdi (floating vegetation), hillocks and elevated strips of land surrounding
the lake. Sangai exhibits bimodal feeding activity pattern. Tombi (1991)
reported that 33 species of plants are primary food plants and 21 plant
species are emergency food plants. The population of C. e. eldi has increased
constantly to about 100 in 1993 (38 bucks, 48 does, and 12 fawns), 180 in
2003 (65 bucks, 74 does, and 41 fawns) (Gee, 1961; Ranjitsinh, 1975;
Singsit, 2003). The sex ratio varied between 55 buckf'^er'-ftfd does and 103
bucks per 100 does during 1977 to 2003 respectively. In the year 1999 the
number of bucks reported was higher than the does. The mean sex ratio
however was 79.4 ± 2.5 bucks per 100 does. The doe to fawn ratio was 37.1 ±
3.8 fawns.
Cervus eldi eldi exhibits polygynous mating (Bronson, 1989; Monfort et
al, 1990; Hosack et al, 1997). The does can begin reproducing at 4 years of
Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity.
Page 18
age and typically continue to reproduce until they are 10 years of age. They
begin estrus in the late winter or early spring. They exhibit a long period of
ovarian activity of 225 to 342 days, during which the does average 10 to 17
estrous cycles (Prescott 1987; Yan 1996, Hosack et al, 1978; Aung et al,
2001).
;r.
The Sangai is a seasonal breeder with highest peak in March (Desai
and Malhotra, 1978; Sanayaima 1988; Tombi 1991). In captivity the rutting
occurs between January-April with peak during February (Das, 1988). Driving
or following for a particular does continues for about 48 hr till the does
responds to the call of the buck. A general display exhibited by Sangai at
KLNP is the rubbing of the head or pre-orbital glands on the bushes, thrashing
the vegetations with their antlers or forelegs. Similar display is also exhibited
during the rutting season by the bucks in Manipur Zoological Garden (MZG).
Like many other deer species, Sangai is seasonally monoestrous. The mature
does delivers a fawn during October-November, after a gestation period of
245-273 days (Shanmugou, 1992). The sex ratio at birth tends to be equal.
The minimum age of shedding of antlers is reported to be around 19 months
of
age
(Sanayaima,1988;Tombi,1991).
Cervus unicolor (Kerr, 1792)
Order: Artiodactyla
Family: Cervidae
Sub-Family:: Gervinae
v
Tribe: Bovini
Genus: Cervus
Species: C. unicolor
Common name: Sambar
Conservation Status:
Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity.
Page 19
WPA (1972): Schedule III
IUCN RED DATA BOOK Lower Risk
Cites: Not listed
Sambar (Cervus unicolor) is the largest deer species (Bucks: 225-320
Kg, Does: 135-225 Kg) native to South and South-East Asia (Crandall, 1964;
Downes, 1983). It is closely related to the red deer (C. elaphuselephus) of
Asia and Europe, the Rusa deer (C, timorensis) of Asia, and the Rocky
Mountain elk (C. e. nelsoni) of North America (Whitehead, 1972). Sambar has
an exceedingly wide geographical distribution that includes India, Myanmar,
Sri Lanka, Malay countries, Philippines and beyond (Prater, 1971). Sambar
have been successfully introduced to numerous locations outside their native
range e.g. into California, Gulf Prairies and Edwards Plateau regions of Texas
(Abies and Ramsey, 1974), St. Vincent Islands, Franklin Country, Florida
(Lewis et al, 1990), Australia (Slee, 1984), New Zealand (Kelton and
Skipworth, 1987), and Western Cape Province, South Africa (Lever 1985).
The Indian sub-species C. u. niger is confined to India and distributed in
thorny dry deciduous forests of Gujarat and Rajasthan, moist deciduous
forests throughout peninsular India, pine and oak forests at the Himalayan
foothills, and the evergreen and semi-evergreen forests of north-eastern India.
Sambar has been recorded to occur in 208 Protected Areas of India. The
studies related to their distribution, population, and ecological aspects have
been carried out in several major Protected Areas of India (Schaller 1967;
Johnsingh 1983; Karanth and Sunquist, 1992; Sankar, 1994; Khan et al,
1995; Biswas and Sankar, 2002; Bagchi et al, 2003). Sambar is essentially a
non-social species living a small group of less than six individuals (Schaller
1967; Prater 1971). The characteristic social unit is one doe and one fawn or
one doe, one yearling and one fawn (Schaller, 1967; Kelton, 1981; Downes,
1983). Khan et al. (1995) observed Sambar group sizes ranging from one to
five individuals in Gir. In most other areas the group size ranged from 1-5 in
more than 70% of cases (Karanth and Sunquist, 1992; Biswas and Sankar,
2002; Bagchi et al, 2004).
Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity.
Page 20
/4.
In Sambar, hard antlers were shed during the summer, fopwed.by
emerging and velvet antlers during monsoon months gradually leaatap.to
antlers. In India the peak rut of Sambar occurs between Octtpr. and
December (Johnsingh, 1983; Lydekker 1916, Schaller 1967), while the
from other countries indicate variations as per the onset of specific season as
compared to India (Kelton1981; Shea et al, 1990).
The sex ratios recorded at various locations in India are as below:
Location
Kanha
Bandipur
Nagarahole
Sariska
Gir
Texas, USA
Buck: Doe
Ratio
0.2 : 1
0.3 : 1
0.4 : 1
0.1 : 1
0.5 : 1
1 : 1
Doe: Fawn
Ratio
1 : 0.3
1 : 0.2
1 : 0.1
1 : 0.2
Reference
Schaller, 1967
Johnsingh, 1983
Karanth and Sunquist, 1992
Sankar,1994
Khan et al, 1995
Flynn et al. ,1990
In wild, Sambar has been observed to feed, graze or browse
depending upon the forage availability, on more than 139 species of plants
(Schaller, 1967; Johnsingh and Sankar, 1991; Kelton, 1981; Ngampongsai
1987; Martin 1977). Richardson (1972) reported that the diet of Sambar
greatly varied from large amount of browse in the dry season to an almost
complete dependence on grass and herbaceous plants in the wet season in
Texas. This flexibility of Sambar diet from graze to browse has enabled the
wide distribution of this species. The mean home range and annual home
range of Sambar bucks is 4 Km2 and 15 Km2, and 1.7 Km2 and 3 km2 in does.
