Download An Outline of Turkish Morphology

An Outline of Turkish Morphology
Kemal Oazer, Elvan Gocmen, Cem Bozsahin
October 1994
Contents
1 Introduction
2 Current orthography of Turkish
3 Morphophonemic processes
3.1 Vowel Harmony
3.1.1 Resolving low-unrounded vowels
3.1.2 Resolving high vowels
3.2 Vowel drops
3.3 Consonant drops
3.4 Consonant changes
3.5 Words ending with (su)
3.6 Gemination
3.7 s-drop
2
2
4
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: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
4 Ax Inventory
4.1 Coding scheme
4.2 Noun Inections (NNI xxxxxx)
4.3 Derivations producing nouns (NxDxxxxx)
4.3.1 Nouns from nouns (NND xxxxxx) or adjectives (NJD xxxx)
4.3.2 Nouns from verbs (NVD xxxxxx)
4.3.3 Adjectives from nouns (JND xxxxxx) or adjectives (JJD xxxxx)
4.3.4 Adjectives from verbs (JVD xxxx)
4.4 Verb Inections (VVI xxxxxxx)
4.5 Derivations producing verbs
4.5.1 Verbs from nouns (VND xxxxx) or adjectives (VJD xxxx)
4.5.2 Verbs from verbs (VVD xxxxx)
4.5.3 Adverbs from nouns (AND xxxxx) or adjectives (AJD xxxxx)
4.5.4 Adverbs from verbs (AVD xxxxx)
4.5.5 Adverbs from adverbs (AAD xxx)
11
: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
: : : : : :
: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
: : :
: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
: : : : : : :
: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
: : : : :
: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
5 Morphotactics
5.1 Paradigms
5.1.1 Finite State Machine for Nominal Morphotactics
5.1.2 Finite State Machine for Verbal Morphotactics
11
11
12
13
14
15
16
16
18
18
18
19
19
19
19
: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
: : : : : : : : : : : :
: : : : : : : : : : : : :
6 Multiple-word constructs
4
4
5
6
7
7
9
10
10
19
20
22
28
1
+Round
{Round
+Front {Front +Front {Front
-High
u
u
i
{High
o
o
e
a
Table 1: Turkish Vowels
1 Introduction
Turkish is an agglutinative language with word structures formed by productive axations of
derivational and inectional morphemes to root words.1 A popular|and rather exaggerated|
example of a Turkish word formation is:
OSMANLILASTIRAMAYABI_ LECEKLERI_ MI_ ZDENMI_ SSI_ NI_ Z
which can be broken down into morphemes as follows:
OSMAN-LI-LAS-TIR-AMA-YABI_ L-ECEK-LER-I_ MI_ Z-DEN-MI_ S-SI_ NI_ Z
where the -'s indicate morpheme boundaries. This adverb can be translated into English as
\(behaving) as if you were of those whom we might consider not converting into an Ottoman."
For the details of Turkish grammar and word formations rules one can refer to a number of
books [5, 9].
Turkish has clear but rather complex morphotactics. Morphemes added to a stem can convert the word from a nominal to a verbal structure or vice-versa, or can create adverbial
constructs as above. The surface realizations of morphological constructions are constrained
and modied by a number of morphophonemic rules. Vowels in the axed morpheme have
to agree with the preceding vowel in certain aspects to achieve vowel harmony. Under certain
circumstances vowels in the roots and morphemes are deleted. Similarly, consonants in the
roots words, or in the axed morphemes undergo certain modications, and may sometimes
be deleted. Furthermore, the assimilation of a large number of words into the language from
various foreign languages { most notably Arabic, Persian, and French { resulted in word
formations which behave as exceptions. Turkish morphology has been investigated from a
computational point of view by Koksal [4], Hankamer [2], Solak and Oazer [7], and Oazer
[6].
2 Current orthography of Turkish
The Turkish language has an alphabet of 29 letters in its current orthography based on the
Latin characters. There are 8 vowels: a, e, , i, o, o, u, u, and 21 consonants: b c
c d f g g
h j k l m n p r s s
t v y z. Tables 1 and 2 show the phonetic features of
Turkish vowels and consonants.
1
Turkish is an exclusively suxing language. There are however a few very unproductive prexes of foreign
origin, such as na- (un-).Words with such suxes can be treated as separate lexical items.
2
Stop
Fricative
Nasal
Liquid
Glide
Bilabial
voiceless
voiced
voiceless
voiced
Labio- Dental Palatodental Alveolar Alveolar Palatal
p
b
m
f
v
lateral
nonlat.
t
d
c
c
s
z
n
s
l
r
Velar
Glottal
k
g
y
~g
h
Table 2: Turkish Consonants
There are however phonemes not covered by these. Certain long vowels are mainly used in
words borrowed from foreign languages most notably Arabic and Persian. Such vowels are
sometimes distinguished in older orthography by various means (such as with a ^ on top of
the vowel). In modern orthography such distinctions are almost never used. There is also a
certain phoneme known as \yumusak g" (soft g { denoted as g in orthography) which creates
bisyllabic two-vowel sequences. At the end of a syllable, this phoneme causes the lengthening
of the preceding vowel [10]. Consonants k,g, and l have palatal and non-palatal allophones.
In certain cases the palatalization process has impact on the vowel harmony.
We can partition the vowels as follows to aid in the description of the vowel harmony processes.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Back vowels: f a, , o, u g
Front vowels: f e, i, o, u g
Front unrounded vowels f e, i g
Front rounded vowels fo, ug
Back unrounded vowels fa, g
Back rounded vowels fo, ug
High vowels f, i, u, ug
Low unrounded vowels fa, eg
In Turkish, proper nouns are separated from certain suxes by an apostrophe ('). All vowel
harmony rules and some of the consonant change rules are in eect in the orthography of
proper nouns.
Below we present the rules in two-level notation. In giving examples we refer to lexical and
surface forms, where the former refers to the structural form of a word, and the latter refers
to the phonological realization of the word. The 0's in the examples denote the phonemes or
morpheme boundary symbol which get deleted on the surface realizations.
3
3 Morphophonemic processes
We use the following meta-phonemes in our descriptions:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
D : voiced (d) or voiceless (t)
A : back (a) or front (e)
H : high vowel (, i, u, u)
R : vowel except o, o
C : voiced (c) or voiceless (c)
G : voiced (g) or voiceless (k)
3.1 Vowel Harmony
Turkish has vowel harmony processes that force certain vowels in suxes agree with the last
vowel in the stems or roots they are being axed to. Some of these phenomena are exemplied
below using two-level notation.
