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Myers’ Psychology for
®
AP ,
2e
David G. Myers
PowerPoint Presentation Slides
by Kent Korek
Germantown High School
Worth Publishers, © 2014
AP® is a trademark registered and/or owned by the College Board ®, which was not involved in the production of, and does not endorse, this product.
Unit 6:
Learning
Unit 06 - Overview
• How We Learn and Classical Conditioning
• Operant Conditioning
• Operant Conditioning’s Applications, and
Comparison to Classical Conditioning
• Biology, Cognition, and Learning
• Learning By Observation
Click on the any of the above hyperlinks to go to that section in the presentation.
Module 26:
How We Learn and Classical
Conditioning
How Do We Learn?
How Do We Learn?
•
•
•
•
Learning
Habituation
Stimulus
Associative learning
–Classical conditioning
–Operant conditioning
–Cognitive learning
• Observational learning
Learning
• the process of acquiring new and
relatively enduring information or
behaviors.
• Enables humans to be especially
adaptable to our environments, perhaps
our most outstanding trait as human
beings.
Basic Forms of Learning
Habituation- an organism’s decreasing
response to a stimulus with repeated
exposure to it.
• Habituation is NOT the same thing as
sensory adaptation. Both involve a
diminished response, but in the case of
habituation, it is a form of learning, not a
function of the sensory system.
Essentially, through experience, you learn
to react to a stimulus less.
Basic Forms of Learning
Cognitive Learning- the acquisition of
mental information, whether by
observing events, by watching others, or
through language.
Ex. Observational Learning- learning by
observing others. Also called social
learning.
Basic Forms of Learning Continued
Associative Learning- learning that certain
events occur together. The events may be
two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a
response and its consequence (as in
operant conditioning).
Stimulus- any event or situation that evokes
a response.
Conditioning Two Basic Forms
Classical Conditioning- we learn to associate two
stimuli and thus to anticipate events.
Operant Conditioning- We learn to associate a
response (our behavior) and its consequences,
thus we (and other animals) learn to repeat acts
followed by good results and avoid acts followed
by bad results.
How Do We Learn?
Classical Conditioning
How Do We Learn?
Classical Conditioning
How Do We Learn?
Classical Conditioning
How Do We Learn?
Classical Conditioning
How Do We Learn?
Classical Conditioning
How Do We Learn?
Classical Conditioning
How Do We Learn?
Operant Conditioning
How Do We Learn?
Operant Conditioning
How Do We Learn?
Operant Conditioning
How Do We Learn?
Operant Conditioning
Classical Conditioning
Classical Conditioning
• Classical conditioning
–Ivan Pavlov
–John B. Watson
–Behaviorism
Classical Conditioning
• a type of learning in which one learns
to link two or more stimuli and
anticipate events.*
• First explored, very famously, by Ivan Pavlov.
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=S6AYofQc
hoM
• http://www.discovery.com/tv-shows/headgames/videos/pavlovs-bell/
*the unconditioned response must be
automatic.
Classical Conditioning
Pavlov’s Experiments
• Ivan Pavlov
Classical Conditioning
Pavlov’s Experiments
• Parts of Classical Conditioning
–Neutral Stimulus (NS)
–Unconditioned stimulus (US)
–Unconditioned response (UR)
–Conditioned stimulus (CS)
–Conditioned response (CR)
Parts of Classical Conditioning
Neutral Stimulus (NS)- in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits
no response before conditioning (NS).
Unconditioned Stimulus (US)- in classical conditioning, a stimulus
that unconditionally – naturally and automatically – triggers a response
(UR).
Unconditioned Response (UR)- in classical conditioning, an
unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus
(US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth.
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)- in classical conditioning, an originally
irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned
stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR).
Conditioned Response (CR)- in classical conditioning, a learned
response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS).
Pavlov’s device for recording (a tube in the dog’s cheek collects saliva, which
is measured in a cylinder outside the chamber).
Classical Conditioning
Pavlov’s Experiments
Classical Conditioning
Pavlov’s Experiments
Classical Conditioning
Pavlov’s Experiments
Classical Conditioning
Pavlov’s Experiments
Pavlov presented a neutral stimulus (a tone) just before an unconditioned stimulus
(food in mouth). The neutrals stimulus then became a conditioned stimulus, producing
a conditioned response.
