Download Maintenance and Reproduction Guided Notes

Maintenance and Reproduction Guided Notes
Name: _________________________
Respiratory System
Flow of air
1. Air enters through the _________________________ (nostrils)
2. _________________________

Nasal cavity is lined with ___________________________________ epithelial tissue that
_______________ __________________ and sweep them towards the throat to be swallowed and
digested.

Contains three lobes (__________________) which increase the surface area of mucosa exposed to air
to better trap particles
3. ___________________________

____________________________________________

Contains tonsils
4. ___________________________________(aka voice box)

___________________________________________________________________________________.

___________________________is located at the top of larynx. Normally it allows free passage of air,
but when we swallow, the larynx is pulled up and the epiglottis tips over, sealing off the larynx.

The _____________________– a pair of membranes that vibrate as we expel air are also in the larynx.
The passage between the vocal cords is the _________________________.
5. ____________________________

also contains ciliated mucosa to trap particles
6. ____________________________

Largest air tubes of lungs
7. _______________________________

Smallest of the air tubes
8. _______________________________

Site of gas exchange

Take up most of the space of the longs

Covered with capillaries to exchange gasses with blood.
Other important structures
»
_____________________________________________
•
____________________in the skull bones
•
Act as _________________________________ for speech and produce ____________________
•
Sinusitis = inflammation of sinus membranes
 ________________________________________________
•
__________________________________________________________
•
Fluid-filled space __________________________ as lungs expand and contract
•
Tightly bound to thorax wall, which is essential to breathing b/c it allows the lungs to expand and
contract with muscular movement.
Making connections
»
What structures in the respiratory system help with disease prevention? Are those structures specific or nonspecific defenses?
»
Name some similarities between the cardiovascular and respiratory systems.
Inspiration and Expiration
»
»
Inspiration
•
______________________________________________, ___________________ the chest cavity and
the lung capacity.
•
Causes a ____________________________________ within the lungs.
•
Air rushes into the lungs.
Expiration
•
________________________________________________, ___________________ the chest cavity and
the lung capacity.
•
Causes an _________________________________ in pressure within the lungs.
•
Air rushes into the lungs.
Exhalation is normally passive (we just relax muscles, we do not contract any), but we CAN actively exhale and
do after exercise.
How does the process of breathing help the cardiovascular system?
Regulation of breathing
»
Breathing rate is controlled by
respiratory centers in the
__________ and
_____________.
»
There is a ‘normal’ rate of
inspiration (12 -15 breaths /
min) maintained by selfexciting cells
»
Many sensory inputs act to
increase or decrease this
normal
»
Low O2 ↑
»
High CO2 ↑
»
Low blood pH ↑
»
Irritants/stretch ↑
»
High body temp ↑
»
Emotions ↑↓
»
Volition ↑↓
Normally, which is the primary control of breathing – O2 levels or CO2 levels?
How is breathing regulation similar to and different from heart beat regulation?
Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)
»
3rd or 4th leading cause of death (after heart disease and cancer, about tied with stroke)
»
Inability of air to get to capillaries of lungs
»
Two major diseases associated with COPD
»
________________________________ _____________________________________________
»
_____________________________________________________________________________
How does each disease reduce gas exchange?
COPD is strongly associated with smoking, but it can also be caused by air pollution
COPD is also characterized by high
CO2 levels – so high, that overtime,
the body starts to ignore that
information and focus on O2 levels
Digestive System
Functions
1. _____________________________ (intake of food)
2. _____________________________ (physical and chemical break down of food)
3. ______________________________ (passage of chemicals into blood or lymph)
4. _______________________________ (elimination of indigestible substances as feces)
Structures
Divided into:
•
•
_____________________________________________________________
• Mouth
• Pharynx
• Esophagus
• Stomach
• Small intestine
• Large intestine
• Rectum
_______________________________________________________________
• Teeth
• Tongue
• Gallbladder
• Salivary glands
• Pancreas
• liver
Digestive Organ Functions
1. ________________________________________
•
•
______________________ mechanically digest food
_________________________
• cleans mouth (contains many antimicrobial chemicals)
• chemically digests food (the enzyme amylase breaks down starch into sugar)
• ______________________ repositions food and helps form a __________________that can be
swallowed
2. __________________________________•
Passage for food, water, and air
3. _________________________________________
•
Passage to stomach for food and water only
•
____________________________________________ is composed of muscles at the lower end of
espophagus that prevent stomach contents and acids from traveling back up the esophagus.
Food is moved through the GI tract by __________________________ – ______________________________ &
__________________________________ in the walls of the GI tract
4. _____________________________
•
_____________________________________ food by churning and mixing it, to form
____________________.
•
_________________________________ food by releasing extremely acidic gastric juice which contains
HCl and proteases, such as pepsin, that __________________________________ into amino acids
•
_________________________________________ (alcohol, aspirin, other drugs)
5. ____________________________________
•
•
___________________________is completed here

Sm. intestine produces _____________________________, which is alkaline and contains some
digestive enzymes

____________________ is produced by the liver, stored by the gall bladder, and is dumped into
the small intestine. It digests fats.