3.1.1
Resolving low-unrounded vowels
Let A be a vowel in a sux, which may either be an a or e. A is resolved as follows:
A is resolved as an a if the last vowel in the stem is a back vowel. For example:
Lexical:
Surface:
Lexical:
Surface:
Lexical:
Surface:
Lexical:
Surface:
A
masa-lAr
masa0lar
N(table)-PLU
masalar
satr-lAr
satr0lar
N(hatchet)-PLU
satrlar
oto-lAr
oto0lar
N(car)-PLU
otolar
kutu-lAr
kutu0lar
N(box)-PLU
kutular
is resolved as an e if the last vowel in the stem is a front vowel. For example:
4
Lexical:
Surface:
Lexical:
Surface:
Lexical:
Surface:
Lexical:
Surface:
ev-lAr
ev0ler
N(house)-PLU
evler
kedi-lAr
kedi0ler
N(cat)-PLU
kediler
g
ol-lAr
g
ol0ler
N(lake)-PLU
g
oller
g
ul-lAr
g
ul0ler
N(rose)-PLU
g
uller
is also resolved as an e if the last vowel is a long ^a (a^), a long u^ (u^) or an ^o followed by a
palatalized l (mostly in words of French origin.) The long vowels are almost always realized
on the surface as their short counterparts. For example.
A
Lexical:
Surface:
Lexical:
Surface:
Lexical:
Surface:
sa^
at-lAr
saat0ler
N(hour)-PLU
saatler
us^
ul-lAr
usul0ler
N(method)-PLU
usuller
g^
ol-lAr
gol0ler
N(goal)-PLU
goller
Note that between the harmonizing and the harmonized vowel, there may be one or more
consonants.
3.1.2
Resolving high vowels
Let H denote a high-vowel in a sux. It is resolved as follows:
H is resolved as a u is the last vowel in the stem is a back-rounded vowel.
Lexical:
Surface:
Lexical:
Surface:
okul-Hm
okul0um
N(school)-1SG-POSS
okulum
gel-Hyor-yHm
gel0iyor00um
V(come)-PROG-1SG
geliyorum
is resolved as a u if the last vowel in the stem is a front-rounded vowel, or long u^ or ^o as
dened above.
H
5
Lexical:
Surface:
Lexical:
Surface:
Lexical:
Surface:
Lexical:
Surface:
H
N(day)-1SG-POSS
g
un
um
g
ol-Hm
g
ol0
um
N(lake)-1SG-POSS
g
ol
um
alk^
ol-Hm
alkol0
um
N(alcohol)-1SG-POSS
alkol
um
us^
ul-Hm
usul0
um
N(method)-1SG-POSS
usul
um
is resolved as a is the last vowel in the stem is a back-unrounded vowel.
Lexical:
Surface:
Lexical:
Surface:
H
g
un-Hm
g
un0
um
masal-Hm
masal0m
N(tale)-1SG-POSS
masalm
yldz-Hm
yldz0m
N(star)-1SG-POSS
yldzm
is resolved as a i if the last vowel in the stem is a front-unrounded vowel, or a long a.
Lexical:
Surface:
Lexical:
Surface:
Lexical:
Surface:
ev-Hm
ev0im
N(house)-1SG-POSS
evim
pir-Hm
pir0im
N(master)-1SG-POSS
pirim
sa^
at-Hm
saat0im
N(watch)-1SG-POSS
saatim
There a very small number of special cases which presents some problems with respect to
vowel harmony. These happen with the verbal roots de (say) and ye (eat), where the only
vowel in the root may be deleted under certain circumstances. In these case, we assume the
sux vowel harmonizes with respect to the undropped lexical vowel.
3.2
Vowel drops
An H denoting a high vowel at the beginning of a sux is deleted if the last phoneme of the
stem is a vowel. For example:
6
Lexical:
Surface:
masa-Hm
masa00m
N(table)-1PS-POSS
masam
However, this drop does not occur if the high vowel is not a part of the tense sux (-Hyor)
and the verbal root stem ends with a vowel in which case this vowel drops. (This may also be
viewed as the H actually dropping and the stem-nal vowel becoming a high vowel if necessary)
Lexical:
Surface:
kapa-Hyor
kap00yor
V(close)-PR-CON-3PS
kapyor
The last vowel in certain roots is deleted when those roots are axed certain suxes that
either start with a vowel or a consonant that also drops. There is no uniform way of specifying
such words, except possibly by explicitly enumerating them. Here we indicate such vowels by
prexing them with a certain marker.
Lexical:
Surface:
3.3
bur$un-Hm
bur00n0um
N(nose)-1SG-POSS
burnum
Consonant drops
The consonants n,s and y at the beginning of a sux drop if the last phoneme of the stem
is a consonant. However if the sux is -sHz with H representing a high-vowel, then s does
not drop even if the preceding phoneme is a consonant.
Lexical:
Surface:
Lexical:
Surface:
Lexical:
Surface:
Lexical:
Surface:
3.4
ev-nHn
ev00in
N(house)-GEN
evin
kalem-sH
kalem00i
N(pencil)-3PS-POSS
kalemi
kalem-sHz
kalem0siz
N(pencil)-WITHOUT
kalemsiz
a
g$z-yH
a
g00z00
N(mouth)-ACC
a
gz
Consonant changes
Let D denote a sux initial dental consonant that may resolved as either a
resolved to a t is the last phoneme in the stem is resolved as one of fc, f, h,
tg. Otherwise, D is resolved as a d. Some examples are:
7
or . It is
d
t
k, p, s, s
,
Lexical:
Surface:
Lexical:
Surface:
Lexical:
Surface:
kitab-DA
kitap0ta
N(book)-LOC
kitapta
yulaf-DAn
yulaf0tan
N(oat)-ABL
yulaftan
a
c-DHk
a
c0tk
V(open)- PERF
a
ctk
Voiced stops b, d are realized as p, t respectively when they are stem-nal or they are the
last consonant in the stem which axed a morpheme that starts with a consonant that does
not drop. Some examples are:
Lexical:
Surface:
Lexical:
Surface:
Lexical:
Surface:
Lexical:
Surface:
kitab-lAr
kitap0lar
N(book)-PLU
kitaplar
kitab-cH
kitap0
c
N(book)-NtoN(ci)
kitap
c
dolab-nHn
dolab00n
N(closet)-GEN
dolabn
tad-DHk
tat0tk
V(taste)- PERF
tattk
There are however some exceptions to this rule. These exceptions are: ab (water) kalb
(heart), balad (ballad), hemoroid , onad (fore name), soyad (last name) yad (remembrance), etc.