Classical Conditioning
Classical Conditioning
Classical Conditioning
Psychologist Michael Tirrell recalled that his first girlfriend loved onions, so he came to
associate onion breath with kissing.
Typical Example: A mild electric
shock is used to teach a rat to flex
his forepaw when he hears a
tone.
US
Shock
UR
Paw flex
NS
Tone
CS
Tone
CR
Paw flex
Office Example
• In the groundbreaking TV show, The Office,
there is, allegedly, a famous example of
classical conditioning.
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9i2rlymfL
bE
Looking at it more closely, there are a few
problems with this example.
Why?
Office Example
US
Altoid?
UR
Hand extension
NS
Reboot sound?
CS
Reboot sound
CR
Hand extension
Is the Altoid really an Unconditioned Stimulus? Is the Hand extension really an
Unconditioned Stimulus?
Classical Conditioning
Acquisition
• Acquisition
• Higher-order
conditioning
Acquisition
• in classical conditioning, the initial stage,
when one links a neutral stimulus and an
unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral
stimulus begins triggering the conditioned
response. In operant conditioning, the
strengthening of a reinforced response.
Higher Order Conditioning
• a procedure in which the conditioned
stimulus in one conditioning experience is
paired with a new neutral stimulus,
creating a second (often weaker)
conditioned stimulus. For example, an
animal that has learned that a tone
predicts food might then learn that a light
predicts the tone and begin responding to
the light alone. (Also called second-order
conditioning.)
Classical Conditioning
Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery
• Extinction
The rising curve shows that the CR grows stronger as the NS is repeatedly paired
with the US to become the CS (acquisition), then weakens as the CS is presented
alone (extinction).
Extinction
• the diminishing of a conditioned response;
occurs in classical conditioning when an
unconditioned stimulus (US) does not
follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs
in operant conditioning when a response is
no longer reinforced.
Spontaneous Recovery
• the reappearance, after a pause, of an
extinguished conditioned response.
Classical Conditioning
Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery
• Spontaneous recovery
After a pause, the CR reappears (spontaneous recovery)
Classical Conditioning
Generalization
• Generalization
Generalization
• the tendency, once a response has been
conditioned, for stimuli similar to the
conditioned stimulus to elicit similar
responses.
• Ex. A dog conditioned to one tone, would
also respond to a new and somewhat
different tone.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UfE5HfQ
vQ-k
Classical Conditioning
Discrimination
• Discrimination
Discrimination
• in classical conditioning, the learned ability
to distinguish between a conditioned
stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an
unconditioned stimulus.
Ex. Guard dog vs guide dog.
Classical Conditioning
Pavlov’s Legacy
• Classical conditioning applies to
other organisms
• Showed how to study a topic
scientifically
Pavlov Was a Huge Influence on
Watson and Behaviorism
• John Watson used the ideas of Pavlov as a
basis for his work, which is the foundation of
behaviorism.
Behaviorism- the view that psychology (1) should be an objective
science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental
processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not
with (2).
Classical Conditioning
Pavlov’s Legacy:
Applications of Classical
Conditioning
• John Watson and Baby Albert
Baby Albert
US
Loud noise
UR
Fear behaviors
NS
White rat
CS
White rat
CR
Fear behaviors
Module 27:
Operant Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
• Classical Conditioning
–Respondent behavior
• Operant conditioning
–Actions associated with
consequences
–Operant behavior
Operant Conditioning
• a type of learning in which behavior is
strengthened if followed by a reinforcer
or diminished if followed by a punisher.
• The focus is on using positive consequences to
encourage the continuance of behavior, and
negative consequences to encourage the
avoidance of behavior.
• The underlying principle is what Thorndike
called, the Law of Effect.
Skinner’s Experiments
Skinner’s Experiments
• Edward Thorndike’s Law of Effect
• B.F. Skinner
–Behavioral technology
–Behavior control
Law of Effect
• Thorndike’s principle that behaviors
followed by favorable consequences
become more likely, and that behaviors
followed by unfavorable consequences
become less likely.
• Edward L. Thorndike was a tremendous
influence on psychology, and Behaviorism.
Thorndike use a fish reward to entice cats to
find their way out of a puzzle box. This would
be a huge influence on B.F. Skinner.
