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Writing Skills and Style Guide For the Bachelor Program in Cultural Anthropology and Development Sociology and the Master Program in Cultural and Social Anthropology at the UvA Amsterdam, March 2015 Table of Contents 1. Reading and Listening 1.1 Reading Skills 1.2 Listening Skills 3 3 5 2. Writing 2.1 Format and layout 2.2 Style: Rules and Tips 2.3 The Structure of a Text 2.4 Quoting and Paraphrasing 2.5 Preventing Plagiarism 2.6 Literature References 2.7 Figures, Illustrations, and Tables 2.8 The Revision Phase 2.9 Types of Assignments 6 6 6 9 13 15 16 20 20 22 26 3. Presentations 3.1 What to do/what not to do 3.2 Public Speaking 26 28 2 1. Reading and Listening 1.1 Reading Skills When you study at a university, you should have an adequate knowledge of how to read scientific texts. In this context, "reading" means that you must both understand a text as well as its specific arguments. Academic literacy demands a critical approach where you must keep several questions in mind: how do you recognize important themes, arguments, and counter-arguments in an anthropological text? How is an argument structured? How do you distinguish an author's main points from their minor points? Before you begin to ask yourself these questions, it is helpful to obtain an initial impression of the text that you will read. With an ethnography (an anthropological monograph), first browse through the table of contents and skim the chapters, especially the introduction and conclusion. What are the titles of the chapters and the sub-headings of each section? You will quickly get an idea of what the book is roughly about, as well as the general content of each section. In monographs, the introduction will usually indicate the author's line of argumentation (the main problem will be presented and the structure of the book will be laid out), and the conclusion provides a summary or a review of the argument. It may therefore be useful to read the introduction and conclusion first before you delve into the rest of the book, so that you can get a better overview of the whole. The same is often true when you deal with the chapters: the introduction to each chapter is usually an indication of what the author wishes to highlight in that chapter, and the conclusion is a sort of a look back at the chapter. It is also helpful to read the first and last paragraphs before you read the rest of the chapter. Most articles will have an abstract: a short summary of the article, including the most important points that the author wishes to underline. Most anthropological (and other social scientific) texts feature four elements: – a research question or a research problem; – data or information that is used to back up an answer to the research question or problem; – an explanation or interpretation of the answer; 3 – question, data, and analysis organized in the form of an argument. When you read, keep these elements in mind, especially the relationship between the data and the conclusion. What does the author want to find out, account for, or explain? Which academic debates does he or she wish to contribute to? Passages where an author puts forth a specific position or stance in relation to other authors are important and require your attention. Try to follow the reasoning of the author and verify if their argument, explanation, or analysis holds water, or if it can be refuted. How are the facts and claims argued and represented? Has the author done justice to the original theory, or is her/his representation incomplete or even incorrect? To what extent is there a clear link between the data and the conclusions? How does the argument relate to analyses of the same topic by other researchers? Remember that there can never be a completely "neutral" or "objective" description in anthropological work. The author provides an interpretation of (part of) the social reality, based on anthropological research - which by its very nature is intersubjective. After all, this interpretation is produced by the interaction with members of the group that is being examined, and is influenced by the interests and preconceived knowledge of both the researcher and the informants. The theoretical perspective of the anthropologist also affects the selection and analysis of data. Anthropological methodology pays specific attention to this issue. Pay attention to signal words that indicate that an author is about to say something important. Phrases like "I argue that," "It is my argument," or "It is my hypothesis" signal that an argument will follow. When authors come to a conclusion, they use words such as "Thus," "Consequently," "In conclusion," "To conclude," or "To sum up." Often these words are deliberately used at the beginning of a sentence - the author wants you to notice them. Also pay attention to definitions of concepts (or if definitions of concepts are lacking) and passages where the author argues how their ethnography or argument relates to other ethnographic work or theoretical perspectives. Make notes while you read! In summarizing the literature, you can also take notes on key quotes that reflect the author's main ideas and the central argument(s) of the author (key phrases). You can use these phrases if you paraphrase (if you write them in your own words), but write them down literally first. Make sure you write down the page numbers of the original text when you make notes on an article or a monograph, so that you can find the passages again, as well as direct the reader to the correct reference. Do this systematically. 4 Use key words in your summary, so that it is easy to recognize which topic(s) you have summarized. Also write down any comments and criticism based on what you read in the text. As you can see, reading and writing go hand in hand. You must also take notes when you listen to lectures and presentations. 1.2 Listening Skills Listening is an undervalued academic skill. You should be able to separate the wheat from the chaff when listening to someone give a talk in a lecture or tutorial. What is important? What are the key points of the argument? Does the speaker's argument make sense or does it contain contradictions? What kinds of rhetorical devices are used? Good listening requires concentration, which means that you will need to write down notes while you listen. Students often ask whether the contents of a lecture will be made available on Blackboard. Many lecturers feel reluctant to do this, because learning to listen is important. This does not only apply to lectures or seminars; during research, whether in informal conversations or formal interviews, anthropologists must always be mindful of what informants say (or withhold) as well as how things are phrased. They must always weigh and note down the importance of what is being said – including slips of the tongue, hesitations, or silences. What informants say rarely matches exactly what they do. Your written notes can sometimes tell you a more nuanced story. Therefore, even if you are reading or listening, you will often have to write. A good beginning will lessen your workload later, but notes on their own do not form a clearly structured text. Creating good (field) notes is at the heart of the practice of anthropology. 