c is another voiced obstruent like those above except that it also appears in certain suxes as
the rst consonant where it gets modied to a c, due to a reciprocal assimilation process. So
the sux-initial c is resolved as a c if the last consonant of the stem is resolved one of fc,f,
h, k, p, s, sg . A stem nal c is resolved to a c
if it is also word nal or is followed by a
consonant that does not drop. Some examples are:
Lexical:
Surface:
Lexical:
Surface:
Lexical:
Surface:
harac-cH
hara
c0
c
N(tribute)-NtoN(ci)
hara
c
c
ya
s-cA
ya
s0
ca
N(age)-NtoAdv(ca)
ya
s
ca
harac-yA
harac00a
N(tribute)-DAT
haraca
There are however some exceptions to this rule. These exceptions are the following monosyllabic forms, and compound forms written together using these as the second component: ac
8
(hungry/to open) cec (wheat pile), goc (migration), hac (cross), ic (interior), etc.
A velar stop k at the end of a stem becomes a g when a sux starting with a vowel is axed.
There may be a dropping consonant before the sux. Some examples are:
Lexical:
Surface:
Lexical:
Surface:
ayak-nHn
aya
g00n
N(foot)-GEN
aya
gn
tarak-Hm
tara
g0m
N(comb)-1PS-POSS
tara
gm
However a stem-nal k preceded by a n becomes a g under the same circumstances.
Lexical:
Surface:
Lexical:
Surface:
renk-yH
reng00i
N(color)-ACC
rengi
ahenk-yA
aheng00e
N(harmony)-DAT
ahenge
However there are some exceptions to these, where the k does not change. These exceptions are
the following monosyllabic forms and some polysyllabic words of foreign origin, and compound
forms written together using these as the second component: afak (Arabic plural version of
ufuk (horizon)), ahlak (ethics), arabesk (), ark (water canal), ask (love) bank (chair), etc.
At stem-nal g (in words of foreign origin) also becomes a g when a sux starting with a
vowel is axed. There may be a dropping consonant before the sux.
Lexical:
Surface:
radyolog-yA
radyolo
g00a
N(radiologist)-DAT
radyolo
ga
However under the circumstances above if the stem-nal g is preceded by another consonant
(only n and r seem to be such consonants) then the g does not become a g. Some examples
are:
Lexical:
Surface:
Lexical:
Surface:
brifing-Hm
brifing0im
N(briefing)-1PS-POSS
brifingim
aysberg-HnHz
aysberg0iniz
N(iceberg)-2PP-POSS
aysberginiz
There are again some exceptions to these rules. These are:
(league), pedagog, sinagog.
3.5
,
demagog f
ug
(fugue) gag, lig
Words ending with (su)
Turkish has a large number of nominal roots ending with su (water) e.g., akarsu (river). Su,
along with ne (what) does not obey the standard inection rules. For example su-sH (water
9
-3PS-POSS) is suyu and not susu and su-nHn (water-GEN) is suyun and not sunun.2 Thus a
stem nal y inserted to such stems when a sux starting with a vowel or a dropping consonant
is axed. Here are some examples:
Lexical:
Surface:
Lexical:
Surface:
akarsu0-yHnHz
akarsuy00unuz
N(river)-2PP-POSS
akarsuyunuz
akarsu-lar
akarsu0lar
N(river)-PLU
akarsular
3.6 Gemination
Certain nominal forms in of Arabic or Persian origin, there is a gemination process whereby
the last consonant is duplicated when certain suxes are added. Some examples are:
Lexical:
Surface:
Lexical:
Surface:
Lexical:
Surface:
s0-sH
u
uss00

u
N(base)-3SG-POSS
u
ss
u
hak0-yH
hakk00
hak-lAr
hak0lar
N(right)-ACC
hakk
N(right)-PLU
haklar
The suxes that cause this gemination are those that start with a dropping consonant. The
words that undergo this gemination process are: hak, tb, med, hal (solution) sk, ad
(recognition) had, us, zam, af, sr, hat.
3.7 s-drop
The rst consonant 3SG-POSS sux (-sH) when added to certain words of Arabic origin
ending with a vowel, drops in exception to the general rule. Words with s dropping and not
dropping are considered legal, though two vowel sequences are not at all common in Turkish.
Lexical:
Surface:
Surface:
cami-sH
cami-0i
cami-si
N(mosque)-3SG-POSS
camii
camisi
The following words have this property: bayi,
cami, c
ma, enva, filvaki, ibda, i
ctima,
if
sa, ihtira, ikna, imtina, indifa, inkta, intiba, irca, irtica, irtifa, ttla,
kablelvuku, kan, maktu, mani, matbu, mayi, mebde, mecmu, memba, men
se, merci,
meta, mevdu, mevki, mevzi, mevzu, msra, mudi, murabba, m
urteci, muti, muttali,
m
uvezzi, niza, r
uk
u, sanayi, s
ayi, s
eci, s
ema, s
ua, s

uyu, tab, teberru, terfi,
te
sci, te
sri, te
syi, tetebbu, tevabi, tevazu, tevdi, tevess
u, tevsi, tulu, vaki,
vasi, veda, vuku, zayi, zya, z
urra
.
2
For ne the normal inections are also valid.
10
4 Ax Inventory
In this section we present the set of suxes that are available in Anatolian Turkish for
word formation via derivational or inectional means. Many words derived from derivational
suxes are lexicalized in the sense that their meaning composition is no longer related to the
meaning of the stem in a predictable way. The suxes marked with { in the tables are the
ones which are relatively more productive and compositional in this sense.
4.1 Coding scheme
Upper-case letters in morphemic representations denote meta-phonemes3. Parentheses indicate insertion/deletion depending on the previous segment.
Codes for morphemes are of the form
P0 P1 P2 P3 : : :
where
: Position 0. Final grammatical category.
1 : Source grammatical category.
2 : Type of process. I for inection and D for derivation. A N means not applicable.
remainder is the mnemonic name of the morpheme.
P0
P
P
Grammatical category codes are :
N Noun
V Verb
A Adverb
J Adjective
R Pronoun
P Postposition
C Conjunction
X Exclamation
For instance, NVD xyz means the xyz ax produces a noun from a verb via a derivation.