B.F. Skinner
• B.F. Skinner used the
ideas of Thorndike to
develop his operant
chamber, or Skinner
box, in which he could
measure the impact of
reinforcement on
behavior, without
interference from
outside sources.
Operant Chamber and
Reinforcement
Operant Chamber- in operant conditioning
research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner
Box) containing a bar or key that an animal can
manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer;
attached devices record the animal’s rate of bar
pressing or key pecking.
Reinforcement- in operant conditioning, any event
that strengthens the behavior it follows.
Skinner’s Experiments
• Operant Chamber (Skinner Box)
• Reinforcement
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yhvaSEJtOV8
Classical vs Operant
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H6LEcM0
E0io
Classical Conditioning- we learn to associate two stimuli
and thus to anticipate events.
Operant Conditioning- We learn to associate a response
(our behavior) and its consequences, thus we (and
other animals) learn to repeat acts followed by good
results and avoid acts followed by bad results.
Skinner’s Experiments
Shaping Behavior
• Shaping
–Successive
approximations
–Discriminative
stimulus
Shaping
• an operant conditioning procedure in
which reinforcers guide behavior toward
closer and closer approximations of the
desired behavior.
• By making rewards contingent on desired
behaviors, researchers and animal trainers
gradually shape complex behaviors.
Shaping and Perception
• Shaping can demonstrate how non-verbal organisms
perceive.
For example, when researchers can get a baby, or dog to
respond to a particular stimulus and not to others, it
demonstrates that the organism does recognize that
particular stimulus.
Discriminative Stimulus- in operant conditioning, a
stimulus that elicits a response after association with
reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated
with reinforcement).
Positive vs Negative Reinforcement
Positive Reinforcement- increasing behaviors by presenting
positive reinforcers. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus
that, when presented after a response, strengthens the
response.
Negative Reinforcement- increases behaviors by stopping
or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative
reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a
response, strengthens the response
• Note: negative reinforcement is NOT punishment.
Skinner’s Experiments
Types of Reinforcers
• Reinforcer
–Positive reinforcement
–Negative reinforcement
Skinner’s Experiments
Types of Reinforcers
• Reinforcer
–Positive reinforcement
–Negative reinforcement
Skinner’s Experiments
Types of Reinforcers
• Reinforcer
–Positive reinforcement
–Negative reinforcement
Skinner’s Experiments
Types of Reinforcers
• Reinforcer
–Positive reinforcement
–Negative reinforcement
Skinner’s Experiments
Types of Reinforcers
• Reinforcer
–Positive reinforcement
–Negative reinforcement
Primary Reinforcer vs Conditioned
Reinforcer
Primary Reinforcer- an innately reinforcing stimulus, such
as one that satisfies a biological need.
-food, water, eliminating pain, etc.
Conditioned Reinforcer- a stimulus that gains its
reinforcing power through its association with a primary
reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer.
-A pleasant tone of voice, a smile, money, good grades,
etc.
Immediate vs Delayed Reinforcers
• Immediate reinforcers are those provided very
soon after a desired act.
• Delayed reinforcers are those that do not
come immediately.
• Animals typically need reinforcements that
come within 30 seconds of the desired
behavior for them to learn.
• An essential element of being human is the
ability to delay reinforcement.
Skinner’s Experiments
Types of Reinforcers:
Primary and Secondary
Reinforcers
• Primary reinforcer
• Conditioned reinforcer
–Secondary reinforcer
• Immediate vs
delayed reinforcers
Skinner’s Experiments
Reinforcement Schedules
• Continuous reinforcement-reinforcing the desired response every
time it occurs.
• Reinforcement Schedule- a pattern that defines how often a desired
response will be reinforced.
• Partial (intermittent) reinforcement- reinforcing a response only part
of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much
greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement.
• Fixed-ratio schedule- in operant conditioning, a reinforcement
schedule that reinforces a response only after a specific number of
responses.
• Variable-ratio schedule- in operant conditioning, a reinforcement
schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number
of responses.
Reinforcement Schedules
Continued
Fixed-interval schedule- in operant conditioning, a reinforcement
schedule that reinforces a response only after a specific time has
elapsed.
Variable-interval schedule- in operant conditioning, a reinforcement
schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.