5 2. Writing "The one instrument anthropologists have that really matters is language. The competent anthropologist is a competent writer. Teaching how to write effectually should be a core part of the curriculum."1 Virtually every component of a course has at least one written assignment: an essay, a position paper, a book review, or a thesis. It is therefore important to quickly get the hang of the appropriate writing skills. This Writing Skills and Style Guide provides the basis for this. 2.1 Format and Layout All your written work should be accompanied by a title page with a title, your name, your student number, the name of the course, the name of the lecturer, the total word count of your text, and the date. The text should be printed on A4 paper and stapled. Use a generous layout: a margin of around 2,5 centimeters; a line spacing of 1,5, and a 12-point font. You must align your text to the left. You are also allowed to justify your text to the right, but this is not required. Use a font such as Times New Roman or Garamond. Do not forget to insert page numbers! 2.2 Style: Rules and Tips Spelling errors, unclear sentences, vague formulations, and repetition can mar the content of an otherwise strong argument. For these reasons, readers may become frustrated and quickly give up; these errors will also lessen the persuasiveness and credibility of the writer. Therefore try to write correctly, precisely, accessibly, and engagingly.2 An academic article has a different style than a policy document 1 See A. Strating and J. Verrips (2005) A Stickler for Words: An Interview with André J.F. Köbben. Etnofoor 18(2):9-21). Köbben's quote is on p. 15. For English language texts, see the short Style Guide of the American Anthropological Association (see http:// www.aaanet.org/publications/style_guide.pdf) or consult the extensive Chicago Manual of Style (14th edition of later). 2 6 or a newspaper article, but no matter which audience you wish to reach with your text, clear language is necessary in all cases. Here are a few tips. Sentence Construction and Use of Language Avoid nebulousness and cryptic phrases: a text should be clear. Do not use flowery phrases or complicated jargon to express yourself. Be careful with slang for the same reason and define or describe anthropological and other social scientific concepts where necessary. Keep your sentences short. Comprehensibility is important, so the use of grammar should be fairly simple. Once you get the hang of writing, alternate short sentences with longer ones. It will read more pleasantly than a choppy text. However, only compose long sentences if you can handle them properly, and don't get carried away. Get rid of superfluous and redundant clauses. Avoid archaic and obsolete language; use a neutral style. Avoid colloqualisms ("The book was awesome," "quite a bit," "yeah, you know,") and use superlatives ("extremely," "really," "terribly") sparingly. Don't use sentences with "one" and "you" in papers or theses. The former is too vague, and the latter too informal. Avoid the first person plural ("In this essay we will..."). If you are the author, then use "I" (i.e., "In this essay, I will argue that..."). A neutral construction is also possible ("This essay shows that..."). Avoid sentence fragments; for instance, do not begin sentences with "But...". On the other hand, avoid run-on sentences. Commonplaces, platitudes, and filler words are taboo. Phrases like "per se," "naturally," and "obviously" are better left out. Use "therefore," "consequently" of "so" only if you conclude something. Avoid repetition and try to vary your vocabulary. Microsoft Word has a handy thesaurus (shift + F7). If necessary, consult another thesaurus or synonym reference book. Make sure that you have correctly spelled people's names and geographical locations. Never assume that the reader (for example, a lecturer) is familiar with your topic and already knows what you are talking about! Using Verbs Use a subject and a verb in every sentence. Use the past tense only if you are referring to things that happened in the past. If it is your own reasoning, then use the present tense. Do not continually switch between the present tense and the past tense. Avoid sentences in the passive form and use the active form. For instance, do not say: "Through the book that was written by the author..." but instead: "The author states that..." 7 Numbers Numbers under twenty can be written out (i.e., eighteen, not 18), unless you use some numbers over twenty within a sentence. For instance: "There were 36 participants in the course, of whom 18 had passed." "Round" or approximate numbers (sixty, a hundred, a thousand) may also be written out. Use "the sixties" or "the 1960s" to refer to the decade, not "the 60s". If you use percentages, do so in numbers (10 percent or 10%). Fractions should be hyphenated as both adjectives and nouns ("two-thirds of the local population"). Special words and abbreviatons It is preferable that you translate words from another language, unless a translation simply does not do justice to the term. In that case, italicize the word. This can also include emic terms (for instance, the Trobriand kula ring). If you wish to emphasize something, you may also use italics (do not use bold font or underlining). Whole sentences that are in another language are not italicized, but are put in quotation marks. If you wish to distance yourself from certain words, use quotation marks (Smith writes about "nature"), or preface what you say. For instance, "Steinmetz discusses so-called natural and cultural nations." In fact, try to avoid normative concepts altogether: "savages" and "civilization" belong to this category as well. 8 2.3 The Structure of a Text In General A text has a title, an introduction, a main body (empirical material or the "data"), and a conclusion. The introduction and conclusion are noticeably shorter than the sections in which you present your empirical data and analyses. The introduction contains the main question you wish to ask. The subsequent parts (chapters and/or sections) of a thesis or paper are where you present evidence that provides insight into your question or the answer to your question. In the conclusion, return to the main question or problem and reiterate the results of your analysis. If you write a relatively short text such as a paper or an essay, do not provide a table of contents. A longer text – for instance a thesis – should have a table of contents. The chapters and sections can be numbered, but do not make very detailed subsections (so avoid writing something like "Section 3.4.2.1"). Start by making a preliminary outline. Make a schematic overview (an outline or a writing plan) with a research question, topics per section, and conclusions. Try to make an initial argument: is the structure logical, and is it clear how you arrived at this answer to your question? Does every part of the argument connect with the previous part of the argument? Can you bring all the lines of your argument together in your conclusion? Try early on to think of a title and subheadings, and create a preliminary outline of the paragraphs in your essay based on keywords. A title has two aims: it indicates what the paper is about and it invites you to read the paper. Subheadings have this double function as well. You can use a combination of mainand subtitles. The main title should speak to the imagination; a subtitle can be more explanatory. For instance, think of Bronislaw Malinowski’s famous ethnography Argonauts of the Western Pacific, where the more practical subtitle is: An Account of Native Enterprise and Adventure in the Archipelagoes of Melanesian New Guinea. Argumentation, the Introduction, and Posing Questions A paper or thesis is almost always an argumentative text. You are attempting to prove something and to convince the reader based on the arguments that you make. This argument is usually factual (this is the way it is). In addition, there are judgmental stances (this is my judgment or opinion [as in a book review]) or directional arguments (this is the way it ought to be [as in a policy document]). An example of a factual argument is: "In anthropology, 'culture' is at the same time a key concept and a controversial concept." 