4.2 Noun Inections (NNI xxxxxx)
Elements|in order| are given below. All except N are optional.
1. Noun stem (N)
2. Plural (NNI PLU)
3. Possessive (NNI POSSxx)
3
see the section on morphophonemic processes
11
4. Case (NNI xxx)
5. Relative (NNI REL)
Morphemic
Representation Code
Gloss
Examples
-lAr
-(H)m
-(H)mHz
-(H)n
-(H)nHz
-(s)H
-lArH
-(y)H
-nH
0
-(n)Hn
-(y)A
-nA
-DA
-nDA
-DAn
-nDAn
-(y)lA
-ki
Plural
1st person singular possessive
1st person plural possessive
2nd person singular possessive
2nd person plural possessive
3rd person singular possessive
3rd person plural possessive
Objective (accusative) case
Objective case (after 3P poss)
Nominative case
Genitive case
Dative case
Dative case (after 3P poss)
Locative case
Locative case
Ablative case
Ablative case
Instrumental/comitative case
Relative
arabalar, evler
arabam, evim
arabamz, evimiz
araban, evin
arabanz, eviniz
arabas, evi
arabalar, evleri
arabay, evi
masasn
araba, ev
arabann, evin
arabaya, eve
masasna
arabada, evde
masasnda
arabadan, evden
masasndan
arabayla, evle
evdeki, arabadakilerinki
4.3
{ NNI PLU
{ NNI POSS1s
{ NNI POSS1p
{ NNI POSS2s
{ NNI POSS2p
{ NNI POSS3s
{ NNI POSS3p
{ NNI OBJ
{ NNI OBJ3
NNI NOM
{ NNI GEN
{ NNI DAT
{ NNI DAT3
{ NNI LOC
{ NNI LOC3
{ NNI ABL
{ NNI ABL3
{ NNI INC
{ NNI REL
Derivations producing nouns (NxDxxxxx)
The 'adjective' and noun distinction in Turkish is a dicult one. 4 Most adjectives can be
used as nouns, and undergo the derivations from a noun. Nouns can perform the function of
an adjective as noun modier in noun-noun groups (izafet). See the chapter on syntax.
4
Nouns and adjectives are sometimes collectively called substantives
12
4.3.1 Nouns from nouns (NND xxxxxx) or adjectives (NJD xxxx)
Morphemic
Representation
-CA
-CA
-cAgIz
-cAk
-CH
Code
NJD CA
NND CA
NND CAGZ
NND CAK
NND CI
-CHk
-CHl
-dAs
-gen
-lHk
NND CIK
NND CIL
NND DAS
NND GEN
NND LIK
-lHk
{ NJD LIK
Example
akca, karaca, Hintce
Turkce, Arapca
adamcagz, koycegiz
oyuncak, yavrucak
ekmekci, odac, isci, ciftci
yolcu, oncu, yabanc, arac, konusmac
kaderci, aklc, milliyetci, Ataturkcu
bademcik, kzlck, maymuncuk
oncul, balkcl
srdas, arkadas, meslekdas, gonuldes
ucgen, altgen, kosegen
gunluk, gozluk, sabunluk, salatalk, gecelik
kitaplk, delik, komurluk, odunluk
ebelik, doktorluk, tasclk
halkclk, maddecilik, rkclk
bolluk, guzellik, titizlik, sksklk
13
4.3.2 Nouns from verbs (NVD xxxxxx)
Morphemic
Representation Code
-AcAk
NVD ACAK
-Ak
NVD AK
-amak
-An
-AnAk
-cA
-gA
-(G)Ac
-GAn
-GH
-gHc
-gHn
-H
-(y)HcH
-(H)k
-(H)m
-(H)n
-(Hn)c
-HntH
-(y)Hs
-(H)t
-mA
-mAcA
-mAk
-mAn
-mAzlHk
-tH
Example
alacak, verecek, icecek, yakacak, cekecek, kracak
durak, yatak, batak, konak, yunak, sgnak, tapnak
olcek, kayak, kaydrak, ucak, yutak, sacak
NVD AMAK
basamak, kacamak, tutamak
bakan, kapan, kalan, caglayan, bolunen, bolen
{ NVD AN
NVD ANAK
gelenek, gorenek, yetenek, olanak, tutanak
saganak, odenek
NVD CA
saknca, dusunce, eglence, dinlence, soylence
dalga, bilge, supurge, onerge, bildirge, gosterge
NVD GA
kskac, suzgec, sayac, buyutec
NVD GAC
NVD GAN
srgan, sergen, yelken, ergen
silgi, sarg, atk, keski, sungu
NVD GI
catk, dolgu, cizgi, icki, bitki
sevgi, sayg, ilgi, etki, gorgu
NVD GIC
dalgc
yangn, salgn, duzgun, bilgin, bozgun
NVD GIN
olu, dolu, soru, korku, san
NVD I
yap, dizi, suru, bat, dogu, kosu
NVD ICI
satc, yuzucu, okuyucu
stc, susturucu, uyusturucu, tasyc
NVD IK
tank, delik, krk, gocuk, boluk, katk
ayrk, konuk, oksuruk, buyruk, sark, ack
NVD IM
dogum, olum, yudum, atm, saym, secim
donum, yarm, ekim, pisirim, icim, tadm
baglam, kavram, saglam, ucurum, oturum,
bitirim, kaldrm
NVD IN
ekin, ygn, tutun, akn, sn, gelin
kazanc, ilenc, sapnc, bilinc
NVD INC
NVD INTI
aknt, kesinti, dokuntu, kuruntu
dals, gecis, ucus, yuruyus
NVD YIS
ayrt, gecit, umut, yogurt, yakt, kesit, tast
NVD IT
NVD MA
korunma, bekleme, arastrma
bilmece, kandrmaca, kosmaca, cekmece, atmaca
NVD MACA
{ NVD MAK
yapmak, yemek
sayman, gocmen, okutman, egitmen
NVD MAN
{ NVD MAZLIK aldrmazlk, dinlemezlik, uyusmazlk
NVD TI
belirti, kzart
14
4.3.3 Adjectives from nouns (JND xxxxxx) or adjectives (JJD xxxxx)
Morphemic
Representation
-CA
-CH
-cHk
-cHl
-(H)msH
-(H)mtrak
-(H)ncH
-(H)z
-lH
-lHk
-mAn
-sAl
-msAr
-(m)sH
-sHz
-(s)Ar
Code
JJD CA
JND CI
JND CIK
JJD CIL
JJD IMSI
JJD MTRAK
JND INCI
JND IZ
JND LI
JND LIK
JJD MAN
JND SAL
JJD MSAR
JND MSI
{ JND SIZ
JND SER
Example
mertce, guzelce, yaslca
sakac, inatc, uykucu, karahaberci
incecik, ufack, kucucuk
evcil, bencil, olumcul, insancl
tatlms, mavimsi, sertimsi, hamurumsu
