Download Chapter 1 – The Sociological Perspective

Chapter 1 – The Sociological Perspective
Chapter 1 - Learning Objectives
 Understand what is meant by the broader social contexts that underlie human
behavior, and how and why sociologists study these broader social contexts.
 Explain the sociological perspective: what it is, what it offers, and why C. Wright Mills
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referred to it as "the intersection of biography (the individual) and history (the social
factors that influence the individual)."
Define and discuss science as application (the systematic methods used to obtain
knowledge) and product (the knowledge and/or information that are obtained by
those methods).
Identify, understand, and make distinctions between the natural sciences and the
social sciences.
Understand how sociology views and studies human behavior, and how its particular
areas of focus are similar to and different from each of the other social sciences.
Discuss the social changes and the changing social conditions that fostered the
development of sociology as a distinct academic discipline in the middle of the
nineteenth century.
Identify and critique the sociological contributions of the following mid-to-late
nineteenth and early twentieth century European sociologists: Auguste Comte,
Herbert Spencer, Karl Marx, Emile Durkheim, Max Weber, and Harriet Martineau.
Understand how and why levels of social integration may affect rates of suicide and
how Emile Durkheim's nineteenth century study of suicide helped to demonstrate
how social forces affect people's behaviors.
Explain the role of values in social research as prescribed by Max Weber and the
ensuing controversies over whether sociological research can be and/or should be
value free.
Distinguish between "Verstehen," as envisioned by Max Weber, and "social facts," as
defined by Emile Durkheim; and explain how, despite their differences, both
approaches can be combined when conducting social research.
Trace the history of sociology in North America from the late 1800s to the present
while identifying the sociological contributions of the following American sociologists:
Albion Small, George Herbert Mead, Ernest Burgess, Robert E. Park, Jane Addams,
Talcott Parsons, W.E.B. DuBois, and C. Wright Mills.
Discuss the current state of American sociology as it relates to the debate between
social reform and social analysis, and the role applied sociology plays in this debate.
Define what is meant by theory and explain why theory is an important part of
sociology.
Identify the three major theoretical perspectives in sociology-symbolic interactionism,
functional analysis, and conflict theory-and describe the particular level of analysis,
characteristics, viewpoints, and concerns associated with each of these.
Describe the current trends that are shaping the future of sociology in the United
States and how globalization, in particular, may expand American sociology's
horizons in the twenty-first century.
Chapter - 1 Summary
Sociology offers a perspective, a view of the world. The sociological perspective opens a
window into unfamiliar worlds and offers a fresh look at familiar worlds. Sociologists study the
broader social contexts that underlie human behavior. These include the social groups that
influence human behavior and the larger society that organizes it.
The sociological perspective is an approach to understanding human behavior by placing it
within its broader social context. C. Wright Mills referred to the sociological perspective as the
intersection of biography (the individual) and history (social factors that influence the
individual).
Sociology is one of several disciplines referred to as social sciences. As the term implies, social
sciences address the social world. The natural sciences, on the other hand, are the intellectual
and academic disciplines designed to explain and predict the events in the natural
environment. In addition to sociology, the other social sciences include anthropology,
economics, political science, and psychology.
As a scientific discipline, sociology seeks to explain why something happens, attempts to make
generalizations that can be applied to a broader group or situation, and predict what will
happen based on the knowledge received. Sociology specifically seeks to explain the causes of
human behavior and to recognize the patterns of human behavior. It also seeks to predict the
future behavior of people. Although sociologists usually do not make decisions on how society
should be changed or people treated, sociologists provide valuable data obtained through
research that can be used by authorities who make such decisions.
Sociology grew out of the social, political, economic, and technological revolutions of the
eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. The Industrial Revolution, in particular, eroded old
traditions and necessitated new ways of perceiving and examining the social world. With the
success of the natural sciences serving as a model for the social sciences, sociology emerged
in Western Europe as a distinct discipline in the mid-1800s.
Early sociologists who examined the social effects of industrialization included Auguste Comte,
Herbert Spencer, Karl Marx, Emile Durkheim, Max Weber, and Harriet Martineau. The idea of
applying the scientific method to the social world, known as positivism, was first proposed by
Auguste Comte. Based on this innovation and Comte's effort to apply the scientific method to
social life, Comte is credited as the founder of sociology. Herbert Spencer, one of the most
dominant and influential English sociologists, is often called the "second founder of sociology".
Spencer's concept of Social Darwinism profoundly disagreed with Comte's philosophies.
Max Weber advocated a subjective approach-"Verstehen," the German term for "grasp by
insight"-to understanding why people act as they do. In contrast, Emile Durkheim believed
that sociologists should primarily focus on uncovering social facts-the objective social
conditions that influence people's behaviors.
Verstehen and social facts are not mutually exclusive types of social research. Contemporary
sociologists often employ both approaches to examine and understand the social contexts that
underlie human behavior.