9 With this position, you will then need to substantiate the arguments and evidence. In this case, you are looking for information in the form of publications where the culture concept is discussed and where you show that this ambivalence is corroborated. A position does not necessarily begin with statements like: "I believe that..."; or "I find that…" (you will then often be judgmental). However, if you insist on passing a judgment, always also present your arguments. List all your arguments and use them to build the structure of your text. Which argument is the most important? Begin with that one. Are there several arguments that support your position? Are they equally important? An argument can be: – singular (there is one argument: "There is no consensus on the definition of culture."); – multiple (there are several arguments of equal importance: "There is no consensus on the definition of culture. Some anthropologists reify the concept, while politicians and policy makers exploit it for political purposes."); – juxtaposing (there are inextricably interconnected arguments: "There is no consensus on the definition of culture and the resulting confusion makes any insight into the function and meaning of culture feeble."); – subordinating (there are several arguments of unequal importance: "There is no consensus on the definition of culture. Each concept must be defined on its own and in its own specific context."). A clear argument means that you formulate a response to the question or problem in your introduction through the presentation of empirical material. The research question that you formulate must closely follow your argument. This does not necessarily need to be in the form of a question. "In this essay I will examine if the culture concept is still useful" is just as clear as "Is the culture concept still useful?" Explain the subject and purpose of your text. A good introduction is stimulating and often has an argument already built into it. Explain why the topic is important and which steps you will need to take in order to come to a conclusion. There is nothing more annoying than reading a text that constantly raises the question: what is this paper about and why does the author want me to read it? However, never present your conclusions in the introduction: give your readers a reason to continue reading. The introduction is just the tip of the iceberg. Anthropologists usually position themselves within an ongoing debate or in relation to earlier work or other debates. Decide whether or not you find an author's arguments convincing and if the author's claims do justice to the person he or she is criticizing. 10 Before writing an anthropological text, it can be useful to trace two or more positions in a longstanding debate and to ask yourself which position you would choose. Why is the argument of Author A more convincing than Author B? Can you synthesize their contrasting conclusions? To do this, you will often need to consult additional literature. Make yourself familiar with such debates in anthropology. This will stimulate in-depth thinking as you problematize the positions of the authors, as well as your own position that you are arguing for. You can begin an anthropological text in many different ways. Make your readers curious and speak to them. Attract your readers' attention with a catchy opening sentence or paragraph, in which you set a burning issue on the agenda. For instance, you can begin by describing something that touched or intrigued you personally. The introduction can also involve a good anecdote, for example something from everyday life or the newspaper. You can also put forth a provocative proposition. Another possibility is to use a quote and a possible interpretation(s) of it as a stepping stone for the rest of the essay. Following this opening statement, elaborate upon the theme that you have introduced. This should logically lead to your main question. An introduction can end with the outline of the structure of your essay. How will you lay out your argument? However, it can sometimes be too simple if you write: "In the first paragraph, I will state that"; "Next, I will show how...". Never end an introduction with superfluous remarks such as "In the conclusion, I will summarize my findings" or worse still, "I will end with a conclusion." The Main Body: Chapters, Sections, and Paragraphs In the main body of the essay, you work your argument out systematically in a number of chapters and/or sections. The elements of your argument are derived from your main question. Your main question contains several topics that must all be addressed in this middle part of the paper. Build your argument cumulatively: each step of the argument should follow logically from the previous step, and your argument usually increases in complexity. Use sub-headings every time you begin a new section with a new topic. Write your sub-headings in bold font and add a blank line afterwards. If you decide to use subsections, then italicize your sub-subheadings. Each chapter and/or each section is a balanced component of the entire text. Lead your readers clearly in and out of each chapter or section. The sub-heading at the beginning of a new section signals that you are transferring to another part of your argument, and that a new 11 (sub) topic will be discussed. Indicate this clearly at the beginning of the section and at the conclusion of each section, make sure that you have a couple of transition sentences that will help lead the reader into the next section. A section usually consists of several paragraphs. Each paragraph begins on a new line (do not put blank lines between each paragraph) and with an indentation (with the exception of the first paragraph after a section heading, which begins at the margin). In a paragraph, you usually address a coherent sub-topic. One paragraph usually consists of several sentences. Sections and paragraphs together form a wellwritten idea, where you continue to take the reader step by step through your argument. Begin a section or paragraph with the most important idea that you wish to communicate to your readers (the main or core sentence). The main sentence may announce or reveal something, or it may be an argument. An example of the former is: "To understand how order is possible in a society without central authority, we must analyze the role of the mediators in the conflict." An argumentative core sentence can be: "Conflicts can lead to order and equilibrium." Then elaborate upon the sstatement in depth, and end the paragraph with a concluding sentence or two