eksimtrak, yesilimtrak
birinci, ikinci, ucuncu, onuncu
ikiz, ucuz
tatl, sesli, uslu, turlu, Asyal, Cinli
yemeklik, kiralk, tursuluk
kocaman, kucumen, sisman, delismen
anayasal, sorunsal, bicimsel
iyimser, kotumser, karamsar
erkeksi, ylans, cocuksu, budalams
tatsz, evsiz, sonsuz, koksuz
birer, ikiser, dokuzar
15
4.3.4 Adjectives from verbs (JVD xxxx)
Morphemic
Representation
-dHk
-AcAk
-AgAn
-(A)k
-An
-gAc
-GAn
-gic
-GHn
Code
JVD MADIK
{ JVD ACAK
JVD AGAN
JVD AK
{ JVD AN
JVD GAC
JVD GAN
JVD GIC
JVD GIN
-H
-(y)HcH
-(H)k
JVD I
JVD ICI
JVD IK
-(H)lH
-Hn
-(Hn)c
-(H)ntH
-Hr (Ar)
JVD ILI
JVD IN
JVD INC
JVD INTI
JVD IR
-mA
-mAz
-mHs
JVD MA
{ JVD MAZ
{ JVD MIS
Example
gorulmedik, olmadk, ummadk
oturacak, iecek, soylenecek, olmayacak
olagan, suregen, duragan, gezegen
korkak, sarsak, dislek, yuvarlak, uzak
yaratan, goren, sevilen, tuten
utangac, usengec
calskan, alngan, cekingen, dovusken
bilgic
dalgn, yorgun, uzgun, bezgin, saskn
yetiskin, alskn
sk, olu, kat, dolu, duru
yrtc, bolucu, gecici, uzucu
batk, kesik, cizik, tutuk, yank, catk
islek, oynak, patlak, buyuk, soguk, bulank
ekili, sarl, ortulu, kurulu
uzun, sayn
kskanc, igrenc, korkunc, gulunc
uyuntu, ozenti, supruntu
olur, okur, dusunur, bilir, icilir
akar, bakar, keser, doner
dokme, yapma, kaplama, serpme
gorunmez, ylmaz, utanmaz
gecmis, okumus, pismis
4.4 Verb Inections (VVI xxxxxxx)
Elements are given below. VVI Txxx and VVI PERS are required if the verb is nite.
1. Verb stem (V)
2. Reexive (VVI REFX)
3. Reciprocal/Collective (VVI RECP)
4. Causative (VVI CAUSx)
5. Passive (VVI PASSx)
6. Impossible (VVI IMP)
7. Negative (VVI NEG)
8. Tense-aspect (VVI Txxxx)
9. Auxiliary (VVI Xxxxx)
10. Person (VVI PERSxxx)
16
Morphemic
Representation Code
Gloss
-(H)n
VVI REFX
Reexive
-Hs
VVI RECP
-DHr
-t
-(H)r
-Hl
-(H)n
-(y)AmA
-mA
-(H)r
{ VVI CAUSD
{ VVI CAUST
{ VVI CAUSR
{ VVI PASSL
{ VVI PASSN
{ VVI IMP
{ VVI NEG
{ VVI TAORSH
-(A)r
-(H)yor
{ VVI TAORSA
{ VVI TPROG
-DH
-mHs
-(y)AcAk
-(y)A
-mAlI
-sA
-yAbil
-yAmA
-yAdur
-yAkal
-yAyaz
-yAgor
-yAgel
-yAkoy
-(y)DI
-(y)mHs
{ VVI TPAST
{ VVI TNARR
{ VVI TFUTR
{ VVI TOPTA
{ VVI TNECE
{ VVI TCOND
{ VVI TABIL
{ VVI ANEG
{ VVI TDUR
{ VVI TKAL
{ VVI TYAZ
{ VVI TGOR
{ VVI TGEL
VVI TKOY
{ VVI XPAST
{ VVI XDUBT
-(y)sA
{ VVI XCOND
-(y)ken
-ArAk
-cAsInA
-(H)m
-(H)z
-k
-(sH)n
-(sH)nHz
-DHr
-0
-z
-lAr
{ VVI XADV1
{ VVI XADV2
{ VVI XADV3
{ VVI PERS1s
{ VVI PERS1p1
{ VVI PERS1p2
{ VVI PERS2s
{ VVI PERS2p
{ VVI DHR
{ VVI PERS3st1
{ VVI PERS3st2
{ VVI PERS3p
Examples
kapan, kacn, ortun,
vurun, edin
Reciprocal/Collective
kacstr,
buzustur, kosusmak
Causative
kaldr, arttr, guldur, sektir
Causative
ckart, kucult
Causative
ckar, batr
Passive
yaplms, kuculdu
Passive
vidaland
Impossible
geleme, kalama
Negative
gelme, kalma
Aorist tense
kalr, bulur
buyur, gelir
Aorist tense
gecer, kacar
Progressive
geciyor, kalyor, buluyor,
guluyor
Past tense
kald, gecti, buldu, guldu
Narrative past
kalms, bulmus, olmus
Future
kalacak, gelecek, isteyecek
Optative
gelmiyeydi, kazmyayd
Necessitative
gelmeli, bulmal, bilmeli
Conditional
gelse, vursa, bulasa
Abilitative
gidebil, kalamayabil
Negative abilitative
gideme, okuyama
Continuous
gidedur, calsadur
bakakal
duseyaz, unutayaz
yapagor
yapagel
alkoy
Past aux
yapsayd, gelmisti, gelecekti
Dubitative aux
tembelmis, gitmismis,
buradayms
Conditional aux
buradaysa, bulduysa,
gelmisse
Adverbial aux
gelmisken, buradayken
Adverbial aux
bakarak, gelerek
Adverbial aux
bilmiscesine, ucarcasna
1st person singular
geldim, bulmusum
Type I 1st person plural geliriz, bulmusuz
Type II 1st person plural geldik, baksak
2nd person singular
gelsen, bulursun
2nd person plural
gelseniz, bulursunuz
copula
buradadr, gelmisizdir
Type I 3rd singular
okurlar, gelmis
Type II173rd singular
yapamaz, gelemez
3rd plural
okurlar, gelmisler
4.5
Derivations producing verbs
4.5.1 Verbs from nouns (VND xxxxx) or adjectives (VJD xxxx)
Morphemic
Representation
-dA
-A
-(A)l
-Ar
-et
-HmsA
-lA
-lA
-lAn
-lAs
-sA
-sA
Code
VND DA
VND A
VJD AL
Example
parldamak, hopurdemek
yasamak, kanamak, dilemek, turemek, kocamak
azalmak, incelmek, duzelmek, daralmak, korelemek
yukselmek, ufalmak
VJD AR
agarmak, kararmak, gogermek, yesermek
VND ET
gozetmek, yonetmek
VJD IMSE kucumsemek
VND LA
sepetlemek, cuvallamak, kalaylamak, kazklamak
tuzlamak, katlamak, ogutlemek, sabunlamak
patlamak, gurlemek, melemek, havlamak
atlamak, saplamak, yoklamak
sollamak, genislemek, serinlemek, ucuzlamak
VJD LA
VND LAN evlenmek, yaslanmak, uslanmak, ayaklanmak, kibirlenmek