The early history of sociology in North America was characterized by a debate over whether
sociology should analyze society or reform society. Early sociology programs were initiated at
the University of Kansas in 1890, the University of Chicago in 1892, and Atlanta University in
1897. Albion Small, George Herbert Mead, Robert E. Park, and Ernest Burgess were among
the first academicians who dedicated their professional careers to the development of
sociological theory. Other sociologists, such as Jane Addams, devoted their entire lives to
reforming society. W.E.B. DuBois, the first African American to earn a doctorate from Harvard
University, was a fierce social critic and dedicated his life to analyzing and writing about social
injustice.
During the 1940s, the emphasis in American sociology shifted from social reform to social
theory. "Grand theorists," such as Talcott Parsons, developed detailed, abstract models of how
the complex parts of society harmoniously functioned together. Although this helped to
"legitimate" sociology as a "science," it did little to critique, reform, and/or help to change the
social injustices in society. C. Wright Mills' influential analysis of "the power elite"-a small
group of business, political, and military leaders whose monopoly on power threatens
freedom-helped to shift sociology back toward social reform in the 1960s and 1970s.
Many sociologists continue to disagree over the proper uses of social research. Some
sociologists practice basic (or pure) sociology, while others practice applied sociology. Whether
one practices basic or applied sociology, a primary goal of social research is to separate fact
from fiction, while examining the links between what people do and the social settings that
help shape their behavior. The current state of sociology encompasses social analysis and
social reform, with a growing emphasis on applied sociology-a sort of "middle ground" that,
rather than focusing on large and/or radical social change, uses sociological analysis to help
solve problems in a specific setting.
Central to the study of any science is the development of theory. A theory is a general
statement about how parts of the world fit together, relate to one another, and affect each
other. Sociologists use three major theories-symbolic interactionism, functional analysis, and
confict theory-to observe and interpret social contexts, relationships, and realities in distinct
ways. Symbolic interactionism analyzes how people use symbols to develop and share their
view of the world. Focusing on the micro level, it studies the different ways that individuals
and small groups create, disseminate, and/or interpret "reality" through their everyday, faceto-face interactions. Functional analysis examines how the various parts of society work
together to fulfill their respective functions and, consequently, create a harmonious society.
Focusing on the macro level, it also looks at how parts of society occasionally dysfunction,
negatively affecting other parts of society and, consequently, contributing to a more unstable
society. Conflict theory views the social world in terms of competing groups struggling over
scarce resources. Also focusing on the macro level, it examines how groups of people with
power maintain and/or impose their power, and how groups of people without power work to
acquire power.
Two major trends are shaping the future of sociology. First, sociology has started to return to
its roots - an emphasis on improving society through scientific research. Public Sociology is a
recent addition to the field intended to embody the applicability of sociology to addressing
social policy changes. Second, globalization is breaking down national boundaries and
expending the scope of sociology as a result. Sociology is addressing global issues more
frequently as a result.
Key Terms in Chapter One
applied sociology: The use of sociology to solve social problems—from the micro level of family
relationships to the macro level of crime and pollution. (p. 19)
basic (or pure) sociology: sociological research, the purpose of which is to make discoveries
about life in human groups, not to make changes in those groups. (p. 19)
bourgeoisie: Karl Marx’s term for capitalists; those who own the means to produce wealth.
8)
(p.
class conflict: Marx’s term for the struggle between capitalists and workers. (p. 8)
common sense: Those things that “everyone knows” are true. (p. 5)
conflict theory: A theoretical framework in which society is viewed as composed of groups
competing for scarce resources. (p. 27)
functional analysis: A theoretical framework in which society is viewed as being composed of
various parts, each with a function that, when fulfilled, contributes to society’s
equilibrium; also known as functionalism and structural functionalism. (p. 24)
generalization: A statement that goes beyond the individual case and is applied to a broader
group or situation. (p. 5)
globalization: The extensive interconnections among nations caused by the expansion of
capitalism. (p. 31)
globalization of capitalism: Capitalism (investing to make profits within a national system)
becoming the globe’s dominant economic system. (p. 31)
latent function: Unintended beneficial consequences of people’s actions. (p. 25)
macrolevel analysis: An examination of large-scale patterns of society. (p. 28)
manifest function: The intended beneficial consequences of people’s actions. (p. 24)
microlevel analysis: An examination of small-scale patterns of society. (p. 28)
natural sciences: The intellectual and academic disciplines designed to comprehend, explain, and
predict events in our natural environment. (p. 3)
nonverbal interaction: Communication without words through gestures, space, silence, and so
on.