Extreme variations have been noted for annual home range to be 40 and 20
km2 respectively for bucks and does in Florida (Richardson, 1972). Predation
(mainly by tiger, leopard and dholes) is the main cause of mortality in Sambar
(Schaller 1967). The scat analysis of predators indicated presence of Sambar
remains in 20-50% of tiger, 13-20 % of leopard and 5-10 % of dhole scats
(Johnsingh, 1983; Karanth and Sunquist, 1995; Biswas and Sankar, 2002;
Bagchi et al. 2003).
Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity.
Page 21
The Antelope
Antelope is an inhabitant of open country grass land or scrub land.
Their major assets include speed and rapid reproduction. Antelopes do not
shed their horns and these are just similar in different individuals. There are
no true antelope native to the Americas. Most familiar species of antelope are
located in Africa, but some exist in Asia as well. The Arabian peninsula is
home to the Arabian Oryx and Dorcas gazelle, while India and Southeast Asia
have the Four-horned Antelope, Tibetan antelope, Saiga antelope, Nilgai,
Chinkara, and Blackbuck.
The Antelope have acute senses of smell and hearing, which are
important for protection from predators and communication among individuals
of the same species. Many antelope are sexually dimorphic. In most species,
both sexes have horns, but those of bucks tend to be larger. In some species,
the bucks and does have different colored pelage (e.g. Blackbuck).
According to Prater (1934) and Asdell (1946), nilgai have no regular
rutting season. In central India, Brander (1923) noticed calves of free-ranging
nilgai in all seasons. In Bharatpur, most calves were born during the rainy
season (June to October), and most breeding activity occurred from October
to February, with a peak in November and December (Schaller, 1967). Data
from captive nilgai in zoos throughout the world showed that peak periods of
birth last for 3 to 4 months, but these peak months varied from location to
location (Sheffield et al, 1983; Crandall, 1964, Prater, 1971).
Antelope are polygynous with sex ratios even at birth, but become
increasingly biased towards does in older age classes (Mungall, 1978). Adult
sex ratios of 1:1.2, 1:1.7, 1:2.8 and 1: 3.5 have been recorded in various
studies (Schaller, 1967; Isvaran, 2005).
Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity,
Page 22
Antelope cervicapra (Linnaeus, 1758)
Order: Artiodactyla
Family: Bovidae
Sub-Family: Cervinae
Genus: Antelope
Species: A. cen/icapra
Common name: Blackbuck
Conservation Status
WPA (1972): Schedule I
IUCN RED DATA BOOK? Vulnerable
Cites: Appendix III
The blackbuck is a medium-sized antelope native to the Indian sub­
continent. Two sub species of blackbuck are currently recognized: the
northwestern A. c. rajputanae and the eastern and southern A. c. cen/icapra
(Groves, 1980; Ranjitsinh, 1989). Body size, horn length, and the darkness of
buck coats typically decrease from north to south and from west to east
(Dharmakumarsinhji and Gaekwad, 1958; Krishnan, 1972; Ranjitsinh, 1989).
Blackbuck historically ranged from near Peshawar (in Pakistan) in the
northwest, through the Indo-Gangetic plains, up to the plains of western
Assam in the east, centrally in the Deccan, in open plains areas along the
western coast.,of tlie peninsula, and along the eastgr;^ poastal plains to
southern Tamil Nadu (Lydekker, 1907). Within their range, they were one of
the most abundant ungulates of the plains. Herds containing many hundred
animals were reported until as recently as the early part of the 20th century
(Lydekker, 190; Stockley, 1928). The current distribution of blackbuck is much
reduced. Within India, they are found throughout a large part of their former
range (Ranjitsinh, 1989; Rahmani, 1991; Jhala, 1993a; Isvaran, 2003).
However, their populations are now small, scattered, and relatively isolated
Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity.
Page 23
and estimated to be of 29,000-38,000 individuals, both within and outside
protected areas (Rahmani,1991). Outside India, blackbucks are locally extinct
in Pakistan and Bangladesh. In Nepal, only a few small populations consisting
of
several
tens
of
individuals
currently
survive
(Khanal,
2002).
Blackbucks are group-living grazers that prefer relatively open, shortgrass habitats and avoid thick cover; this is most likely a reflection of both
foraging preferences and predator avoidance strategies (Prasad, 1981;
Ranjitsinh, 1989; Jhala, 1997). Browse can form a significant portion of their
diet (such as seed pods of species like Prosopis and Acacia) in some
seasons (Prasad, 1981; Goyal et ai, 1988; Ranjitsinh, 1989; Jhala 1997).
They rely on early threat detection and flight to avoid predation (Mungall,
1978; Ranjitsinh, 1989) and such a strategy is thought to be most successful
in open habitats (Jarman, 1974). Although blackbuck feed mostly on grasses,
Browse is likely to be most important when nutritional levels in grasses are
particularly low. Where easily accessible, blackbuck also regularly feed on
crops, such as groundnut, wheat, barley, millet, and black gram (Prasad,
1981 ;Jhala,1993b).
Historically, the cheetah was probably the main predator of blackbuck
(Gee, 1969). Currently, wolves, whenever present in an area, are the main
predator of both fawns and
adults (Ranjitsinh,
1989;
Jhala,
1991).
Studies at Velavadar in Gujarat suggest that although predation by wolves
may strongly influence population growth rates, it is unlikely to regulate
blackbuck populations, except when they crash to particularly low numbers
following catastrophic events such as floods and droughts (Jhala, 1991; Jhala
1993a). Blackbuck populations are more likely to be regulated by the quantity
and quality of forage«especia!ly when populations afe> large- (Jhala, 1993a).
Blackbucks are typically found in groups which are variable in size. The
main types of groups are does groups (adult does and immature of both
sexes), all-buck groups (adult and immature bucks), and mixed-sex groups
(adults and immature of both sexes) (Mungall, 1978; Ranjitsinh, 1982; Prasad,
1983; Isvaran, 2003). Groups do not defend exclusive home ranges and are
usually unstable. They may join, split and re-form several times during a day.