that acts as a stepping-stone to the next paragraph. Distinguish between primary and secondary issues. Minimize the tendency to digress and go off on a tangent. You can digress slightly, but only if it is useful for your argument. If you wish to make relevant comments on the side, then make use of foot- or endnotes. To avoid any gaps in your argument, create good transitions from chapter to chapter and/or from section to section. With the help of "bridges" (connecting words and sentences) and structural signposts ("firstly," "next," "finally," "in conclusion," "in sum"), you can try to make the paragraphs and sections hang together more clearly. Ask yourself how each section contributes to your argument. It is crucial that the various elements of your argument (structured in chapters, sections, and paragraphs) are linked to each other in order to form an elegant whole. At the beginning and end of each section, you can indicate how this part of the argument is connected to your central question. The Conclusion In the main body, you work towards a conclusion by providing answers to your central question in a number of different chapters and/or sections. Thus, the conclusion follows logically from the main body. A conclusion has no new empirical data, since you have already presented the facts upon which you have built your argument. In the conclusion, you bring all the threads of your argument(s) together. You return to the central question and show how you have answered it. 12 First present a succinct recap of your argument. Then you formulate an answer to your question as concisely as possible. Try to do this in a more reflective or contemplative way than you did in the middle. Once again, attempt to connect all the parts of your conclusion in a smooth and readable manner, and take care to avoid repetitive or redundant sentences. For example, avoid writing sentences like "My main research question was… and my conclusion is…." If you opened your essay with an anecdote, then try to return to it in the conclusion. Pay attention to your final sentence. Never end a paper with an open door, a worn phrase, or a dead-end statement like "more research is needed." 2.4 Citing, Quoting, Paraphrasing, and Referencing If you quote an author, put the quote between "double" quotation marks. Use a default or standard font that is the same as the body of the essay (do not use italics, a different font, or a smaller font). After the quote - and in parentheses - cite the last name of the author, the year of the publication, a colon, a space, and the page number (or page numbers) where you can find the passage. The period or full stop comes after the final parenthesis, as in: The author states that "site provision was equated with settlement" (Okely 1983: 113). If there are words that are also in quotation marks in the selected passage, then use 'single' quotation marks within the quote. The quote therefore might look like this: "Although in the dominant society’s law the words 'temporary' and 'permanent' ostensibly refer only to the length of planning permission ..., the Travellers correctly interpreted 'permanent' as 'settled'" (Okely 1983: 113-114). As in the example above and here, use an ellipsis (...) whenever you omit a word or a phrase in a quotation. Use a four period ellipsis when you omit a word or words at the end of a sentence.... If you quote several sentences (at least three lines in your text), then create a block quote. Put the quote between two blank lines, indent on the left (and possibly also the right to create a 'hanging' indent) and omit the quotation marks at the beginning and end of the passage: Although in the dominant society’s law the words ‘temporary’ and ‘permanent’ ostensibly refer only to the length of planning permission ..., the Travellers correctly interpreted ‘permanent’ as ‘settled’. The authorities feared that temporary sites with minimum 13 provision would be used as ‘transit’ sites. The notion of the ‘transit’ site is generally misplaced, since it presumes that there are two ‘types’ of Travellers (Okely 1983: 113-114). Note that you use single quotation marks if there are quotes within the block quote. If you wish to emphasize a word or a passage in a quote, and if the author does not do it her- or himself, then write the following: "The notion of the 'transit' site is generally misplaced, since it presumes that there are two 'types' of Travellers" (Okely 1983: 114, my emphasis, RvG [=intials of the person who did the emphasizing]). If the emphasis is in the original quoted text, then write: (Okely 1983: 114, emphasis in the original). If you want to add a few words to a quote in order to clarify something, then do this in between square brackets: "The authorities [in other words, the local government] feared that temporary sites with minimum provision would be used as 'transit' sites" (Okely 1983: 114). When you cite a source in another source, you must do so carefully. For instance, Okely cites a government report in her text, so you must clearly indicate this: Okely cites a government report that states that "[a] variety of provision is probably the answer" (M.H.L.G. 1967: 55, cited in Okely 1983: 114). You do not need to include the first source in the reference list, but you must include Okely 1983. Because the sentence cited in Okely begins with a capital letter, put the lower-case letter in square brackets to keep the flow of the sentence; for example: "[a] variety …." Alternatively, you can use a colon to maintain the initial capital: Okely cites a government report that states: "A variety …". Try to integrate quotes within your text in order to create clear, flowing sentences. Two examples: "We have to study man, and we must study what concerns him most intimately, that is, the hold which life has on him," wrote Malinowski (1978: 35). As Thomas Hylland Eriksen (2001:263) states, "ethnicity occurs when cultural differences are made relevant through interaction." Because you quote a full sentence in both examples, the quotation mark at the end follows the comma or period (," ."). A quote should be introduced and then followed up. In other words, make it clear what you want to prove with the quote. In most cases, you follow the quote with an analytical or explanatory sentence. A paper or thesis never consists of a series of quotes. Avoid frequently quoting verbatim from someone else; use quotes sparingly. You can also paraphrase and cite an author. This means that you reproduce an author's idea in your own words. The rule of thumb is: do not quote if you can paraphrase better. 14 Nota bene: make sure you cite the quote carefully and accurately, since you could possibly distort the original meaning intended by the author. When you paraphrase, you refer to the publication with the author's name, publication year, and page number(s) between parentheses; for example: (Okely 1983: 113-114). When you use multiple authors and texts, separate their entries with a semicolon and a space; for instance: (Geertz 1983: 12; Okely 1983: 113-114). If you refer to an entire text, just use the author's last name and year of publication; for example: (Geertz 1983). If you quote or refer to the same text more than several times in the same text, then use ibid. (note: without a capital letter, no italics, use a period). To exemplify: Okely states that Travellers have specific notions about cleanliness (1983: 80- 86). They find soap unclean (ibid.: 82). Note that the name of the author in the first sentence is referred to in the text, so it does not need to be referred to in the reference. Another option is: Okely (1983: 80-86) states that Travellers have specific notions about cleanliness. This author-year-page number reference style is standard for authors of anthropological texts. Be systematic and mention the authors of the texts upon which you base your own work: not only when you quote or paraphrase, but also every time you use a concept or idea from another author. 