Download Language aptitude

Teachingmethodology, Fall, 2015
PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS •
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Human Learning Behaviorism (Pavlov, Skinner)
Cognitive (Ausubel) Constructivist (Rogers) Types of learning Transfer, interference, and overgeneralization Inductive vs. deductive Language aptitude Intelligence and language learning Teachingmethodology, Fall, 2015
Behaviorism  Classical conditioning (Pavlov)
: conditioned response, unconditioned response, stimulus, response  John B. Watson (1913)
: Human behavior should be studied objectively. Classical conditioning theory, Stimulus‐response connections
Complex behaviors are learned by building up series or chains of response.
 Thorndike’s Law of Effect
Teachingmethodology, Fall, 2015
SKINNER’s OPERANT CONDITIONING
 Neobehaviorist Skinner’s Operant conditioning for explaining learning & behavior
: One “operates” on the environment
Stimuli is deemphasized.  Reinforcers(events/stimuli)
: follow a response and that tend to strengthen behavior or increase the possibility
of a recurrence of that response constitute a powerful force in the control of human
behavior.  Punishment (positive reinforce or an aversive one?)  Skinner’s book, The Technology of Teaching (1968) : Any subject matter can be taught effectively and successfully by a carefully designed program of step‐by‐step reinforcement.  Controlled practice of verbal operants under carefully designed schedules of reinforcement. E.g. ALM (audiolingual method, 1950s‐60s) Teachingmethodology, Fall, 2015
AUSUBEL’S SUBSUMPTION THEORY  ROTE vs. Meaningful Learning Rote : the process of acquiring material as “discrete and isolated entities that are relatable to cognitive structure only in an arbitrary and verbatim fashion.  Mental storage of items having no/ little association with existing cognitive structure. Teachingmethodology, Fall, 2015
AUSUBEL’S SUBSUMPTION THEORY  Meaningful learning (Subsumption)
: a process of relating and anchoring new material to relevant established entities in cognitive structure Teachingmethodology, Fall, 2015
Frank Smith (1975, p. 162)  Manufacturing meaningfulness‐ is a potentially powerful factor in human learning.  We can make things meaningful if necessary and if we are strongly motivated to do so. e.g cramming for an exam  Similar strategies can be used in parlor games . By associating items either in groups or with some external stimuli, retention is enhanced. William James (1890, p. 662)  More facts are associated with in the mind, the better possession of it our memory retains.
 Association became a hook for forming a network of attachments by which it is woven into the entire issue of our thought.  Retention, long‐term memory ( Miller’s “magic seven, plus or minus two”) Teachingmethodology, Fall, 2015
Systematic Forgetting
• Proactive / retroactive inhibition • Forgetting takes place in a much more intentional and purposeful manner b/c it is a continuation of the very process of subsumption by which one learns. • Forgetting is really a second/ “obliterative” stage of subsumption
• Characterized as “memorial reduction to the least common denominator”(Ausubel,1963)
Cognitive pruning procedures (Brown, 1972)  Pruning is the elimination of unnecessary clutter and a clearing of the way for more material to enter the cognitive filed.  Child’s learning of the concept of “so hot that it will burn”‐excessive heat that could cause physical pain. Teachingmethodology, Fall, 2015
Subsumptive forgetting (pruning) • Systematic • Promote optimal pruning procedures for producing retention beyond the level from the traditional theories of forgetting. Language attrition • Possible causes for the loss of second language skills (Montrul, 2002; Tomiyanma, 2000; Weltens & Chohen, 1989; Weltens, 1987; Lambert & Freed, 1982) • Certain aspects of lg. are more vulnerable to foreting than others. • Nakuma(1998) : lexical items may be easily lost than idioms depending on factors as