Blackbuck show remarkably large variation in group size both between
Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity.
Page 24
populations and within populations. For example, group sizes vary from 2-36
animals at Mudmal (Prasad, 1983), to 2-129 at Point Calimere (Nair, 1976),
and 2500+ at Velavadar (Isvaran, 2003). Such variation among populations
probably arises from differences between them in ecological conditions, such
as habitat structure and resource abundance (Isvaran, 2003).
The mating system of blackbuck is based on the defense of mating
territories by bucks. Territories are usually established in open areas. Bucks
use a variety of scent marks and visual displays to demarcate the areas they
defend (Ranjitsinh,
1982;
Isvaran and Jhala, 2000). Blackbuck show
extraordinary variation in mating system. Two main forms that are seen are
resource-based territoriality and lekking. In many populations, bucks defend
mating territories in areas used by does, typically along feeding circuits
(Mungall 1978, Prasad 1989).
In a few populations (e.g., Velavadar, Tal Chappar) bucks follow a rare
and unusual mating strategy called lekking (Ranjitsinh, 1982; Isvaran and
Jhala, 2000; Isvaran, 2003). Here, bucks gather on open sites .and defend
small clustered territories which are devoid of resources that typically attract
does, such as forage and water. These territories are visited by does solely
for the purpose of mating. Such territorial aggregations are called leks. This
mating system has attracted much interest because it is rare (seen in < 1 % of
mammals) and because it is associated with strong sexual selection. Buck
mating success is highly skewed, with a few bucks gaining most of the
matings (Isvaran and Jhala, 2000). In all the Indian populations studied,
blackbuck breed throughout the year. However, there are two major peaks in
rutting, one from March to April and the other from August to October
(Schaller, 1967; Ranjitsinh, 1989).
Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity.
Page 25
Boselaphus tragocamelus (Pallas, 1766)
Order: Artiodactyla
Family: Bovidae
Sub-Family: Bovinae
Tribe: Boselaphini
Genus: Boselaphus
Species: B. tragocamelus
Common name: Nilgai, Blue bull
Conservation Status
WPA (1972): Schedule ill
IUCN RED DATA BOOK: Lower risk
Nilgai are the largest antelopes in Asia, about the size of a horse.
Brander (1923) reported a 270 kg bull in central India. An adult bull stands
130 to 140 cm at the shoulder (Walker, 1968; Prater, 1971). Only bulls have
horns which are short (15-20 cm), stout, conical and smooth in nature. Nilgai
calves and cows are light brown in color. The light brown color of buck calves
begins to darken by the tenth month and they develop black legs and
brownish grey shoulders by 18 months. Adult nilgai bulls are steel-grey or
blue grey iri color with black legs, which is developed by the fourth year
(Sheffield et al, 1983). All individuals have dark and white markings on their
heads, ears, unden-parts, fetlocks, and tail, and prominent,white vibrissa spots
on the head. At the midpoint on the ventral side of the neck is a tuft of hair,
more pronounced in bulls than in cows (Sheffield et al, 1983).
Nilgai are endemic to peninsular India. They are found in 114 Protected
Areas of the country in 16 States but absent in the north-east southernmost
parts of the peninsula. Nilgai occur near human habitations and crop fields
outside protected areas. They are found in a variety of habitats, from level
Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity.
Page 26
ground to undulating hills, in thin brush with scattered trees to cultivated
plains, but not in dense forests, steep hills and true arid zones (Prater, 1971).
The nilgai groups change constantly, but three distinct kinds of groups
are discernible: (i) one or two cows with young calves, (ii) 3 to 6 adult and
yearling cows with calves, and (iii) bull groups varying in number from 2 to 18.
Sheffield et al. (1983) reported that in Texas, nilgai exhibited sexual
segregation, except during the breeding season (December to March), when
groups were formed with a bull, and one or more cows and their calves.
During the non-breeding season, especially the monsoon in India (JulyOctober), bulls were usually found in all-bull groups of less than 10
individuals, or sometimes in groups of 10 to 23, rarely more. Non-breeding
cows and their calves occur mainly in groups of less than 16, often as singles
and
occasionally
in
larger
groups
of
16
to
24
(Sankar,
1994).
Group Size
(Range)
Group Size
(Average)
Reference
Karnali-Bardia, Nepal
1-10
2.9
Dinerstein, 1980
Sariska
Gir
2-43
4.0
2.2
Sankar, 1994
Khan et al, 1995
Location
-
Data from captive-bred nilgai indicated that the sex ratio of nilgai at birth is
approximately even. Of the 535 nilgai born in zoos worldwide, 49% were bulls
and 51% cows (Jarvis, 1968). The sex ratios observed in several studies are
as below:
Location
Bharatpur
Vanvihar
Sanctuary
Sariska
Gir
Texas
Bull: Cow Cow: Calf Reference
Ratio
Ratio
Schaller and Spillett, 1966
0.59:1
0.39:1
Schaller, 1967
-
-
0.4:1
0.89:1
0.71:1
0.81:1
1:0.48
-
1:0.23
1:1.03
Sankar, 1994
Berwick and Jordan, 1971
Khan etal, 1995
Sheffield et al, 1983
Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity.
Page 27
According to Prater (1934) and Asdell (1946), nilgai have no regular
rutting season. In central India, Brander (1923) noticed calves of free-ranging
nilgai in all seasons. In Bharatpur, most calves were born during the rainy
season (June to October), and most breeding activity occurred from October
to February, with a peak in November, arid December (Schaller, 1967). Data
from captive nilgai in zoos throughout the world showed that peak periods of
birth last for 3 to 4 months, but these peak months varied from location to
location (Sheffield et al, 1983).
Predation on nilgai by large predators like tiger and leopard in Rajaji
(Johnsingh et al, 1993) and in Sariska (Sankar et al, 1993) was negligible.
The same applied for the lions in Gir (Chellam, 1993). Due to large body sizes
and gregarious habits of adult nilgaif'leopards (Panthera pardus) may find it
very difficult to hunt them down. The preference of nilgai for humandominated habitats makes them less vulnerable to predation by tiger.