2.5 Preventing Plagiarism It must be completely clear, verifiable, and unambiguous which authors and which publications you have used as sources for your writing. The rule of thumb is "Give credit where credit is due." Quoting without acknowledgement or using an idea without mentioning its source is plagiarism. This applies to paraphrasing as well. Always mention the source of your ideas and information, even if you use a passage from your previously submitted work or anything written by your fellow students. The UvA has "Rules for Fraud and Plagiarism for UvA Students", which are strictly enforced. You can download it here: (http://student.uva.nl/binaries/content/assets/studentensites/fdr/rechten-bachelors-en-masters/ thesis-master/fraud-and-plagiarism.pdf?1263296582000). All written work must be digitally uploaded into Ephorus in order to check for plagiarism. However, most lecturers can quickly tell if there is something fishy with your written work. If you get caught, you must appear before the Examinations Board. It is compulsory for lecturers to report to the Board with any suspicions of plagiarism. If the Board finds that the work has indeed been plagiarized, 15 then a sanction will follow. These can vary from a "zero" grade to a suspension from the university. How do you avoid plagiarism? Avoid cutting-and-pasting text. When you make notes on the books and articles that you read, do not forget to add where you found the information (author, title, year, page numbers; a precise weblink with access date, publication date of the newspaper, etc.). Use clear quotation marks whenever you directly quote anything. If you translate something directly, you must still use quotation marks. If you paraphrase or write anything in your own words, remember to cite the passage correctly (including page numbers). When you work your notes into a paper or a thesis, always remember to accurately cite the source or sources (author[s], year, date, publication; weblink or periodical with date) every time you base your text on someone else's work. This will make it easier to distinguish between what you derive from others and what your own analysis and interpretation is. 2.6 Literature References In a reference list at the end of a paper or thesis, you must state which sources (e.g., texts, websites) you refer to in your text. The rules can differ depending on discipline, publisher, or journal. For our courses we use the format below. All lecturers and students must know what makes a reference list satisfactory. If you learn these conventions at the beginning of your course of study, it will make things easier later on. In the reference list, make sure that you include all of the references that you have listed. Do not reference any literature that is not mentioned in the text. Always italicize the titles of books and journals. Do this also when you use the titles in the main text ("Malinowski’s 1922 ethnography Argonauts of the Western Pacific is considered a classic."). The order of the entries is listed alphabetically by the last name of the author. Be consistent. For instance, if you have chosen to use the full first name or names of the author and not their initial or initials, then do so for each reference. If you use several works by the same author, list them chronologically by year. You do not need to repeat the name of the author every time (although this is not prohibited). If there are several references published in the same year by the same author, then add a lower case letter after the year (1983a, 1983b, 1983c). 16 Do this also within your text. When there are two different authors with the same last name, then you can add the first initial of their name to the in-text citation (B. Acheson 2000; T. Acheson 1968). If T. Acheson and F. Barth co-authored an article in 1980, then write (Acheson and Barth 1980) – without initials. Write (ed.) after the last name of the editor of a collected volume (see Barth 2001 below for an example). Note that Barth 2001 does not appear between Barth 2000c and 2010, because you must distinguish between edited work and single-authored texts. If the book or article is written by more than three authors, then only name the first author, followed by 'et al' (see below for Barth et al. 2005). If you refer to an author like de Amato (1980) or van Gennep (1960), insert the name under d or v in the reference list (in lower case). Sometimes the original date of a publication predates the version that you are consulting. Within the text, you can write the following: (Castafori 1976 [1968]: 310). In the references you can put the original date of the publication in brackets directly after the year of the publication that you are using, or add it after the reference entry (see Castafori below in the sample references). Sample References A sample reference list is below: Acheson, B. [or Ben] 2000 Title: Subtitle. Journal Name 20=volume(2=issue): 100(=first page)-120(=last page). Acheson, T. [or Tina] 1968 Title: Subtitle. Journal Name 39(4): 3-28. Acheson, T. [or Tina] and F. [or Fredrik] Barth 1980 Title: Subtitle. Journal Name 12(1): 338-361. Barth, F. [or Fredrik] 1999 Article Title: Subtitle. Journal Name 19(1): 90-100. 2000a Book Title: Subtitle. Place Name: Publisher. 2000b Article Title. Journal Name 20(2): 121-140. 2000c Chapter in an Edited Volume. In: B. [or Ben] Acheson (ed.), Title: Subtitle. Place Name: Publisher, pp. 3-19. 2010 Chapter in a Self Authored Book. In: Book Title: Subtitle. Place Name: Publisher, pp. 48-61. Barth, F. [or Fredrik] (ed.) 2001 Volume Title: Subtitle. Place Name: Publisher. Barth, F. [or Fredrik] et al. 2005 Article Title: Subtitle. Journal Name 3(12):988-1012. Castafori, N. [or Nina] 1976 [1968] Book Title: Subtitle. Place Name: Publisher. or: Castafori, N. [or Nina] 1976 Book Title: Subtitle. Location: Publisher [1968]. 17 de Amato, A. [or Alex] 1980 Book Title: Subtitle. Location: Publisher van Gennep, A. [or Arnold] 1960 Book Title: Subtitle. Location: Publisher There are also some special cases. If there are quotation marks in the title of a book or article, then write the following: Altorki, Soraya 1982 The Anthropologist in the Field: A Case of "Indigenous Anthropology" from Saudi Arabia. In: Hussein Fahim (ed.), Indigenous Anthropology in NonWestern Countries. Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press, pp. 167-175. Be consistent with capital letters. Shorter words (in, the, and, from) do not begin with capital letters. If you need to reference an article, report, collection, or book without an author, then use the first word or words of the title, or use "Anonymous." For instance: Famine Relief (or Anonymous) 2002 Famine relief: Just a simple matter of supplying food? Nutrition Noteworthy, 5(1). In the text, cite it as (Famine Relief 2002) of (Anonymous 2002). If it is a group or an institution – such as the Social and Cultural Planning Bureau – you can use the name of the group as the author or editor: Animal Studies Group (ed.) 2006 Killing Animals. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. In the text, you can write (Animal Studies Group 2006). Referencing Internet Sources Authors are increasingly making use of information on websites. But beware - not all the sites you consult are valid, accurate, or useful. Internet sources often have no editorial or peer review process. The quality of an article that you find on a website can be equally excellent or lousy, so try to refrain from using too many internet sources unless they are directly relevant to your subject. For example, if you wish to use a definition of a topic, it is better to consult an actual textbook or an encyclopedia in the library (or in the UvA digital library). 18 If you use internet sources, then write the name of the author, year, title, URL, and the date that you accessed the piece, as follows: Song, Priscilla 1999 Malinowski's New Home: Malinowski and the Development of Fieldwork Methods. http://classes.yale.edu/02-03/anth500a/projects/project_sites/99_Song/default.htm. (accessed 19/4/2013). The reason why you give the date that you accessed the document is because information doesn't always remain on the web, or web addresses can change over time. In the main text, cite the source as usual: (Song 1999). Similarly, you can cite an online newspaper article as follows: Schabner, Dean 2002 Culture Clash. ABC News, 29 May 2002. http://abcnews.go.com/sections/us/DailyNews/makah020529.html. (26/10/2010). In the main text, you refer to (Schabner 2002). Notes Webpages often lack authors or titles. The usual way to refer to your source in this case is by using a footnote or endnote (a long URL in the text looks unwieldy). You can, for example, use a footnote in this way.3 Always put the footnote after the period. Information based on personal communication, lectures, or conference papers can be added to footnotes or endnotes. Indicate who gave the talk, the location, and the date.4 If you cite an anonymous newspaper article, write the name of the newspaper in italics, followed by the date (The New York Times, 28 August 2013). Anthropologists generally try to limit their use of footnotes or endnotes. They usually use them to cite an internet resource, to provide a longer list of literature, or to explain something in more detail. With explanatory notes like this, you have more room to elaborate upon something that may not fit in the main text, but use them sparingly and only if they are relevant. 3 4 See http://mindprod.com/feedback/racism.html (26/10/2010). Yolanda van Ede, lecture in Designing Fieldwork, 11 September, 2013. 19 Furthermore, make sure that you are consistent with using either footnotes or endnotes; never use both in the same text. 2.7 Figures, Illustrations, and Tables There are relatively few tables and graphs in most anthropological publications, since our discipline is more oriented towards qualitative research. If you wish to use tables and graphs, refer to them in the text (see Table 1) and provide an expanatory caption in italics (Table 1. Number and geographical origin of women with nose piercings in France). When you make use of an already-existing table or graph, remember to credit the source of the data. Most figures – such as maps or plans – can be reproduced, if the source is cited properly. Sometimes you will have to draw your own figures. The same goes for diagrams and tables. Do not make them too complicated, since they are supposed to help make the data in your text clearer. You can also use photographs. After all, "a picture is worth a thousand words." However, a photo usually needs an explanatory caption, where you show why the photo is relevant for a particular passage. 2.8 The Revision Phase Note that your text will almost never be satisfactory after a single round of writing. You learn how to write and rewrite by doing so regularly and systematically. Look critically at what you have written and do not worry about deleting it. Make active sentence constructions instead of passive ones. Revise poorly written sentences, delete unnecessary words and phrases, and watch out for "filler" words. "Kill your darlings" should be your motto. If you are unsure of what you are saying, omit that passage; when in doubt, leave it out. Assess whether or not the structure of your text is logical, and if necessary, move your sentences accordingly. Avoid abrupt changes in topics by introducing the next issue in a few words or sentences. It is common to revise a text several times. Ask yourself the following questions about the argumentation, structure, and style of your work: Argumentation Do you outline a clear research problem, and is it original, challenging, and innovative? Do you explain the kind of argument you wish to make? Does the text include a clear 20 argument that answers the research question? Do you show how your evidence substantiates your argument? Is the argument factually correct? Can it be made sharper? Do you put the core of the matter center-stage? Have you looked for evidence that could refute your position, and is this reflected in your argument? Do you contradict yourself? Have you defined important concepts? Do you refer to your sources systematically and precisely? Have you provided the correct citations? Do they add to the argument or do you use too many quotes? Will it be better to paraphrase? Is it possible to make the quotes shorter? Does your conclusion demonstrate a critical dialogue with the wider debate? Is the conclusion justified, based on the evidence that you presented? Structure Is the structure of chapters, sections, and paragraphs clear? Do you repeat ideas that can more easily be summarized in one sentence? Are they logically connected together in order to form a coherent whole? Have you created appropriate and relevant sub-headings? Do your statements follow a logical order? Do you avoid abrupt transitions? Does the text work as a whole with a clear conclusion? Do you return in the conclusion to the research problem that you formulated in the introduction? When you put all of the key sentences of each paragraph together consecutively, does this build a logical argument? Do you see any missing steps or is there any repetition? Style Is the text written well (syntax, use of language, a variety of short and long sentences, correct punctuation, consistent verb tenses, active form, a clear style)? Can your sentences be simpler and more direct? Have you proofread your grammar and spelling? Have you deleted all repetitive and vague sentences? Have you used concrete terms to replace abstract ones? Have you deleted all worn phrases and ambiguous terminology? Can non-anthropologists also understand your text? Does your text correspond to the correct format? Does the bibliography or reference list contain all of the citations in your text? Have you written the references in the correct format? Let someone else read and comment on your work. A sharp second reader is worth their weight in gold. Note that the text that you submit for comments does not have to be perfect. Take advantage of this situation to carefully revise and rewrite your paper. Stick with it. After your revision, carefully and critically read the text again in order to improve it where 21 needed. This process can (and should) be repeated several times, but remember that you will have to finish the paper and hand it in. A missed deadline is a missed chance. If you wish to read more about writing academic texts, you can go to (in Dutch) http://www.taalwinkel.nl. One English-language option is http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/section/1/. The rules presented above refer to all the written work you will hand in during your course of study, but keep in mind that other kinds of texts may have their own specific requirements. 