{ VJD LAS guzellesmek, yoksullasmak, baskalasmak
susamak, tavsamak, kapsamak, umursamak, onemsemek,
VND SA
VJD SA
garipsemek, raksamak, yaknsamak
4.5.2 Verbs from verbs (VVD xxxxx)
Morphemic
Representation
-DAr
-AklA
-AlA
-(H)klA
-mAk
-HstHr
Code
VVD DAR
VVD AKLA
VVD ALA
Example
aktarmak, kaytarmak, kotarmak
duraklamak, iteklemek, tartaklamak
eselemek, ogalamak, kovalamak,
sasalamak, silkelemek
VVD IKLA uyuklamak, didiklemek, durtuklemek, sayklamak
yapmak, gelmek
VVD MAK
VVD USTUR itistirmek, veristirmek, atstrmak, ogusturmak
18
4.5.3 Adverbs from nouns (AND xxxxx) or adjectives (AJD xxxxx)
Morphemic
Representation
-CA
-CA
-cAk
-(y)A
-(y)A
-Hn
-Hn
-lA
-leyin
Code
AND CA
AJD CA
AND CAK
AND YA
AJD YA
AND IN
AJD IN
AND LA
AND LAYIN
Example
dostca, snfca
usulca, ayrca, boylece
evcek
beriye, uca, yarna, asagya
temize, ucuza
ksn, guzun
ilkin, anszn
hzla, guclukle, zamanla, oncelikle
sabahleyin, aksamleyin
4.5.4 Adverbs from verbs (AVD xxxxx)
Morphemic
Representation Code
Example
-dHkcA
AVD DIKCA oldukca, gittikce
-ArAk(tAn)
AVD ARAK olarak, giderekten, bakaraktan, gulerek, bilmeyerek
4.5.5 Adverbs from adverbs (AAD xxx)
Morphemic
Representation Code
Example
-cek
AAD CEK demincek
5 Morphotactics
5.1 Paradigms
Turkish has two main paradigms for word formation. The nominal paradigm applies to nouns
and adjectives and describes the order of the inectional suxes. This paradigm is described
in Figure 1. The verbal paradigm applies to verbs and describes the order of the inectional
suxes that are applicable to verbal roots. It is shown in Figure 2. These paradigms do not
however describe cross-paradigm derivations which will be described in the next section on
sux sequencing.
Turkish morphotactics allow productive formation of words whose part-of-speech categories
may change a number of times during axation. One can start with a nominal root, then
form a verbal form with a sux which can then take an aspect sux and then become a
nominal form again through for example a gerund sux, and then take the standard nominal
suxes (plural, possessive case, etc.) It is also possible to have circular constructions (an
example of which is given later). This however does not mean that there are no restrictions
on such formations. In fact there are semantic restrictions on the formations. It is possible to
enforce such restrictions in morphotactics except the mechanisms one would need would have
to be much more sophisticated than the simple provisions provided by the most morphological
19
nominal plural possessive case relative
root sux
sux sux sux
plural sux
-lAr
possessive suxes -(H)m -(H)mHz
-(H)n -(H)nHz
-(s)H -lArH
case suxes
-(y)H
-(y)A
-DAn
-nH
-nDA
-ki
relative sux
-(y)lA
-DA
-(n)Hn
-nA
-nDAn
Figure 1: The nominal model
analyzers.
In this section we will present the morphotactics of Turkish word paradigms by means of
nite state machines. In the gures describing our morphotactic component (such as Figure
3), the boxes indicate suxation states, the arrows indicate the next states which can be
reached when a sux matching one of the labels is found. The circles indicate the nal
states for complete and valid word formations with the labels in parentheses near these states
labeled End indicate the class of the word construction when the machine ends up in that nal
state. The 0 on the transitions indicate that the transition can be taken with
input. The
states drawn in bold correspond to references to states in other gures.For example, the state
labeled Possessive-3 indicates the state of a nominal construction which has been axed a
third person possessive sux. From that state one can go to a nal state indicating a nominal
in accusative case with sux -nH, or to the states labeled Case-1 or Case-2 with the relevant
case suxes, or to another nal state with the sux -cA.
nul l
5.1.1 Finite State Machine for Nominal Morphotactics
Figure 3 shows the nite state machine for the nominal paradigm. The morphotactics for the
nominal paradigm is relatively simple. There are mainly two parts: The top part corresponds
to nominal constructions with plural, possessive, case and relativization suxes. It is technically possible to go around the loop through the state labeled Relative a number of times
though in practice such constructions are rarely used. For example it is possible to have a
word structure like:
MASA-LAR-IM-DA-KI_ -LER-I_ N-KI_ -NDE
which roughly means \at those (things) which belong to those (other things) at my tables."