Studies on nilgai food habits showed that they are browsers (Berwick,
1974; Mirza and Khan, 1975; Dinerstein, 1979; 1980) or mixed feeders
(Haque, 1990; Sankar, 1994). Nilgai can thrive upon variable proportions of
grass, herbs, and browse, subject only to a minimum requirement of protein,
which must not be below 8 per cent of their intake.
During the breeding season, mature bulls maintain an area of
dominance around themselves, whether or not cows are present. Breeding
bulls respond to intrusions into these areas from other bulls by displays,
threats, and chases, Which either results in the intruding bulls leaving, or
remaining in the area in a subordinate status. Courtship in nilgai is simple and
involves a ne'dk-strfetched-forward, tail erect display bf the’tlulir showing the
conspicuous white ventral side, and following the cow in oestrus during a
slow, sedate mating march.
Although normally silent, nilgai have several vocalizations. Adults of
both sexes, and calves as young as 5 months of age, sometimes utter a
guttural alarm, more frequently when nilgai detects a hidden motionless
observer, and especially when the wind direction is not in its favor. The alarm
Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity.
Page 28
call of cows is of a higher pitch than that of bulls. Calves also call in a higher
pitch, but much more softly (Sheffield et al, 1983). Adult bulls display their
dominance in many ways. A ‘head-up’ display consists of a raised muzzle
exposing the white throat patch to adversaries. Another display is the
‘horizontal-neck’ display, where the head and neck is held stiff and stretched
horizontal with the gular hair tuft and pinnae completing the picture. A bull
would also exhibit a ‘lateral display’ when another buck challenges him or
when walking towards a subordinate (Sheffield et al, 1983). During this
process,
the
neck
is
stretched
forward
(Sheffield
et
al,
1983).
Nilgai have a characteristic habit of defecating repeatedly in the same
location, resulting in the formation of large faecal piles or lavatory sites of
nearly a meter in diameter (BraQd.gr, 1923; Dharmakumarsinhji, 1959;
Schaller, 1967). Schaller (1967) suggested that these piles might function as
territorial markers, since the behavior is characteristic of several species of
African antelopes (Leuthold, 1977). Although there has been a reduction in
the overall range of nilgai, the existing populations seem to be doing fairly
well. Moreover, gradual degradation of dense forests into open scrub and
thickets, increasingly bordered by agricultural fields, has offered favorable
habitat conditions for the increase of nilgai numbers.
STATUS AND MANAGEMENT OF ANIMALS IN CAPTIVITY
Zoo Concept Development
The concept of keeping animals in captivity is very old and dates back
to about 1500 BC. Zoo was the first place to stu^y"'‘fiih'iMais in detail by
contemporary naturalists. Animals were kept in captivity for gaming purpose
and to introduce new species from different parts of world to Europe.
Innovations in zoo keeping and use of animals of wider aspects of scientific
studies began about 200 years before. The summary of development of zoos
and management of animals in captivity is given below:
Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity.
Page 29
1500BC
First known Zoo- built by Egyptian Queen Hatshepsut
1000BC
First known animal collection for study: “Garden of
intelligence”- finding, by Chinese emperor Wen Wang
1000 to 400BC
Greeks had public ‘zoos’ to study animals and plant life.
Aristotle was a notable teacher at a zoo. Roman kept wild
animal collection for gladiatorial combats.
A record of Greeks importing peacock from India, and
then charging admission fees as people came in hordes
to see it.
280BC
Alexandria ‘Zoo’ established by Ptolemy II.
1300 to 1600AD
Menagerie in Britain established by King Henry-I at
Woodstock, England. Global explorations brought strange
animals from other part of the world to Europe, renewing
interest of Royalty and wealthy to keep animals.
The development of modem zoos dates back to 18th century;
although significant advancement occurred during 20th century. Some details
of modern zoos are given below:
1752
First modern zoo and zoo keeping started - Imperial
Menagerie (Now Schonbrunn Zoo) at Vienna, Austria,
established by Hasborg Monarch and opened for public in
1-765.
1793-94
First zoo established for scientific study, part of the
Botanical Gardens of Paris.
1826
Zoological Society of London (ZSL) was founded. The
term ‘Zoo’ formed as a short form of Zoological
Garden.
Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity.
Page 30
1828
ZSL formed an animal collection at Regent Park, London,
taking the idea from the Paris zoo.
1830s
Circuses in US started giving way to zoos.
1854
First zoo established in India- Marble Palace Zoo of
Kolkata.
1860
First zoo established in Melbourne (Australia); and in
New York (US Central Park Zoo).
1863
Sakkarbaug Zoo established.
1889
First zoo setup to save animals on brink of extinction: the
National Zoo (now Smithsonian Zoo).
1907
First
zoo
without
bars
established
near
Hamburg
(Germany), by Carl Hagenback, an animal dealer. He
used moats, shrubbery, artificial rocks, and walkways to
provide visitors a more natural experience, and give
outdoor access to animals.
Early 1900s
Efforts started by Willium Hornaday (Founder Director of
New York Zoological Society, now known as Wildlife
Conservation Soc.) to show what zoos can do for
conservation. He also started efforts to restore the nearly
extinct American Bison to western plains. His research
led US Congress to pass the ‘Alaskan Game Act’ and
‘Migratory Birds Treaty’.
1950s
The zoo boom: entrepreneurs saw the earning potential
of zoo as entertainment. Zoos became recreational
centers and advancement of science took a back
seat.
1970s
Start of concern for welfare of animals, triggered by the
human suffering in war and captivity during World War II.
Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity.
Page 31
Public opinion started building for the animals physical
and psychologica! needs.
The environmental movement started gaining speed. It
led zoos themselves as modem ‘Noah’s Arks’ that would
rescue endangered species from the approaching flood of
extinctions
through
captive-breeding
programs
and
reintroductions.
21st Century
Zoos started moving beyond the Ark approach, and
towards protecting wildlife in wild places.
The changes in social and scientific study aspects of zoos led to further
modification of captivity conditions. The 3 major evolutionary changes the zoo
and management of zoo went through were as below:
A. Zoos as menageries for entertainment.
In the 19th century the zoos were mainly crowded cages, and
animals were subject of curiosity and study for their different
structure and physiology, i.e., the diversity of species.