(p. 28)
objectivity: Total neutrality. (p. 11)
patterns: Recurring characteristics or events. (p. 5)
positivism: The application of the scientific approach to the social world. (p. 7)
proletariat: Marx’s term for the exploited class: the mass of workers who do not own the means
of production. (p. 9)
pure or basic sociology: Sociological research whose purpose is to make discoveries about life in
human groups, not to make changes in those groups. (p. 19)
replication: Repeating a study in order to check its findings. (p. 12)
science: The application of systematic methods to obtain knowledge and the knowledge obtained
by those methods. (p. 3)
scientific method: The use of objective, systematic observations to test theories. (p. 6)
social facts: Durkheim’s term for a group’s patterns of behavior. (p. 13)
social integration: The degree to which people feel a part of social groups. (p. 10)
social interaction: What people do when they are in one another’s presence. (p. 28)
social location: The group memberships that people have because of their location in history and
society. (p. 2)
social sciences: The intellectual and academic disciplines designed to understand the social world
objectively by means of controlled and repeated observations. (p. 4)
society: A term used to refer to a group of people who share a culture and a territory. (p. 2)
sociological perspective: Understanding human behavior by placing it within its broader social
context. (p. 2)
sociology: The scientific study of society and human behavior. (p. 7)
subjective meanings: The meanings that people give to their own behavior. (p. 12)
symbolic interaction: A theoretical perspective in which society is viewed as composed of
symbols that people use to establish meaning, develop their views of the world, and
communicate with one another. (p. 21)
theory: A general statement about how some parts of the world fit together and how they work;
an explanation of how two or more facts are related to one another. (p. 21)
value free: The view that a sociologist’s personal values should not influence social research. (p.
11)
values: Ideas about what is good or worthwhile in life; attitudes about the way the world ought to
be. (p. 11)
verstehen: A German word used by Weber that is perhaps best understood as “to have insight into
someone’s situation.” (p. 12)
Key People in Chapter One
Jane Addams: Addams co-founded Hull-House, a settlement house in the immigrant community
of Chicago. After having dedicated her life to working with the poor, Addams received
the Nobel Peace Prize in 1931. (p. 16)
Auguste Comte: Comte was the first person to use the term “sociology” and is often credited
with being the founder of sociology for first suggesting that the scientific method be
applied to studying the social world. (p. 7)
W.E.B. DuBois: DuBois was the first African American to earn a doctorate at Harvard
University. He also co-founded the National Association for the Advancement of
Colored People (NAACP). (p. 16)
Emile Durkheim: Durkheim was the first sociologist to apply objective quantitative research
data to demonstrate how social integration affected people’s behavior and was largely
responsible for getting sociology recognized as a distinct academic discipline. (p. 9)
Harriet Martineau: Martineau, born into a wealthy English family, translated Comte’s work
into English and published Society in America. (p. 14)
Karl Marx: Marx believed that the driving force of social change was class conflict, which, in
industrial society, was characterized by a struggle between the bourgeoisie (those who
own the means to produce wealth) and the proletariat (the great mass of exploited
workers who are forced to labor under the capitalists, because they do not own the means
of production). (p. 8)
George Herbert Mead: Mead helped to develop the symbolic interactionist perspective. (p. 22)
Robert Merton: Merton defined and described the terms “manifest functions,” “latent
functions,” and “latent dysfunctions.” (p. 24)
C. Wright Mills: Mills examined the relationship between power and freedom in America, and
his influential analysis of “the power elite” helped to shift sociology away from social
theory and back toward social reform. (p. 19)
Talcott Parsons: Parsons helped to legitimate the field of sociology in America during the 1940s
and 1950s through his large abstract models of society and its working parts; his works
contributed to the continued development of functional analysis, although they also
engendered criticism for ignoring social issues and social concerns. (p. 19)
Albion Small: Small founded the sociology department at the University of Chicago and
established the American Journal of Sociology. (p. 16)
Herbert Spencer: Spencer coined the term “survival of the fittest,” his evolutionary model of
society in which, over generations of time, the most capable members survive and the
least capable members die out. (p. 8)
Max Weber: Weber’s two most significant contributions to sociology included his theoretical
contention that religion (and, by extension, culture) was the driving force of social
change (as illustrated in his influential study The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of
Capitalism) and his methodological contention that sociological research should be
objective and value free. (p. 10)Robert Merton: Merton defined and described the terms
“manifest functions,” “latent functions,” and “latent dysfunctions.” (p. 24)
C. Wright Mills: Mills examined the relationship between power and freedom in America, and
his influential analysis of “the power elite” helped to shift sociology away from social
theory and back toward social reform. (p. 19)
Talcott Parsons: Parsons helped to legitimate the field of sociology in America during the 1940s
and 1950s through his large abstract models of society and its working parts; his works
contributed to the continued development of functional analysis, although they also
engendered criticism for ignoring social issues and social concerns. (p. 19)
Albion Small: Small founded the sociology department at the University of Chicago and
established the American Journal of Sociology. (p. 16)
Herbert Spencer: Spencer coined the term “survival of the fittest,” his evolutionary model of
society in which, over generations of time, the most capable members survive and the
least capable members die out. (p. 8)
Max Weber: Weber’s two most significant contributions to sociology included his
theoretical contention that religion (and, by extension, culture) was the driving force of
social change (as illustrated in his influential study The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of
Capitalism) and his methodological contention that sociological research should be
objective and value free. (p. 10)