native lg. transfer and interference. • Obler(1982) : Neurolinguistic blocking, left/‐right brain functioning • Andersen(1982): Long‐term forgetting can apply to certain linguistic features. • Olshtain (1989): A reversal of the acquisition process  attrition • Gardener(1982) motivational factor, Priven(2002) cultural identity Teachingmethodology, Fall, 2015
Subtractive bilingualism(Siegel, 2003) • Learners rely more and more on a second language, which eventually replaces their first language. Language attrition research • Long‐term loss • Ausubel’s theory is important to second lg. learning & teaching regard of meaningful contexts for linguistic communication. Teachingmethodology, Fall, 2015
Pedagogical implication of subsumption theory
• Provides a strong theoretical basis for the rejection of conditioning models of practice &
repetition in lg. teaching. • ALM • Rote learning can be effective on a short‐term basis, but for any long‐term retention it fails b/c of the tremendous buildup of interference. Pedagogical implication of systematic forgetting 〮 In the early stages of lg. learning, certain devices (definitions, paradigms, illustrations, or rules)
are often used to facilitate subsumption.  Gradually minimized, pruned. 〮 We might better to achieve the goal of communicative competence by removing unnecessary barriers to automaticity. Teachingmethodology, Fall, 2015
ROGERS’S HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGY • Rogers and Vygotsky share some views in common in their highlighting of the social and interactive nature of learning. • Rogers – therapeutic approach – 19 principles of human behavior • Concerned with learning from a “phenomenological” perspective • Whole person‐ development of an individual’s self‐concept, his/her personal sense of realisity
• Nonthreatening environment ★Pedagogical implication of Rogers’s theory
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Focus shifts from teaching  learning Transformative pedagogy (O’Hara, 2003, p. 64) The goal of education is facilitation of change and learning. Teacher’s role : facilitator, Valuable individual, open communicator
Teachers must be real & genuine and having genuine trust, acceptance.
Teachingmethodology, Fall, 2015
ROGERS’S Humanism : flaws & Its implication to lg. learning & teaching • The nondirective approach‐ time loss • Nonthreatening – no tension, the positive effects of competitiveness (see Bailey, 1983) • Teacher should provide nonthreatening context for learners to construct their meanings in interaction with others. • Teachers programmatically feed students quantities of knowledge and foster defensive learning climate. • Classroom activities and materials in lg. learning should utilize meaningful contexts of genuine communication with students. • Learner‐centered classroom with negotiation of learning outcomes, being engaged in discovery learning, and relation the course content to students’ reality outside the classroom. (p. 99 in the box) Teachingmethodology, Fall, 2015
Table 4.1 Theories of learning Behavioristic COGNITIVE CONSTRUCTIVIST Classical Operant [Pavlov] Respondent conditioning Elicited response S R [Skinner] Governed by consequences Emitted response RS(reward) [Ausubel] [Rogers]
Meaningful = Powerful Fully functioning person Rote = weak Subsumption
Learning how to learn Community of learners No punishment Programmed Instruction Association systematic forgetting Cognitive “pruning” Audio lingual method (50s‐60s) Empowerment CLL (Community learning)
TYPES OF LEARNING 1. Signal learning 2. Stimulus‐response learning 3. Chaining 4. Verbal association 5. Multiple discrimination 6. Concept learning 7. Principle learning 8. Problem solving TRANSFER, INTERFERENCE, AND OVERGENERALIZATION •
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Transfer : the carryover of previous performance or knowledge to subsequent learning. Positive / Negative transfer Interference: previously learned materials interferes with subsequent material – a previous
items is incorrectly transferred or incorrectly associated with an item to be learned. Native language  positively transferred  a second language learning •
Overgeneralization : To generalize means to infer or derive a law, rule, or conclusion. Much of human learning involves generalizations.