Skinner’s Experiments
Reinforcement Schedules
Skinner’s Experiments
Reinforcement Schedules
Skinner’s Experiments
Reinforcement Schedules
Skinner’s Experiments
Reinforcement Schedules
Skinner’s Experiments
Reinforcement Schedules
Skinner’s Experiments
Reinforcement Schedules
Skinner’s Experiments
Reinforcement Schedules
Skinner’s Experiments
Reinforcement Schedules
Skinner’s Experiments
Reinforcement Schedules
Skinner’s Experiments
Reinforcement Schedules
Previous Chart
• Skinner’s laboratory pigeons produced these response patterns to each of
four reinforcement schedules (reinforcers are indicated by diagonal
marks).
• For people, as for pigeons, reinforcement linked to number of responses
(a ratio schedule) produces a higher response rate than reinforcement
linked to amount of time elapsed (an interval schedule). But the
predictability of the reward also matters.
• An unpredictable (variable) schedule produces more consistent
responding than does a predictable (fixed) schedule.
Skinner’s Experiments
Punishment
• Punishment- an event that tends to decrease the
behavior that it follows.
–Positive punishment
–Negative punishment
Skinner’s Experiments
Punishment
• Punishment
–Positive punishment
–Negative punishment
Skinner’s Experiments
Punishment
• Punishment
–Positive punishment
–Negative punishment
Skinner’s Experiments
Punishment
• Punishment
–Positive punishment
–Negative punishment
Skinner’s Experiments
Punishment
• Punishment
–Positive punishment
–Negative punishment
The Big Bang…Again.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LhI5h5
JZi-U
Skinner’s Experiments
Punishment
• Negatives of using punishment
– Punished behavior is
suppressed not forgotten
– Punishment teaches
discrimination
– Punishment can teach fear
– Physical punishment may
increase aggression
Skinner’s Legacy
Skinner’s Legacy
• Controversies surrounding
Skinner’s Operant
Conditioning
Skinner’s Legacy
• B.F. Skinner insisted that outside forces shaped
behavior, and encouraged using the methods of
reinforcement to produce positive results.
• He believed reinforcement and punishment were
already shaping behavior anyway, so why not control
the process, and thus, shape behavior in a desirable
way.
• Critics felt that Skinner ignored individuality and freewill, essentially stripping people of their humanity.
Module 28:
Operant Conditioning’s
Applications, and Comparison
to Classical Conditioning
Application of Operant
Conditioning
Application of Operant
Conditioning
• At school- Quizlet, Socrative, candy.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jTH3ob1IRFo
• In sports- Starting with a task that is easier to
accomplish, and working up. Superstitions, i.e. certain
socks, batting box routine, etc.
• At work- Boss passing out praise, bonuses, little
competitions, etc. Notice someone doing things right,
and reinforce it).
• At home- Potty training, putting kids to bed, etc.
• For self improvement- getting your spouses to do things
you want, conditioning yourself to study, or exercise, etc.
Keys to Using Conditioning
1. State your goal measurable terms, and
announce it.
2. Monitor how often you engage in your
desired behavior.
3. Reinforce the desired behavior.
4. Reduce the rewards gradually.
Biofeedback
• A system for electronically recording,
amplifying, and feeding back information
regarding a subtle physiological state, such as
blood pressure or muscle tension.
• In the 1960’s, there was some research that
made the possibilities of Biofeedback seem
fantastic.
• As it turns out, research indicates that tension
headaches are the most impacted by
biofeedback.
Contrasting Classical and
Operant Conditioning
Contrasting Classical and
Operant Conditioning
Contrasting Classical and
Operant Conditioning
Contrasting Classical and
Operant Conditioning
Contrasting Classical and
Operant Conditioning
Contrasting Classical and
Operant Conditioning
Contrasting Classical and
Operant Conditioning
Contrasting Classical and
Operant Conditioning
Contrasting Classical and
Operant Conditioning
Contrasting Classical and
Operant Conditioning
Contrasting Classical and
Operant Conditioning
Contrasting Classical and
Operant Conditioning
Contrasting Classical and
Operant Conditioning
Contrasting Classical and
Operant Conditioning
Contrasting Classical and
Operant Conditioning
Contrasting Classical and
Operant Conditioning
Contrasting Classical and
Operant Conditioning
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ut1zmfolM9E
Module 29:
Biology, Cognition, and
Learning
Biological Constraints on
Conditioning
Biological Constraints on
Conditioning
Biological Constraints on
Conditioning
Biological Constraints on
Conditioning
Biological Constraints on
Conditioning
Biological Constraints on Conditioning
Limits on Classical Conditioning
• John Garcia (and Robert Koelling)
– Conditioned Taste Aversion: rats were exposed to a particular
taste, sight, or sound, and then exposed to material that would
make them sick. The rats would then become averse to the
taste, but not the sight or sound.