20
verbal voice negation compound main question second person
root suxes sux
verb s. tense s. sux tense s. sux
voice suxes
reexive reciprocal causative passive
-(H)n
-(H)s
-DHr
-Ht
-t
-Hr
-Ar
negation suxes -mA
-(y)AmA
compound verb -(y)Abil -(y)Ayaz
suxes
-(y)Adur -(y)Akal
-(y)Hver
-(y)Agel
-(y)Akoy
-(y)Agor
main tense
suxes
-DH
-mHS
-(y)AcAk
-(H)r
-Ar
-(H)yor
-mAktA
-sA
-(y)A
-mAlH
-0
question sux
second tense
suxes
person suxes
-mH
-(y)DH
-(y)mHS
-(y)sA
-m
-n
-
-k
-nHz
-lAr
-(y)Hm
-sHn
-(y)Hz
-sHnHz
-lHm
-(y)Hn
-(y)HnHz
-sHnlAr
Figure 2: The verbal model
21
-Hl
-Hn
-n
The bottom part of the nominal morphotactics state diagram corresponds to the nominal
verb and adverbial constructions like:
evdeydi { (S/he/it) was at the house.
evdeyse { If (s/he/it) is at the house.
evdeymis { (s/he/it) was as the house.(Narrative)
evdeyim { I am at the house.
evdedirler { They are (denitely) at the house.
evdeyken { While (someone) is (was) at the house.
evdeymiscesine { (behaving) as if he is at the house.
The nominal morphotactics are a bit dierent for compound nouns. The additional states
required by these compound nouns are shown in Figure 4. Compound nouns which are
treated as single lexical unit have two components both of which are nominal roots. Thus
Turkish does not have a productive compounding paradigm such as in German. The second
component in such compound nouns is always axed compound marker, which is the same as
the third person possessive sux, when the compound noun is used in the nominative case.
For example bitpazar (ea market)) (Lexical bit-pazar-sH), is used as both the nominative
form and the third person possessive form. However further axation does not proceed as in
other nominals. For example the plural of bitpazar is bitpazarlar) where the plural sux is
now axed to the nominative form of the second part of the compound and then the third
person possessive is added. Similarly in bitpazarm (my ea market) or bitpazarn (your ea
market) the axation is onto the nominative form of the second component and not on to
the nominative form of the compound noun.
Some lexical elements are already in plural form. For those cases the plural sux and/or the
possessive suxes are skipped in the morphotactics. For example:
amcamlar (the family/home of my uncle):5 This is already in plural form and does not
take any possessive sux either. Hence the sux lexicon that follows this is the CASE-1
lexicon.
bakliyat (legumes), baklagiller (leguminous plants) are already in plural form.
For nouns already in plural form and ending in -lAr, the possessive sux -sH, can be interpreted as both the third person singular possessive or third person plural possessive.
5.1.2
Finite State Machine for Verbal Morphotactics
Figures 5 and 6 show the nite state machine for the verbal paradigm. The verbal morphotactics is signicantly more complicated than the nominal morphotactics. Turkish verbal
Note that this looks like it has a possessive sux (-Hm) followed by the plural sux (-lAr). However
morphotactics puts the possessive after the plural, hence this can not parsed as such within the nominal
paradigm.
5
22
Nominal
Root
+IAr,0
+IH,+SHz
Plural
(Acc. Noun)
+Hm,+Hn,
+HmHz,
+HnHz,0
+IArH
+sH
(Acc. Noun)
+nH
Possess.
End
Posses.-3
+yA,+DA,+DAn
+nHn,+yIA, +sH
0
End
+cA
+nA,+nDA
+nDAn,+nHn,
+yIA,0
End
End
(Adverb)
0
Case-1
(Adverb)
End
DA,+nHn
(nominative/cased
noun)
+nDA,
+nHn
Case-2
+nA,
+nDA,
+nDAn,
+nHn,
+yIA,0
+ki
+nDA,
+nHn
Relative
+IAr
+IH,+SHz
+yDH,
+ysA
+ymHs
Nominal
Verb 1
+yHm
+sHn
0,
+yHz
+IAr
SHnHz
Nominal
Verb 2
+Hm,+SHn,
0,+Hz,
+SHnHz,IAr
+m,+n
0,+k,nHz,
+IAr
(nominal verb)
End
(temporal adverb)
Nominal
Verb 4
(nominal verb)
+IAr,0
End
Nominal
Verb-2
Person
End
+yken
+DHr
+DHr,0
End
+cAsHnA
(nominal verb)
End
nominal verb)
End
(attitude adverb)
Figure 3: Finite State Machine for Nominal Morphotactics
23
Compound
Noun
Root
Nominal Root
No Possesive
+DA,+nHn
+yA,+DA,+DAn
+nHn,+yIA,
0
Case-1
+IAr
+sH,
+Hm,+Hn,
+IArH
+HmHz,+HnHz
Case-2
Possessive
Plural
Possessive-3
+Hm,Hn,
+HmHz,
+HnHz,0
+sH,
+IArH
+Hm,+Hn +sH*
+HmHz,
+HnHz,0
Nominal
Root
Plural
Nominal
Root
Plural/IAr
* This possessive has both singular and plural
interpretation.
Figure 4: Finite State Machine for Compound Noun Morphotactics
24
structures can take a sequence of reexive, reciprocal, causative and passive suxes which
can then be followed by a compound verb, and then by aspect, tense and person suxes.
Verbal structures can also be made into nominal or adverbial structures with the addition of
yet other suxes. When a verbal root takes no reexive or reciprocal sux, the causative or
the passive suxes can take a variety of forms depending on a number of criteria on the roots.
If, however, they take either of the reexive or the reciprocal suxes (which are mutually
exclusive), then the causative and passive formations are very simple as shown on Figure
5. After state labeled Passive Hn which corresponds to a verbal stem with all the reexive/reciprocal, causative, and passive suxes are accounted for, we can construct a negative
form by -mA and -yAmA or directly go into positive verb construction. In any case, we can
possibly add from a small number of auxiliary (or compound) verbs (the most common being
-yAbil indicating potentiality) to get a verbal stem to which we can now add tense and person
suxes, or suxes which form nominal structures, innitives and adverbs.
Turkish verbs can have at most two suxes indicating aspect and tense. The rst one can be
one of narrative, future, aorist, present continuous, necessitative, optative, imperative, perfect
and conditional suxes. These can take possibly dierent sets of person suxes to form a
verbal structure, or take a second morpheme indicating perfect, conditional or narrative. As
can be seen from the morphotactics diagram, not all possible combinations of the aspect and
tense suxes are possible. The second set of suxes will only be allowed if the rst sux is
one of narrative, future, aorist, present continuous and necessitative. There are a number of
nonstandard cases especially involving the third person plural and these are accounted for in
the state diagrams.