2.9 Types of Assignments Essays or Papers An essay or a paper is not a summary of a topic, but a structured discussion backed up by data and references. These are facts and data that you obtain by studying anthropological and other social scientific texts, and are sometimes supplemented by data from your own independent research. Essays and papers are usually brief; in social scientific journals, published articles are usually no more than 6000 or 7000 words. There is no need to create a table of contents. Again, make sure that your paper or essay is not simply a summary, but a carefully constructed piece of writing based on a solid, convincing core argument. Position Papers A position paper succinctly summarizes the argument of one (or more) article(s). You then substantiate and write a critical commentary of the article(s) based on what you've read from other texts. The commentary can be positive or negative. Based on this, you also formulate one or more question(s) or discussion points that you present in a working group. A position paper consists of no more than two A4 pages (line spacing 1,5). QAQL (or KAVV) A QAQL stands for: Quote, Argument, Question, and Linkage. Writing a QAQL forces you to think about and reflect upon the study materials, and in addition teaches you to recognize and formulate arguments. A QAQL consists of no more than one A4 page (1,5 spacing). You choose what you believe is an important quote (remember to note the page number); show which argument(s) the author presents; formulate a question based on the reading, and demonstrate how it links or relates to another text. 22 Book Reviews A book review is short. Most social science journals ask for a maximum length of 800 to 1200 words. Only a review essay, where several related thematic or theoretical works are discussed together, is longer. Put all the relevant bibliographic data about the book at the top of the page and then leave a blank line. Use paragraphs but not headings. Only cite specific pages of the book if you use a) direct quotes or b) refer to a crucial passage. You usually do not refer to other literature, but if you do, you must reference these texts properly at the end of the text. A review usually involves the following: the problem and objectives of the book (what the author wishes to prove); the theoretical framework (what is the main argument); the methods used (how were the data obtained); a short synopsis (how is it structured and what is in each chapter), and who the book is intended for (the audience of readers). A review requires a well-grounded critique: is the author sucessful in achieving his/her intentions and aims?; does the author give a satisfactory answer to their research question(s)?; is the book sufficiently in-depth and well-organized?; is the analysis systematic and sound?; does the work contribute to innovative conceptual and/or theoretical debates?; is the format and writing style clear? Abstracts Any article in a social science journal is almost always accompanied by an abstract: a short summary of about 100 to 250 words that explains the key points of the article. Most abstracts are in English, but occasionally there are versions in other languages. It functions as a short introduction to the overall content and relevance of the article. Along with the introduction and conclusion of an article, an abstract gives you a good indication of whether or not it will be worth reading the entire piece. If you have to write an abstract, make sure that the most important points of the article (research question[s], aims/goals, and argument) are included and that it is clear which region(s) and theme(s) you are dealing with. Annotated Bibliographies A bibliography is a descriptive list of literature about a region, a theme, or of a single author (literature references at the end of an essay, paper, or thesis are rarely considered a bibliography). An annotation is an explanatory note or brief description of the content of each text. 23 In an annotated bibliography, an annotation is often written in a similar manner as an abstract. You are basically summarizing the book or article. An annotation rarely is more than 300 words. The reference preceeds the annotation and follows the rules presented above. Theses A thesis is a longer discussion of a specific topic. A thesis is not mandatory for the bachelor program; individual writing skills are assessed via the papers for thematic modules. The final assessment of the bachelor program is a presentation/oral exam (see Chapter 3, Presentations). You can certainly write a bachelor thesis as an optional component of the program. This is often done on the basis of a literature study, sometimes supplemented by a short piece of (individual or collective) empirical research. It is mandatory to write a thesis - usually based on empirical research - in the master program CSA. Setting up an individual research project is done in conjunction with intensive guidance in groups as well as one-on-one with a supervisor. The supervision focuses on formulating a clear, well-defined, and operationalized research question and developing a useful methodological, conceptual, and theoretical framework: the research proposal. A high degree of autonomy is also expected of students; this is especially important when you conduct your fieldwork. In the master thesis, you use the empirical data you have gathered to answer the research question. The maximum word count of a master thesis is 25000 words. The structure and style of the thesis must meet the requirements set out in this Writing Skills and Style Guide. Unlike shorter papers, the thesis has a table of contents and often a foreword or acknowledgements (this is mostly personal and to thank your informants and friends). Make sure that the page numbers that you mention in the table of contents correspond with the correct page numbers of the chapters and sections in your thesis. A well-defined research problem and a systematic analysis of the data you have gathered in the field (the "ethnography") are required to pass. Your main research question is usually accompanied by several sub-questions that relate to the main question and help to structure your argument. You need to account for the methodology, theories, and concepts you have used. The same goes for the aim and scholarly (and possibly social) relevance of the thesis. There should be a balance between empirical and theoretical material: 24 a thesis with an excess of unnecessary theoretical jargon and a thin ethnographic foundation is just as flawed as a thesis with an overabundance of barely analyzed empirical data that does not relate to any theoretical discussion. A thesis that contributes to an anthropological debate in a well-founded and innovative