– When the rats were sickened significantly later, they would still
become taste averse.
– This is likely because the best way for the rat (or the human) to
avoid eating toxic food, is to develop the sense of taste to
discern the toxic nature, and then develop aversion to it.
– Biologically primed associations are associations that develop
because we are predisposed toward them.
– An example of natural selection at work.
A tainted bit of sheep meat
was intentionally left out for
the wolves to find. When
they became sick from
the meat, they later avoided
attacking sheep altogether
Biological Constraints on Conditioning
Limits on Classical Conditioning
Biological Constraints on Conditioning
Limits on Classical Conditioning
Biological Constraints on Conditioning
Limits on Classical Conditioning
Biological Constraints on Conditioning
Limits on Classical Conditioning
Biological Constraints on Conditioning
Limits on Operant Conditioning
• We most readily learn and retain behaviors that reflect our
biological predispositions, or put another way, biological constraints
Predispose organisms to learn associations that are naturally
adaptive. Ex. Horses
Cognition’s Influence on
Conditioning
Cognition’s Influence on Conditioning
Cognitive Processes and Classical Conditioning
• Cognitive processes, i.e.thoughts, perceptions, expectations can
impact classical conditioning.
• Animals can learn the predictability of an event. Ex. Rats and Dogs
get a shock after every tone, but will sometimes have a light precede
the tone, the light is neutral.
Latent Learning- learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is
an incentive to demonstrate it.
Cognitive Map- a mental representation of the layout of one’s
environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they
have learned a cognitive map of it.
Insight- a sudden realization problem’s solution.
Intrinsic Motivation- a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its
own sake.
vs
Extrinsic Motivation- a desire to perform a behavior to receive
promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment.
Cognition’s Influence on Conditioning
Cognitive Processes and
Operant Conditioning
• Latent learning
–Cognitive map
• Insight
• Intrinsic
motivation
• Extrinsic
motivation
Influences on Conditioning
Influences on Conditioning
Influences on Conditioning
Influences on Conditioning
Influences on Conditioning
Learning and Personal Control
Learning and Personal Control
• Cope
• Problem-focused coping
• Emotion-focused coping
Learning and Personal Control
Cope- alleviating stress using emotional,
cognitive, or behavioral methods.
Problem Focused Coping- attempting to
alleviate stress directly – by changing the
stressor or the way we interact with that
stressor.
Emotion Focused Coping- attempting to
alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a
stressor and attending to emotional needs
related to one’s stress reaction.
Learned Helplessness
• The hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human
learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events.
Ex. Dogs repeatedly given shocks with no way out, became
cowardly and defeated later when facing a shock, but this time,
having a path to escape. Dogs who had never been given a no
way out scenario, quickly escaped every time.
• People who are repeatedly faced with traumatic events, over
which they have no control, will often develop the learned
helplessness.
• What are the social implications?
Learning and Personal Control
Learned Helplessness
• Learned helplessness (Martin Seligman)
Learning and Personal Control
Learned Helplessness
• Learned helplessness (Martin Seligman)
Learning and Personal Control
Learned Helplessness
• Learned helplessness (Martin Seligman)
Learning and Personal Control
Learned Helplessness
• Learned helplessness (Martin Seligman)
Learning and Personal Control
Learned Helplessness: Internal
Versus External Locus of Control
• External locus of control
• Internal locus of control
External Locus of Control- the perception that chance
or outside forces beyond our personal control determine
our fate.
Internal Locus of Control- the perception that you control your own fate.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OnxkfLe4G74
Learning and Personal Control
Learned Helplessness:
Depleting and Strengthening
Self-Control
• Self-control- = the ability to control
impulses and delay short-term
gratification for greater long-term
rewards.
Module 30:
Learning by Observation
Mirrors and Imitation in the
Brain
Mirrors and Imitation in the
Brain
• Observational learning
–Social learning
–Modeling
–Bandura’s Bobo
Doll Experiment
Learning by Observation
Observational Learning- learning by observing others. Also
called social learning.