B. Zoos as zoological parks: a place to study animals and their
behavior.
By the early 20th century, the zoos became true zoological
parks. After world war- II, there was a rise in concern for animal
welfare, and the cages of the zoos became larger and
sometimes open but fenced enclosures. This allowed them more
freedom to move about and display their behavior. This
triggered an interest in the study of animal behavior, their
habitats, and how they lived.
C. Zoos as centers of conservation of ecosystem
Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity.
Page 32
Today, the zoos have become centers for environmental study
and conservation. This happened when cages gave way to
open, bar-less enclosures with moats, providing more natural
habitat to the animals. With this, the animals became the subject
for study of ecosystems;f:and species survival, and the zoos
became conservation centers.
Since zoos are being seen as frontline agencies to play role in
conservation; efforts at the national, regional and international levels are
essential for further coordination. Various organizations are working at the
international level to address the global issues of conservation. Some of these
are: UNEP (United Nations Environment Program, IUCN (International Union
for Conservation of Nature), SSC'fipecies Survival Commission), WCPA
(World Commission on Protected Areas), CEM (Commission on Ecosystem
Management); Cl (Conservation International), WAZA (World Association of
Zoos and Aquarium) etc. There are various regional associations of zoos, like
AZA (American Zoo Association), EAZA (European Association of Zoo and
Aquaria), SEAZA (South-East Asian Zoos and Aquaria), SAZARC (South
Asian Zoo Association for Regional Cooperation) to tackle regional level
issues.
Central Zoo Authority of India (CZA) evaluates, regulates and monitors
the functioning of Indian Zoos, allowing only those zoos to operate that
maintain animals as per prescribes standards. Its functions include regulating.
animal acquisition, identifying endangered species and overseeing their
captive breeding execution, encouraging related research, and providing
technical and'financial assistance to zoos for their develbpfhiiit and scientific
management.
The zoo conditions are very typical and widely variable in minor to
major zoos. The conditions have changed over the years, particularly with
reference to caging facilities. Emphasis is made, during past over a decade,
on developing natural environmental conditions in captivity and therefore,
Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity.
Page 33
large open enclosures have come into existence. Following are the important
features of consideration for management of captive animals.
Caging Space and Environment
-f
The habitat or territory has important consequences for the animals in
captivity and defines correct handling and design of captive environments.
The animals can live normally in captivity if the near natural conditions are
provided; however, only limited natural simulations can be made in captivity.
The range of tolerance to alterations in the environment is variable for
different species and individuals with in a species, including age and sex
variability since Normal Adaptive Range for particular stress factor is different
for individuals. Beyond these limits the animal becomes uncomfortable and at
greater extremes of stress it may become susceptible to disease and injury.
There cannot be a standard set of parameters to check vulnerability for all the
animals but only understanding of animal’s natural state and behavior help to
improve the conditions. The positive factors may be enhanced and those
which impart certain non acceptable conditions should be avoided or
restricted.
Food and Nutritional Supplementation
The animals must have an adequate diet nutritionally to maintain a
healthy and thriving condition. The food must be of the correct bulkiness for
the digestive system. The food should be presented in such a way that the
animal spends as much time eating as it would be in the wild- The herbivores
normally spend considerable time feeding throughout the day while the
carnivores feed following hunting and then spend large time resting.
Social Structure and Breeding Requirements
Some animals are solitary, except when the does comes into season.
Some animals form single buck bachelor groups, except during the breeding
season, and many matriarchal groups consist of the older does and their
Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity.
Page 34
offspring. In any group of animals a social organization evolves, often an
elaborate hierarchical structure, especially in buck groups, involving ritual
behavioral displays. It is important to understand the social structure and
breeding requirements if the animal is to reproduce in captivity. Many species
do not come into breeding condition without the stimulus of introduction to the
opposite sex. Some species rely on the stimulus of day length to come into
season or rut. Others do not need this stimulus and are able to breed
throughout the year. An example of a problem of breeding that was solved by
studying the animal’s social structure and behavior was seen in a small herd
of Father David's deer.
Man-Animal Relationship
When an animal is moved from its own environment into captivity, it
must reconstruct a whole new world and this is an enormous task. Two types
of behaviors emerge:
1. The animal may settle down in its new environment. This is often seen in
the undeveloped, still adaptable young wild animal.
2. The animal may never settle down, even if kept in captivity for a long time.
In man's mind, the amount of space at an animal’s disposal is often regarded
as the most important consideration. It has been mentioned already that a
free animal has a specialized and limited territory, so the quality of the space
for the animal is more important than the quantity. When an animal is in
captivity there are both primary effects and secondary effects of space
restriction. The primary effect is the restriction of movement and the
secondary effects fndlude lack of diversion and occupation, no food choice,
impossibility of avoiding its own species at will, possible unsuitable
differentiation of space, anti-social behavior etc. Then there is the problem of
deciding what amount and design of space is necessary for an animal. The
flight reaction is the most significant behavior pattern of the wild animal’s life
in freedom so it should be of prime concern in captivity. In theory, the smallest
cage should have a diameter twice the flight distance (F.D.), in this way, an
Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity,
Page 35
animal could retreat to the centre of the cage away from man, who appears as
an enemy. This is often impossible to accommodate so the solution is to
reduce the flight distance and so neutralize the animal’s desire to escape.
This is possible by taming. Zoos now often receive animals bred in captivity,
whose flight distances are greatly reduced from their wild ancestors.
The layout of many zoos is dramatically changing and new zoos are
trying to approximate the open condition of the wilds. Other suggestions
include teaching animals tricks so they can perform, training them to work for
food and environmental comforts; all this helps fill in time and provides
activity. More common now is the philosophy that different zoos should
become specialist centers for certain groups of animals, rather than every zoo
keeping just one example of a species. In this way certain zoos could
specialize in rare species both for replenishing their own exhibits and for
replenishing wild stocks. There is the question of zoo animals living to old age
and suffering various ailments. This is actually unnatural in the wild where
survival of the fittest is the rule. The excessive reproduction of a species may
pose several questions since it is difficult to release them in the wild. The final
question asked by many people is: Is it really necessary to keep animals in
captivity? In some part of world the entertaining/gaming property of animals in
captivity is considered important to attract people. In India such acts are
banned by law. People will probably always go to zoos to see the animals, so
in the process they should be educated also, and it is the behavior of the
animals that provides the education.