An example will clarify the general idea behind verbal constructions. Consider the verb:
gorulemiyormusum which can be translated into English as \(it is said that) I was not able
to be seen." The morpheme structure is:
g
or
g
or
-Hl
-
ul
-yAmA
-0em0
-Hyor
-iyor
-ymH
s
-0mu
s
-yHm
-0um
see -PASS -NEG -PRES-CONT -NARR -1PS
This verbal root gor will generate the structure above by going through the states labeled:
1. Verbal Root (root)
2. Passive Hl with -Hl
3. Passive Hn with 0
4. Negative yama with -yAmA
5. Verbal Stem with 0
6. Other Tense with -Hyor
7. Second Tense Other with -ymHs
8. End with -yHm
Readers familiar with details of verb formation in Turkish will note that our morphotactic
model does not deal with the three groups of a total of 13 verbal roots whose aorist forms are
exceptions to the rules.
25
Verbal Root
+Hn
+Hs
Reflexive
Reciprocal
+DHr
+DHr
Causative
DHr
+DHr
+t
+HI,
0
+HI,0
+HI,0
+HI,0
Causative
t
Passive
HI
+Hn,0
0
Passive
Hn
+ma
+yama
Negative
ma
+ZsHnHz,
+zIAr
+m,
+zsHn,
+z,
End
yHz
+yAdur,+yHver,yAgel,
+yAgor,+yAbil,yAyaz,
+yAkal,+yAkoy,0
Negative
yama
+z
+z
+yAbil,0
Negative
Aorist
Positive
mAksHzHn,
+mAdAn
NegAorist)
0
+yHcH
+yAdur,+yHver,
+yAgel,+yAgor,0
Verbal Stem
+yHp,
yAIH,
DHkcA
End
(adverb)
+mAk
+yArAk
Adverb-1
+yHncA
Adverb-2
Nominal Root
+mazIHk,+ma,
+yHs (noun)
+DAn,0
End
+yA,0
+yAn,+yAcAk,
+yAsH,+DHk,
+mHs (adj)
(adverb)
Figure 5: Finite State Machine for Verbal Morphotactics
26
Infinitive
+DAn,+DA,
+yIA,+yA
Case-1
Negative
Aorist
Verbal Stem
Other Tense
Optative
+yHm,+SHn
0,+yHz,
+SHnHz,+IAr
+IAr,
0
Imperative
Perfect/Cond
+yHm,+SHn,
0,+yHz,
+SHnHz,+IAr
0,+SHn,
+yHnHz,
+SHnIAr
+m,+n,
+k,0,
+nHz,
+IAr
End
End
End
+IAr
Other Tense
3rd Person
Other Tense
Person
+cAsHna,+yken
End
+DHr,0
(Optative
Verb)
(Imperative
Verb)
(Perfect/Cond)
End
(Other Verb)
+cAsHnA
(Adverb)
+yDh,
+ysA
Other Tense
Sec Tense-3PP
Second Tense
Perfect/Cond
+yDh,+ysA,
+ymHs
End
(Verb)
+ymHs
Second Tense
Other
+m,+n,0,+k,
+nHz,+IAr
+yHm,SHn,0,
+yHz,SHnHz,
+IAr
End
End
(Verb)
(Verb)
Figure 6: Finite State Machine for Verbal Morphotactics (cont.)
27
6
Multiple-word constructs
Analyzing text on lexical item basis may generate spurious analyses when multiple lexical
items act as single syntactic or semantic entity. For example, in the sentence
Sirin mi sirin bir kopek kosa kosa geldi. (A very cute dog came running.)
the fragment sirin mi sirin constitutes a duplicated emphatic adjective in which there is an
embedded question sux mi (written separately in Turkish), and the fragment kosa kosa is
a duplicated verbal construction where each form has the morphological parse:
kosa
English
1. N(kosa)
N twin
2. V(kos)-OPT-3SG V let him run
but yet the duplicated form has the grammatical role of manner adverb in the sentence.
Following is a set of multi-word constructs in Turkish that can be handled in a post-morphological
pre-syntactic analysis phase. This list is not meant to be comprehensive, and new construct
specications can easily be added.
1. duplicated optative and 3SG verbal forms functioning as manner adverb, e.g., kosa kosa,
2. aorist verbal forms with root duplications and sense negation functioning as temporal
adverbs, e.g.,yapar yapmaz. (an exception is olur olmaz which may also function as a
manner adverb.
3. duplicated verbal and derived adverbial forms with the same verbal root acting as
temporal adverbs, e.g.,gitti gideli,
4. duplicated compound adjectival form constructions that act as adjectives, e.g., guzeller
guzeli,
5. adjective or noun duplications that act as manner adverbs, e.g., hzl hzl, ev ev,
6. emphatic adjectival forms involving the question sux, e.g., guzel mi guzel,
7. word sequences with specic usage whose semantics is not compositional, e.g., yan sra,
hic olmazsa,
8. proper nouns, e.g., Suleyman Demirel,Topkap Saray,
9. idiomatic forms and duplications which are never used alone, e.g., gurul gurul,
10. other idiomatic forms.
Recognizing and appropriately marking these prior to the syntactic analysis substantially aids
in parsing.
28
References

[1] R. Simsek. Orneklerle
Turkce Sozdizimi (Turkish Syntax with Examples). Kuzey Matbaaclk, 1987.
[2] Jorge Hankamer. Finite state morphology and left to right phonology. In Proceedings of
the West Coast Conference on Formal Linguistics, volume 5. Stanford University, 1986.
[3] L.E. Knecht. Subject and Object in Turkish. PhD thesis, Department of Linguistics and
Philosophy, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, February
1986.
[4] Aydn Koksal. Automatic Morphological Analysis of Turkish. PhD thesis, Hacettep
University, Ankara, Turkey, 1975.
[5] G. L. Lewis. Turkish Grammar. Oxford University Press, 1991.
[6] Kemal Oazer. Two-level description of Turkish morphology. Linguistic and Literary
Computing, 1994.
[7] Aysn Solak and Kemal Oazer. Design and implementation of a spelling checker for
Turkish. Linguistic and Literary Computing, 1993.
[8] Richard Sproat. Morphology and Computation. MIT Press, 1992.
[9] Robert Underhill. Turkish Grammar. MIT Press, 1976.
[10] Harry van der Hulst and Jeroen van de Weijer. Topics in Turkish phonology. In Hendrik
Boeschoten and Ludo Verhoeven, editors, Turkish Linguistics Today. E. J. Brill, 1991.
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