Modeling-the process of observing and imitating a specific
behavior.
Ex. Albert Bandura had kids draw a picture, while in a room
with an adult working with tinker toys. The adult throws a
temper tantrum, and beats up a large inflatable doll called
Bobo. Later, when the children are confronted with
adversity, they behaved in a strikingly similar way, when
compared to children who had not been exposed.
Mirrors and Imitation in the
Brain
Mirrors and Imitation in the
Brain
Mirrors and Imitation in the
Brain
Mirrors and Imitation in the
Brain
• Mirror neurons
Mirror Neurons
• frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe
fire when performing certain actions or when
observing another doing so. The brain’s
mirroring of another’s action may enable
imitation and empathy.
• First observed in monkeys who had a sensor
placed in their brains to show activity when they
moved. When the monkey saw people moving,
the sensor would show activity, even though the
monkey did not move.
Mirrors and Imitation in the Brain
• Cognitive imitation
Cognitive Imitation Previous Page
• Money A watched Monkey B touch four
pictures on a display screen in a certain order
to gain bananas. Money A learned to imitate
that order, even when shown the same
pictures in a different configuration.
Applications of Observational
Learning
Applications of Observational Learning
Prosocial versus Antisocial
Effects
• Prosocial effects
• Antisocial effects
Applications of Observational
Learning
Prosocial Behavior- positive, constructive,
helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial
behavior.
Ex. Gandhi, MLK, good parental role models,
good teachers and coaches, ministers, etc.
What problems might come up?
Antisocial Effects
Anti-social behavior- behavior that is negative,
destructive behavior.
-Can also be immitated.
Violent TV and Video games?
http://www.cbsnews.com/news/violent-videogames-may-make-kids-more-agressive/
The End
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Psychology’s History and Approaches
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Sensation and Perception
States of Consciousness
Learning
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Motivation, Emotion, and Stress
Developmental Psychology
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Testing and Individual Differences
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Learning
= the process of acquiring new and relatively
enduring information or behaviors.
Habituation
= an organism’s decreasing response to a
stimulus with repeated exposure to it.
Associative Learning
= learning that certain events occur together.
The events may be two stimuli (as in
classical conditioning) or a response and
its consequence (as in operant
conditioning).
Stimulus
= any event or situation that evokes a
response.
Cognitive Learning
= the acquisition of mental information,
whether by observing events, by watching
others, or through language
Classical Conditioning
= a type of learning in which one learns to
link two or more stimuli and anticipate
events.
Behaviorism
= the view that psychology (1) should be an
objective science that (2) studies behavior
without reference to mental processes.
Most research psychologists today agree
with (1) but not with (2).
Neutral Stimulus
= in classical conditioning, a stimulus that
elicits no response before conditioning.
Unconditioned Response (UR)
= in classical conditioning, an unlearned,
naturally occurring response to the
unconditioned stimulus (US), such as
salivation when food is in the mouth.
Unconditioned Stimulus (US)
= in classical conditioning, a stimulus that
unconditionally – naturally and
automatically – triggers a response (UR).
Conditioned Response (CR)
= in classical conditioning, a learned
response to a previously neutral (but now
conditioned) stimulus (CS).
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
= in classical conditioning, an originally
irrelevant stimulus that, after association
with an unconditioned stimulus (US),
comes to trigger a conditioned response
(CR).
Acquisition
= in classical conditioning, the initial stage,
when one links a neutral stimulus and an
unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral
stimulus begins triggering the conditioned
response. In operant conditioning, the
strengthening of a reinforced response.
Higher-Order Conditioning
= a procedure in which the conditioned
stimulus in one conditioning experience is
paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating
a second (often weaker) conditioned
stimulus. For example, an animal that has
learned that a tone predicts food might then
learn that a light predicts the tone and begin
responding to the light alone. (Also called
second-order conditioning.)
Extinction
= the diminishing of a conditioned response;
occurs in classical conditioning when an
unconditioned stimulus (US) does not
follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs
in operant conditioning when a response is
no longer reinforced.
Spontaneous Recovery
= the reappearance, after a pause, of an
extinguished conditioned response.
Generalization
= the tendency, once a response has been
conditioned, for stimuli similar to the
conditioned stimulus to elicit similar
responses.