Progressive zoo management should
promote animal behavior as a scientific field of study. The management of
animals in zoo is aimed at supporting the conservation of endangered species
by giving species, which have no chance of survival in wild, a last chance of
survival through coordinated breeding under ex-situ conditions.
Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity.
Page 36
ZOOS IN INDIA
The major objective of the zoos shall be to complement and strengthen
the national efforts in conservation and rich biodiversity of the country,
particularly the fauna.
Protocols to achieve the objectives by Central Zoo Authority, India are:
1. Supporting the conservation of endangered species by giving species,
which have no chance of survival in wild, a last chance of survival
through coordinated breeding under ex-situ condition and raise stocks to
rehabilitate them in wild as and when it is appropriate and desirable.
2. To inspire amongst zoo visitors empathy for wild animals, an
understanding and awareness about the need for conservation of natural
resources and for maintaining the ecological balance.
3. Providing opportunities for scientific studies useful for conservation in
general and creation of database for sharing between the agencies
involved in in-situ and ex-situ conservation.
4. Besides the aforesaid objectives, the zoos shall continue to function as
rescue centers for orphaned wild animals, subject to the availability of
appropriate housing and upkeep infrastructure. Where appropriate
housing and upkeep is not available, State Government and the Central
Government would ascertain setting up rescue facilities in off-the-display
areas of the zoo, subject to the availability of land.
More than three hundred zoos have been established in India including
various small Deer Parks. A list of early established zoos is presented below:
Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity.
Page 37
1.
Marble Palace Zoo, Calcutta --1854
2.
Lalbaug Zoo, Bangalore --1855
3.
Sakkarbaug Zoo, Junagadh - 1863
4.
Kota Zoo, Kota -1865
5.
VJB Udyan Zoo, Mumbai -,4873
6.
Alipur Zoo, Calcutta --1875
7.
Jaipur Zoo, Jaipur - 1877
8.
Hyderabad Zoo, Hyderabad - 1877
9.
Udaipur zoo, Udaipur --1878
10.
Sayajibaug Zoo, Vadodara --1879
11.
Shivaganga Gardens Mini Zoo, Tanjore --1882
12.
Trichur State Museum and Zpp, Trichur - 1885
13.
Chamarajendra Zoological Gardens, Mysore --1892
14.
M. S. Chattrapadhy Zoo, Kholapur --1893
15.
Maharaj Baug Zoo, Nagpur --1894
16.
Prince of Wales Zoo, Lucknow --1921
17.
Gandhi Zoological Park, Gwalior - 1922
18.
Bikaner Zoo, Bikaner - 1922
19.
Jodphur Zoo, Jodphur - 1936
The other zoos in Gujarat are listed below:
1.
Kamala Nehra Zoological Garden, Ahmedabad - 1951
2.
Bal Bhavan Children's Dreamland, Rajkot - 1956
3.
Indroda Nature Park, Gandhinagar - 1978
4.
Sundervan Nature Discovery Centre, Ahmedabad - 1979
5.
Fertilizerhagar Deer Park, Vadodara - 1983
6.
Surat Municiple Zoo, Surat - 1983
7.
Rajkot Municiple Zoo, Rajkot - 1987
8.
Nature Education Centre, Jamnagar - 1989
....
.
QHHBHMj
Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity.
Page 38
Status of Sakkar Baug Zoo, Junagadh
Junagadh (21:31: N latitude, 070: Hg: E longitude; t 05:30 time zone,
82 m to 92 m above MSL) is one of the major cities of Saurashtra province of
Gujarat state, Sakkarbaug Zoo (SBZ) is situated on the outskirts of Junagadh
city in the western foothills of mount Girnar (Fig. 1, Plate 1), The Sakkarbaug
Zoo was established in 1863 by erstwhile Nawab of Junagadh, H, H.
Mahobatkhan Babi-II. It is the third oldest and second largest zoo in India and
the only major zoo of Gujarat state. Although, it is one of the oldest zoos in
the country the cages meet the present caging requirements prescribed by
the Central Zoo Authority of India. The area of old zoo is six hectares while
the recently acquired area between the old zoo and Girnar foothills
encompasses to 192 hectares of land1 (Plates 1).
The Sakkarbaug zoo accommodates 29 species of mammals, 30
species of birds and 11 species of reptiles. It also houses aquaria. Thus a
total of 1043 wild fauna are housed in different enclosures. The new area was
degraded forest land, completely devastated because of years of uncontrolled
black stone mining. The new area is being utilized for herbivore enclosures
and moated enclosures for carnivores.
Each of the enclosure, in the old zoo, is having a fairly large outer
space with some grass on the floor and enough vegetation in and around.the
cage, providing adequate sunlight and shade to the animals. The outer
enclosures are connected to a sufficiently large animal house, and individual
feeding cells. Many of the enclosures are having underground breeding den,
which providesgan. .excellent site to a shy feline for mating,,and subsequent
rearing of newborns. The zoo maintains all the predator species like, Asiatic
Lion (Panthera leo persica), Panther (Panthera pardus), and Crocodile
(Crocodylus palustris), whereas, prey species are represented by Spotted
Deer
(Axis
axis),
Sambar
(Cervus
unicoior),
Nilgai
(Boselephus
tregocemeius), Four Horned Antelope (Tetracerus quadricornis) and Chinkara
(Gazella bennettii). In addition, the Bengal Tiger (Panthera tigris tigris),
various species of primates, ungulates, bears, snakes, birds, as well as
Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity.
Page 39
aquarium fishes are exhibited for educational purposes. Recently two pairs of
Cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus) were included and thus SBZ is the first Indian zoo
to cage Cheetah.