Pancreas releases _________________________________into the small intestine. Include
proteases, lipases, amylase, and nucleases.
________________________________________

Digested carbohydrates, fats, proteins, nucleic acids, vitamins, electrolytes, and some water
absorbed
6. _______________________________________________________
•
Absorption of water, electrolytes, and some vitamins
•
Everything not absorbed is expelled by rectum as feces
Absorption
Absorption occurs when nutrients pass out of the alimentary canal and into the blood capillaries (water-soluble
nutrients) or lymph lacteal (fat-soluble nutrients).
Some nutrients are absorbed through diffusion, but many require active transport.
The small intestine has many adaptations for absorption:
•
•
Enormous surface area due to: long length (20 ft), folds, and numerous villi & microvilli
SLOOOW movement of chyme (3-6 hours)
Review
What is digestion, and in which structures does it occur?
How does the process of digestion differ for different foods?
What is absorption, and in which structures does it occur?
Urinary System
Function
»
The urinary system produces ______________________. The production of urine has three main functions:
1) ___________________________________ products of metabolism, especially urea
2) _____________________________ – control of the water, salt, and acid-base balance of the body
3) _______________________________________
»
Other functions
1) _______________________________________ through production of enzyme ___________
2) Stimulation of _________________________________________ of hormone ________________
3) Conversion of ________________________ to active form
Organs of the Urinary System
Kidney Structure
»
Urine is produced in the ____________________ by the ____________________. The nephrons are the
functional unit of the kidney.
»
Urine is concentrated in the ________________________
»
Urine collects in the __________________, then flows into the __________________ then to the
___________________.
Nephron Structure
»
A nephron consists of 4 main parts:
˃ Bowman’s capsule
˃ Proximal convoluted tubule
˃ Loop of Henle
˃ Distal convoluted tubule
Each nephron empties into a collecting duct
The tubules of the nephron
contain _____________ – the
urine that is in process of
being formed.

Capillaries twine all around the nephron … why?