Discrimination
= in classical conditioning, the learned ability
to distinguish between a conditioned
stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an
unconditioned stimulus.
Operant Conditioning
= a type of learning in which behavior is
strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or
diminished if followed by a punisher.
Law of Effect
= Thorndike’s principle that behaviors
followed by favorable consequences
become more likely, and that behaviors
followed by unfavorable consequences
become less likely.
Operant Chamber
= in operant conditioning research, a
chamber (also known as a Skinner Box)
containing a bar or key that an animal can
manipulate to obtain a food or water
reinforcer; attached devices record the
animal’s rate of bar pressing or key
pecking.
Reinforcement
= in operant conditioning, any event that
strengthens the behavior it follows.
Shaping
= an operant conditioning procedure in
which reinforcers guide behavior toward
closer and closer approximations of the
desired behavior.
Discriminative Stimulus
= in operant conditioning, a stimulus that
elicits a response after association with
reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli
not associated with reinforcement).
Positive Reinforcement
= increasing behaviors by presenting
positive reinforcers. A positive reinforcer is
any stimulus that, when presented after a
response, strengthens the response.
Negative Reinforcement
= increases behaviors by stopping or
reducing negative stimuli, such as shock.
A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that,
when removed after a response,
strengthens the response
• Note: negative reinforcement is NOT
punishment.
Primary Reinforcer
= an innately reinforcer stimulus, such as
one that satisfies a biological need.
Conditioned Reinforcer
= a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power
through its association with a primary
reinforcer; also known as a secondary
reinforcer.
Reinforcement Schedule
= a pattern that defines how often a desired
response will be reinforced.
Continuous Reinforcement
= reinforcing the desired response every
time it occurs.
Partial (intermittent)
Reinforcement
= reinforcing a response only part of the
time; results in slower acquisition of a
response but much greater resistance to
extinction than does continuous
reinforcement.
Fixed-Ratio Schedule
= in operant conditioning, a reinforcement
schedule that reinforces a response only
after a specific number of responses.
Variable-Ratio Schedule
= in operant conditioning, a reinforcement
schedule that reinforces a response after
an unpredictable number of responses.
Fixed-Interval Schedule
= in operant conditioning, a reinforcement
schedule that reinforces a response only
after a specific time has elapsed.
Variable-Interval Schedule
= in operant conditioning, a reinforcement
schedule that reinforces a response at
unpredictable time intervals.
Punishment
= an event that tends to decrease the
behavior that it follows.
Biofeedback
= a system for electronically recording,
amplifying, and feeding back information
regarding a subtle physiological state,
such as blood pressure or muscle tension.
Respondent Behavior
= behavior that occurs as an automatic
response to some stimulus.
Operant Behavior
= behavior that operates on the
environment, producing consequences.
Cognitive Map
= a mental representation of the layout of
one’s environment. For example, after
exploring a maze, rats act as if they have
learned a cognitive map of it.
Latent Learning
= learning that occurs but is not apparent
until there is an incentive to demonstrate
it.
Insight
= a sudden realization problem’s solution.
Intrinsic Motivation
= a desire to perform a behavior effectively
for its own sake.
Extrinsic Motivation
= a desire to perform a behavior to receive
promised rewards or avoid threatened
punishment.
Coping
= alleviating stress using emotional,
cognitive, or behavioral methods.
Problem-Focused Coping
= attempting to alleviate stress directly – by
changing the stressor or the way we
interact with that stressor.
Emotion-Focused Coping
= attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding
or ignoring a stressor and attending to
emotional needs related to one’s stress
reaction.
Learned Helplessness
= the helplessness and passive resignation
an animal or human learns when unable to
avoid repeated aversive events.
External Locus of Control
= the perception that chance or outside
forces beyond our personal control
determine our fate.
Internal Locus of Control
= the perception that you control your own
fate.
Self-Control
= the ability to control impulses and delay
short-term gratification for greater longterm rewards.
Observational Learning
= learning by observing others. Also called
social learning.
Modeling
= the process of observing and imitating a
specific behavior.
Mirror Neurons
= frontal lobe neurons that some scientists
believe fire when performing certain
actions or when observing another doing
so. The brain’s mirroring of another’s
action may enable imitation and empathy.
Prosocial Behavior
= positive, constructive, helpful behavior.
The opposite of antisocial behavior.