way can get a high mark. You may add appendices to your thesis, but limit their number and length. Examples of master theses can be found online through the UvA website (http://www.scriptiesonline.uba.uva.nl). They are made public unless the author of the thesis objects. Making an anthropological film as part of your thesis is possible, but it is never the final end product. A documentary should always be accompanied by a (short) paper on the subject as well. The precise length of the paper is dependent on the overall nature and length of the documentary, but usually comprises about half the length of a regular thesis (maximum 12500 words). In this kind of thesis, it is mandatory to provide a critical reflection on the visual methodological approach. Just like theses, documentaries must meet specific requirements. A Visual Anthropology course will provide general guidelines, but each case is dependent on further consultation with the supervisor. Each master thesis is assessed by a committee of three. This consists of the supervisor and two readers who may not be familiar with the work. In a conversation of about one hour, the committee comments on the thesis, and the two readers ask the student questions about the thesis. Try to answer to the best of your ability. The anthropology program is dedicated to making a solid assessment of the thesis. These "oral defenses" have often proven to be fascinating and instructive conversations, not only for the student, but also for the committee members. 25 3. Presentations Academics are expected to convey their ideas not only through writing, but also through oral presentations given in front of a wider audience. In the program, you should therefore present your work on a regular basis, since you will finish the bachelor CA/DS with a presentation and oral exam. It is important that you practice giving presentations as early as possible in order to try to overcome any shyness or nervousness. The purpose of a presentation is to demonstrate that you are capable of giving a short talk on a scientific topic in an understandable, clear, and interesting manner. The main idea is to bring your data or findings together in a form that is both informative and enjoyable for the audience to listen to and watch. 3.1 What to do/What not to do A good presentation is a performance with a central argument. You will usually have a limited amount of time to deliver your main points. Make sure you get your most important points across in an organized manner, so that you do not get sidetracked by tangents. You run the risk of quickly losing your listeners this way. Manage your time by practicing well in advance, and learn how to make your argument in the allotted time without rushing. Prepare how you want to deliver your main argument; just like in a written text, a clear argument is more engaging than a long story without a point. Make your listeners curious about your topic! How do you reach and persuade your audience? You usually stand up when you give a presentation, but you can also present while sitting if standing up makes you feel uncomfortable. Introduce yourself (if a chairperson is not present) and explain what your presentation is about (the title and main themes). Begin for example with an anecdote, a personal experience, a news feature, a rhetorical question, an enigma, or a particular position. Your audience will likely pay more attention to you if you begin with a catchy opening. Next, explain how the content of your presentation will be structured. Remember that reading a written text word-for-word is often a letdown for your listeners. The argument is also difficult to follow because the presenter often speaks too fast for the audience to follow. Furthermore, remember that written language is not the same as spoken language. 26 Write down a few key words and phrases that you can use to guide your talk, and only read out a quote if it is necessary for your argument. Use tools or media (PowerPoint, a video clip, whiteboard, etc.) in order to animate and support your talk. Do not do much more than that - there is nothing more boring than listening to someone read out each PowerPoint slide word-for-word. Try not to be put out if the equipment fails; you should still be prepared to give a presentation without PowerPoint. Make a connection with your audience. If possible, try to involve them in your presentation (even if it's a simple "Am I being clear here?"). Do not speak too fast or too slow, nor too quietly or too loudly. Articulate and enunciate your words in a clear manner. You may gesture with your hands, but don't go overboard. Do not expect your listeners to be receptive to every single detail of your presentation. Put your emphasis on the most important points and repeat them if necessary. You may explain some aspects of any specific knowledge that you have, but do not expand on this too much. If the other students have read the same literature, then it is important that you present only a very concise summary, and move towards a new, original perspective, or to emphasize your own point of view. It is therefore important to use a logical, well-built structure that leads to a clear conclusion. You can lay out this structure in your introduction: "First, I will discuss…," "then…," "finally…". Repeat the central point at the end of each section and say when you will come to the next point. This gives your listeners - and yourself - something to hold on to. A handout can sometimes also be helpful. Make your narrative clear and be sure that the order of topics is (chrono)logical. Carefully time your talk, as you will need to finish your conclusion before the allotted time is up. "I see that the time is almost up, so I'll leave it here" is not a good way of concluding. Make sure you can finish your talk with a brief sentence or two. After thanking your audience for listening, give them the opportunity to ask you some questions. Repeating their question shows that you have understood them and ensures that the rest of the audience can hear the question as well. Try to answer the question to the best of your ability and in a clear and concise manner. You can often get the audience on your side if you say that the question is interesting, good, or correct. It is nothing to worry about if the questioner provides criticism. A fascinating discussion or debate can also be another 27 outcome, and the audience can feel more strongly involved in the presentation. On the other hand, never make snide remarks about the person asking the question or about the quality of the question itself (e.g., "That's a silly question"). You'll easily lose the audience's sympathy if you do this! 3.2 Public Speaking Public speaking, even in front of a very small audience, often leads to some nervousness. You are certainly not alone, and in fact, many presentations have gone wrong without any fear, stress, or tension. Practicing your talk is very important, as is good preparation. If you sometimes need to let a bit of silence go by because you cannot find the right words, it will certainly not be a disaster, since this is a natural human response. The same applies if you occasionally stumble over your words. However, if the very thought of having to present something in front of an audience makes you queasy, then you can attend training sessions to work on your public speaking skills. 28