Sakkarbaug Zoo is one of the few Zoos in the country that interacts
with a wildlife sanctuary. From its inception, the zoo has rendered health,
medical and rescue services for the last surviving group of Asiatic Lion in
India of the Gir Sanctuary and National Park. Sakkarbaug zoo is a “specialist
zoo”, concentrating its space, attention and resources on local fauna typical of
the Gir forest and surrounding western India. The Sakkarbaug zoo has
maintained the purity of its stock of Asiatic Lion (Panthera leo persica) and
this is recognized the world over. This zoo has bred more than 200 lions in
captivity over past 30 years. Sharing the fruits of success and to achieve a
healthy captive population of this species over the world, this zoo has
supplied around 150 lions in last 50 years to different Zoological collection of
India and abroad. Similarly the Sakkarbaug zoo is renowned for the breeding
of other highly endangered species of wild animals like Indian Wild Ass,
Indian Wolf and Four Horned Antelope. At present it is proudly holding a
healthy population of these species in captivity.
The SBZ has been allotted special grants by CZA,
India, for
development of Vulture Breeding Centre, the second of its kind in India.
Since its inception the Sakkarbaug Zoo has developed ahead of time
and emerged as one of the important zoos of India. Some details of SBZ
timeline as follows:
Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity,
Page 40
1863
Establishment of Sakkarbaug Zoo by Nawab of Junagadh.
1867-1947
Management of Zoo by Zoological Superintendent, Junagadh
State.
1947-1960
Management of Zoo by Zoo Superintendent, Education
Department, Mumbai State.
The zoo had total 144 animals including 9 Asiatic Lions, 6
African Lions, 4 Tigers, 1 Leopard, 1 African Cheetah, Otter
and Rattle.
1960
The Zoo management landed over to Gujarat State Forest
Department.
1985-1990
Protest against stone mining activity in Girnar foothills and
periphery. Judicial action to ban the mining.
1990-1992
192 hectares of reserve forest adjoining zoo campus allotted
to SBZ for further development.
Following the formation of Central Zoo Authority in 1991 and
the new zoo policy, SBZ adopted modern development
approaches.
Mining
areas
utilized to
develop
moated
enclosures for carnivores. Recognized as Large Zoo by CZA.
2006-2007
2 hectare land allotted by Junagadh Agriculture University to
develop herbivore enclosures.
Animal rescue, health and welfare: The zoo provides very essential rescue
and treatment services to wild fauna of Gir lion Sanctuary and other parts of
Gujarat, Capturing of wounded or sick wild animals through remote darting
equipment is a routine service being extended by this zoo to the wildlife of
Gujarat. Artificial rearing of orphan young ones is yet another success story of
Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity.
Page 41
this zoo. Quite often young ones of different animals are brought from the wild
for further nursing and care at the zoo. In a similar manner some of the wild
animals at the zoo are negligent to their newborn and for the survival of such
animals it is required to nurse them by artificial means. Within last 5 years,
young ones of 15 lion, 3 leopards, ,6 hyenas and 6 ungulates have been
successfully reared at the zoo.
Hygiene is maintained in the cages and random fecal samples are
examined for parasitic infections. All the animals are treated for deworming at
regular intervals and the young ones and birds are periodically vaccinated.
Scientific disease investigation and diagnosis is carried out at the zoo
laboratory and all routine investigations like hematology, serum chemistry,
bacterial culture, drug sensitivity and histopathology are carried out on routine
bases. The zoo has a well equipped veterinary hospital where all routine
treatments and surgeries are carried out. For specific diagnosis and major
surgical interventions, expert help is sought from College of Veterinary and
Animal Husbandry, Anand, Gujarat.
Educational activities: The zoo has developed an orientation centre that
describes the peculiarities and status of wild animals in simple educational
modes (Plate 2). Due to encouraging floral and faunal diversity and beautiful
landscaping, site for nature education camps has been developed, where
regular nature education camps are organized to create environmental
awareness in the society. Sakkarbaug zoo is deeply involved in the promotion
of conservation education activities like, Nature Education Camps for school
and college children and celebration of special events such as Wildlife Week,
World Forestry Day, World Environment Day, Animat Welfare Fortnight etc.,
with a variety of competitions and programmes. The involvement of people
from the villages surrounding the Gir is encouraged.
Research and training activities: The Sakkarbaug zoo is actively involved in
various kinds of research, and till date it has published more than 20 scientific
articles related to various diseases in wild animals, breeding biology of some
species of birds in captivity, roosting of bats and presence of heronry in Zoo
Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity,
Page 42
premises, checklist of resident and migratory species of birds in the zoo etc (
Patel, 1998; Sabapara and Singh, 1998; Devkar et al, 2006 a-d). Students
from different colleges are encouraged to take up their post graduate research
project on various aspects of wildlife biology at the zoo and so far 6 students
have successfully completed their studies (Khanpara, 2004: Devkar et al,
2006 a-d).
Sakkarbaug zoo in collaboration with Animal Husbandry Department of
the state offers a short-term training course to veterinarians. During the
training a fundamental knowledge about wildlife management and diseases,
with a special emphasis on the wildlife capturing techniques are imparted to
the trainees. Up till now, around 100 qualified veterinarians have under gone
the training programme. Students of the veterinary collages accomplish their
internship programme and learn basics of the diseases and management of
wildlife in the zoo. Till date more than 200 students have been given such
training. Students from the wildlife and forest institutes of India are also
trained in wildlife and forest management. Zoo offers a special training to the
employees of the State Forest Department on wildlife capturing technique and
first aid to wild animals.
Conservation breeding program: Breeding for conservation is a major
objective of any zoo in recent years; going on the same line this zoo is using
more of its space and resources for the conservation of endangered species
like Asiatic lion, Indian wild ass, Indian wolf, four horned antelope, Royal
Bengal tiger, Chinkara etc. The following table indicates the abstract of zoo
animals housed from the year 2001 -2006.
Species
Mammals
Birds
Reptiles
Total
2001-02
2002-03
2003-04
2004-05
2005-06
315
587
040
942
346
592
045
993
365
665
051
1081
378
563
49
990
417
564
62
1043
Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity.
Page 43
Visitors: This Zoo witnesses a heavy inflow of visitors throughout the year,
especially during winter season that coincides with various religious fairs
arranged locally in Junagadh. Following is a table showing month wise
number of visitors visiting this zoo in last ten years.