Most nephrons are entirely within the cortex; some have loops of Henle that extend into the medulla
Nephrons and Urine Formation
There are three steps to urine formation
»
____________________________________
»
____________________________________
»
_____________________________________
Filtration
»
Blood from the ________________________________________________________________ due to extremely
________________________ in capillaries
»
Filtration is based on _________________ only. Small items (everything in blood ________________________
___________________________) enter the Bowman’s capsule.
»
Passive process
Reabsorption
»
Reabsorption of important
molecules
(_____________________________
___________) from tubules to
capillaries
»
Some reabsorption is passive, but
most relies on
______________________________
________
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Different materials are reabsorbed
in different sections (see diagram)
Secretion
»
____________________ of unwanted materials from capillaries to filtrate
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Useful for larger molecules (some _____________ and ______________) and for regulation of ______________
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Occurs in convoluted tubules (esp. distal)
Loop of Henle
»
Responsible for most of the _____________ and some
___________ _______________________________
»
Uses a _____________________________________________ 
by having the fluid flow in opposite direction, the exchange of
materials can be maximized or minimized
»
The loop dips into increasingly salty medulla to extract as much
water as possible from the filtrate
Descending loop of Henle
Ascending loop of Henle
»
Descending loop is permeable to water, but impermeable to salt
»
So, water passively diffuses from the loop of Henle into the
interstitial fluid (and then into the peritubular capillaries)
»
Ascending loop is impermeable to water, but permeable to salt
»
So, water CANNOT re-enter the tubules, despite the fact that the filtrate is now more concentrated then the
interstitial fluid
»
NaCl first moves passively out of the loop, then is actively transported out. This both retains our salts and
creates the salty medulla environment
Collecting Duct Osmoregulation
»
The reabsorption of water in the collecting duct is controlled by hormones.
»
If blood solute concentration is _______________________, the pituitary releases _______________________
______________________________ which opens ______________________ in the collecting duct, making it
__________________________ to water.
»
If blood solute concentration is _______________________, aquaporins are closed, making the duct
______________________________to water
»
If you are dehydrated, will you produce ADH?
»
If you produce ADH, will you produce a lot of urine, or a little urine?
Label as with / without ADH
Think, Pair Share – Explain these values
Reproductive System
Male reproductive system functions
•
Testes –
•
_____________________________________________________________________
•
_____________________________________________
Testosterone
•
•
•
Causes development of reproductive organs and ________________________________________
(increased hair growth, thickening of bones, deepening of bones, and enlargement of muscles)
•
Responsible for sex drive
•
Supports sperm formation
epididymis –
•
Storage and final ___________________________________ for sperm
•
_________________ during ejaculation to push sperm into ductus deferens
Ductus deferens carries sperm to _________________________. The ejaculatory duct then joins the
_____________.
•
The accessory glands (seminal vesicles, prostate, and bulbourethal gland) produce most of the fluid that makes
up semen.
•
___________________________ – produce fluid that nourishes and activates sperm
•
_______________________________ – produces fluid that activates sperm
•
___________________________ – produces fluid before ejaculation that reduces acidity of urethra and
acts as lubricant for sexual intercourse
•
The scrotum contains the testes and helps maintain optimal temperatures for sperm production by hanging
loosely (at high temps) or wrinkling up (at low temps).
•
Erection occurs when the erectile tissue of the penis fills with blood, making the penis larger and rigid.
Female Reproductive System
Female Reproductive System Functions
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Ovaries
•
Produce ___________________(eggs)
•
Produces _________________________
• develop female sexual characteristics
• Establish menstrual cycle and supports growth of endometrium
•
Produces ______________________
• Establishes menstrual cycle
• Supports pregnancy and milk production
•
Uterus
•
Receives & nourishes fertilized eggs to support pregnancy
•
Normally size of pear
•
__________________________ is inner lining. This builds up every month in order to allow
implantation of fertilized egg, but sloughs off (menstruation) if zygote does not successfully implant and
grow.
•
__________________________is muscular wall.
•
______________________is the opening; prevents premature birth. Opens fully to 10 cm diameter
during earliest stages of labor
Menstrual Cycle
•
Day 0 is first day of menses
•
Normal cycle varies from 22-34 days
•
No matter what cycle length, ovulation occurs ~14 days prior to menstruation
Human Development
Week 0 – Start of Menstruation & Follicle development
• Pregnancy is always backdated to the start of menstruation
• At this point in time, several _________________ will start to develop.
Week 2: Fertilization
•
After ovulation, the egg travels to the fallopian tube, where it remains viable for 24 hours.
•
Sperm travel up the vagina, through the cervix, through the uterus, and into the fallopian tubes to
meet the egg.
•
Sperm are attracted to chemicals released by the egg
•
Many sperm surround the egg, and attempt to penetrate the oocyte. Fertilization occurs when one
sperm penetrates the egg to form a fertilized egg, or ________________.
Week 3: Cleavage and Differentiation
It takes about 3 days for the zygote to reach the uterus
During this time, the zygote divides (cleaves) many, many times, forming
a hollow ball of undifferentiated cells called a _____________________.
The blastula releases _________________________________ (hCG)
which tells the woman’s body to maintain the endometrial lining.
During gastrulation, the cells begin to ___________________________:
some layers will give rise to different body systems in the embryo,
other layers will form the placenta and umbilical cord.
Week 4: Implantation
The blastula starts to __________________________________________
around week 3, and this process is completed in week 4.
One endometrial tissue has completely grown over the embryo, it is said
to be ______________________________.
By week four, the blastula has a begun to develop a ___________________________________ that exchanges
nutrients, oxygen, and wastes with mother’s blood supply
Weeks 5-8: Embryonic Development
The _________________________________ period is the most sensitive time of development. Toxins,
disease, drugs can damage the embryo.
All body systems are –more or less – formed by 8 weeks gestation.
Heart is beating since week 6
Weeks 10+ Fetal Development
A baby is a ________________ from 10 weeks gestation until birth.
During this time the organ systems continue to grow and mature.
Last systems to mature are nervous and respiratory.
A baby born prematurely may need respiratory therapy (e.g. oxygen) and a feeding tube (because the
premature babies can’t coordinate breathing with sucking and swallowing).
Childbirth Hormones
• In the days leading up to childbirth, ____________________________ levels fall and
________________________ levels rise.
• Two other hormones are also produced: ________________________ and
__________________________.
 more _________________________________, and ___________________________________
True labor begins when contractions become regular and increase in intensity. Starts a positive feedback loop
_________________________  ____________________________  contractions  oxytocin release
Stages of Labor
1) __________________________________
 Contractions push baby’s head against
cervix and also pull on the cervix, causing it to
soften and open up to 10 cm.
 Longest lasting stage 6 – 12 hours ++
 Rupture of amniotic sac
(breaking the water) occurs at during this stage
2) ________________________________________
 Woman actively pushes the baby out
 Lasts 30 min – 2 hours
 Head comes out first
3) ______________________________
 ~15 minutes after the baby is born, the
placenta is expelled.