The learning of concepts in early childhood is a process of generalization. In SLA, it refers to overgeneralization as ‘a process that occurs as the second lg. learner acts
within the target lg., generalizing a particular rule or item in the second lg. irrespective of the
native lg.‐beyond legitimate bounds. TRANSFER, INTERFERENCE, AND OVERGENERALIZATION Transfer
Positive (+)
Negative (-)
Overgeneralization
(L1  L1)
(L2  L2)
Interference
(L1  L2)
(L2  L1)
INDUCTIVE AND DEDUCTIVE REASONING Deductive reasoning : a movement from a generalization to specific instances: specific subsumed facts are inferred or deducted from a general principle e.g. Grammar Translation – overemphasized the use of deductive reasoning in lg. teaching
appropriate at times to articulate a rule and then proceed to its instances https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xeQlbHJZ7HQ
• Both inductively and deductively oriented teaching methods can be effective, depending on the goals and contexts of a particular lg. teaching situation. INDUCTIVE AND DEDUCTIVE REASONING • Inductive reasoning : one stores a number of specific instances and induces a general law / rule
conclusion that governs or subsumes the specific instances e.g. study in the ‘field’ (natural, untutored lg. learning), native lg. learning Learners must infer certain rules and meanings from all the data around them. LANGUAGE APTITUDE • Language aptitude : The questions are 1. Is there an ability or “talent” that we can call foreign lg. aptitude? 2. If so, what is it, and is it innate or environmentally “nurtured”? 3. Is it a distinct ability or is it an aspect of general cognitive abilities? 4. Does aptitude vary by age and by whether learning is implicit or explicit? 5. can aptitudinal factors be reliably measured? 6. If so, are they predictive of success in learning a foreign language? • John Carrol’s : The Modern Language Aptitude Test (MLAT) Pimsleur Language Aptitude Battery (PLAB) Defense Language Aptitude Battery (DLAB) • Context‐reduced • Context‐embedded LANGUAGE APTITUDE • Language aptitude test
LANGUAGE APTITUDE • Language aptitude test (http://www.classics.ox.ac.uk/tests.html)
Section A [30 marks]
1. In English, most nouns form their plurals by the addition of -s : e.g. cats, dogs, cows, horses.
This plural marker may be pronounced as [s], as in cats, or [z] as in dogs and cows, or [Iz] as in
horses.
Consider the following further examples : socks, slices, plates, ships, jokes, passes, lids, buses,
blobs, phases, gears, flakes, pieces, dishes, sighs, slices, stripes, noses, sashes, flutes,
whales, grazes, cares, bones, coshes.
On the basis of this list, can you suggest a rule, or rules, for when the plural marker is
pronounced [Iz], and give three more examples that fit your rule(s)?
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_48zfKBFb7k
4:30~
LANGUAGE APTITUDE • New research on language aptitude the CANAL‐F test (Cognitive Ability for Novelty in Acquisition of Language‐Foreign) • Dornyei & Skehan (2003) aptitude may be related to various “stages” or what might be called processes, of second language acquisition. e.g. attention, short‐term memory phonemic coding ability – noticing of phonological patterns inductive learning, chunking, retrieval abilities • Peter Robinson’s (2005, 2002, 2001) aptitude is a complex of abilities that include, processing speed, short/long‐term memory, rote memory, planning time, pragmatic abilities, interactional intelligence, emotional intelligence, and self‐efficacy INTELLIGENCE AND LANGUAGE LEARNING • Gardner (1999, 1983)’s seven
different intelligences (=multiple intelligences) 1. Linguistic 2. Logical‐mathematical 3. Musical 4. Spatial 5. Bodily‐kinesthetic 6. Naturalist 7. Interpersonal 8. Intrapersonal INTELLIGENCE AND LANGUAGE LEARNING • Robert Sternberg (1988, 1985)’s triarchic view •
Componential ability for analytical thinking •
Experiential ability to engage in creative thinking, combining disparate experiences in insightful ways •
Contextual ability: “Street smartness” that enables people to “Play the game” of manipulating their environment (others, situations, institutions, contexts) • Emotional intelligence (1998, 1995) Merlevede, Bridoux, & Vandamme (2001)
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EQ(Emotional Quotient) •
The management of core emotions‐anger, fear, enjoyment, love, disgust, shame, and
others. INTELLIGENCE AND LANGUAGE LEARNING Musical intelligence IQ
EQ
Bodily‐Kinesthetic Interpersonal intelligence Intrapersonal intelligence Spatial intelligence Word War II
Army Specialized
Chomsky
deep structure
program(ASTP) “Army Method”
Cognitive & affective
Pronunciation, pattern drill
David Nunan(1989, p. 97)
Foundation for Direct Method
Counseling-learning
Community language learning (CLL)
The Audiolingual Method
LEARNING THEORIES IN ACTION: TWO LANGUAGE TEACHING METHODS IN CONTRAST TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION 1. List some activities you consider to be rote and others that are meaningful in foreign language classes you have taken (or are teaching). Do some activities fall into a gray area b/w
the two? 2. The class should be divided into as many as eight pairs. To each pair, assign one of Gardner’s eight multiple intelligences. In your group, brainstorm typical language classroom activities or techniques that foster your type of intelligence. Make a list of your activities and compare it with the other lists.