Month
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
Jan
64591
97354
86902
48359
83945
75640
70038
Feb
81272
77114
48233
27318
40901
40468
69621
Mar
49210
56499
65239
17070
17493
85201
38135
Apr
47958
45253
39509
31472
32839
25985
32038
May
60464
82055
80098
35634
39505
48323
64509
Jun
40539
77253
58852 • . *31687
26267
38284
44431
Jul
27549
36200
31679
23097
27602
18686
28937
Aug
86219
53525
70007
49446
26350
46798
29681
Sep
40614
84925
41424
27356
57423
25806
63378
Oct
87008
39601
35777
21141
21056
53927
23888
Nov
89014
167414
96309
113477
125469
104164
159689
Dec
89014
76143
59198
70855
60412
97984
74302
Total
763452
893336
713227
496912
559262
661266
698647
Issues Related to Management
The sprawling urbanization of Junagadh city has now engulfed the
Sakkarbaug Zoo from two sides and the Zoo is facing related problems of
security. Nearly eight lakh visitors visit the Zoo ^ery l’year. This puts
tremendous pressure on wildlife that breeds within the enclosures. High
tourist inflow during the breeding seasons of majority of wild animals is
another issue of serious concern. Increase in lamp posts and illumination
within the zoo for security reasons raises concerns of its effect on circadian
rhythm of wild animals and birds. The Zoo hospital and laboratory needs
Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity.
Page 44
upgradation and advancement. An occasional seasonal flood in adjacent
Sonrakh River spells danger for the captive wildlife.
OVERALL UNDERSTANDING AND LACUNAE OF KNOWLEDGE
The survey of Indian literature oiearly reveals that although extensive
work has been carried out on ungulates, it is mostly concerned with the wild
ungulates and primarily in the tiger reserves. Even other wilderness areas of
India have been less explored for basic research. In Gujarat, the Black buck in
Velavadar National Park and Spotted deer and Sambar in Gir Sanctuary and
National Park were studies for their ecology in considerable details more than
two decades before. However, the information on captivity condition
influences is rather very sparse. At international level, the captivity studies are
focused not for conservation but also for commercial purposes. The animals
under study are protected by law in India while in most other countries they
are treated as cultivable animals. The findings of international studies,
therefore, cannot be replicated in India for conservation and management
considerations. We need to generate first hand information and our own
strategy and action plans for management of animals in captivity. The lacuna
of information is, therefore, very wide.
Gir PA has generated research outcome in the form of several Ph. D.
dissertations and
also
Master’s
projects.
Although,
Sakkarbaug Zoo,
Junagadh, is of equal significance and an equivalent partner in the
conservation of Asiatic lion such studies had not been initiated so far,
although, routine activities of the Zoo produces extensive data on captive
breeding of. birds,, and^mammals, health status of various captive animals and
animals under treatment from various areas of Gujarat.
Since Sakkarbaug Zoo is one of the oldest and second largest zoo of
our country, it has most recent and modern facilities developed for captive
animals as per the guidelines of CZA, it has initiated several innovative steps
in conservation, education and awareness programmes; it was thought
worthwhile to initiate research on the behavioral aspects of captive ungulates
Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity.
Page 45
so as to generate significant data that can comprehensively compare and
correlate it with data generated so far for wild ungulates and help in defining
the better captive conditions and understand responses of animals to the
influences of captivity.
Present work outcome appears'tb me as huge data; however, it is only
a bit with reference to the understanding and knowledge essentially required
to actually study the captive conditions, their influences and behavioral
responses of ungulates.
INITIATION OF RESEARCH IDEA
'Mr
Wildlife studies have always been my hobby and subject of interest.
Although curious about it, however, I had no idea on behavioral aspects of
zoo animals. My visits to zoo and the Gir forest had been primarily for bird
watching and secondarily to know and understand the ecology, and
environment.
During post graduation studies, I worked on the topic
“Residential and migratory birds of Sakkarbaug zoo of Junagadh”. This gave
me an opportunity to stay in the zoo for an extended time period, few hours a
day, and brought me more close to the captive animals. I realized that the
Central Zoo Authority has laid down several regulative measures for the
management of zoo animals; however, people’s participation is essentially
required to enforce them.
Unfortunately,
people both knowingly and
unknowingly disturb the animals by providing variety of food stuff and even
non palatable items. The teasing of animals is most common in any zoo, even
though the security'Ts alert. I found during my stayr-MII&4fiit at times the
visitors enjoyed by being cruel to the animals. In India the educational
institutions are closed for several days during October to December and
hence maximum visitor density is seen during this time period. This
unfortunately coincides with the breeding season of most of the animals. The
disturbance to animals hinders their routine activities as well as breeding
performance.
Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity.
Page 46
Sakkarbaug zoo is associated with Gir sanctuary and National Park for
conservation and management of animals and also it is the prime centre for
animal’s health surveillance. Research on general ecology to animal specific
studies has been carried out over past three decades in Gir forest area. A few
sporadic studies on carnivores in Sakkarbaug zoo assessed the blood
chemistry and endoparasitic load. However, the studies directly supporting or
strengthening the routine management of animals in captivity are lacking. A
discussion with authorities of zoo and Department of Forests, Government of
Gujarat suggested that such studies were very few even at national level. The
herbivores, particularly deer species which are the animals of people’s
attraction, were probably negligently spared.
My year long association with the birds during post graduation studies,
however, forced me to look at these more vulnerable species in cages. The
activity patterns and behavioral displays of these animals further attracted me
towards this particular area of research. Being enthusiastic I wanted to study
many more animals but had to restrict for the ungulate species.
Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity.
Page 47
Plate 1
A. Location of Sakkarbaug Zoo in Junagadh city.
B. Visitors in zoo near ungulate enclosure.
Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity.
A. yp
Jtm^ JLVJH JRS0
y
y «
OBJECTIVES
1. To monitor general behavior and related changes on a seasonal basis.
2. To assess changes in dietary requirements and food preferences on a
seasonal basis.
3. To monitor reproductive cycles of various ungulate species in captive
environment on a seasonal basis.
4. To monitor Annual antler cycles of the deer species.
5. To assess fawning ratio and neonate mortality.
6. To develop a management strategy for ungulate species in captivity.
Khanpara: Breeding Biology and Behavior of Ungulates in Captivity.
Page 48