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Discussiondocument:Africanbiodiversityhotspotsand
otherimportantconservationareas
2016
Contents
1.0Introduction.....................................................................................................................................2
2.0SpecialconservationcategoriesencompassingAfricanmountains.................................................3
2.1CameroonHighlands–designatedasaGlobalEcoregion...........................................................3
2.2GuineanForestsofWestAfricaBiodiversityHotspot..................................................................5
2.3TheEasternAfromontaneHotspot..............................................................................................7
2.4TheEasternArcMountains..........................................................................................................8
2.5ImportantBirdAreasandRamsarsites......................................................................................11
2.7TheEthiopianHighlands.............................................................................................................13
2.8ProgrammefortheCongoRiverBasinecosystems...................................................................14
2.9TheGreatEscarpment................................................................................................................15
2.10TheMalotiDrakensbergTransfrontierPark............................................................................16
2.11TheCapeFoldMountains........................................................................................................17
3.0Conclusion......................................................................................................................................18
4.0Referencescited.............................................................................................................................18
1.0Introduction
Sub-SaharanAfricahasmanyimportantareasforawiderangeofbiomes,ecoregions,forests,
savannas,wetlands,desertsandtheseverydiverseareasresultinuniquebiodiversityfeaturesand
manyendemicspecies,notablyendemicprimates(chimpanzeeandgorillas,butotherprimates
speciestoo),butalsoendemicareasforplants,reptiles,amphibians,birds,fishandinvertebrates.
Therearemanydesignatedbiodiversityhotspots,GlobalEcoregions,ImportantBirdingAras,
UNESCOBiosphereReserves,UNESCOWorldHeritageSites,transboundaryparks,nationalparksand
othersmallernatureareasinAfricancountries,andmanyoftheseareasarelocatedin,or
encompassmountains.Someveryvaluableareas,liketheCampo-Ma'anareainCameroon,donot
yethaveformalprotection,whilemanyofthosethatarecurrentlyformallyprotectedcurrentlyexist
havebecomeisolatedfromotherbiodiverseareasandnowexistas‘islandsinaseaofdeforestation
andcommercialandsubsistencelanduse’.
SomecountriesinAfricahavemanagedtosecurelargeareasoftheirlandsurfaceforconservation
(e.g.Cameroon10.9%,Ethiopia18.4%,Namibia27.9%,SouthAfrica9.8%,Tanzania32%;Uganda
16.1%andZambia45%)1whileLesothoonlyhas0.4%ofitsterrestrialareaformallyprotected.
Manyoftheseprotectedareasarewithinmountainregions(e.g.theVirunganationalpark,MtElgon
NationalPark,MtKilimanjaroNationalParkandothers).Protectedareascontributesubstantially
toenvironmentalsustainabilityinmultipleways,specificallybymaintainingbiodiversity,
safeguardinggeneticresources,preventingsoilsfromeroding,andsupportinglocal
livelihoods.Theycanprovidevaluablesocialandeconomicbenefits.However,designation
ofprotectedareasaloneisnotsufficienttoensurethesebenefits.Protectedareasmustbe
carefullymanagedforspecificconservationgoals.
Thisdocumentjustprovidesaglimpseofthemanyprotectedareas,EndemicBirdAreas,
RamsarSites,WorldHeritageSitesandBiosphereReservesthatconserveAfrica’s
biodiversityandecosystems.Allseemtobeunderextremehumanpressure.
1
http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/ER.LND.PTLD.ZS
2.0SpecialconservationcategoriesencompassingAfrican
mountains
2.1CameroonHighlands–designatedasaGlobalEcoregion
TheCameroonHighlandsisdesignatedasaGlobalEcoregion(WWFterminology),yetno
partofthisecoregionisunderformalprotectedstatusinCameroon.Localtraditionalrulers
stillexertconsiderableauthorityoverlanduse,
butunderthepressuresoftoday,thisisnot
necessarilyenoughtosecurethespeciesof
theregion.Theecoregionencompassesthe
mountainsandhighlandareasoftheborder
regionbetweenNigeriaandCameroonwithin
anarrowrectangleof180kmby625km,
orientedsouthwesttonortheastand
originatingabout50kminlandofMount
Cameroon.TheCameroonHighlandsGlobal
EcoregioncoverstheRumpiHills,theBakossi
Mountains,MountNlonako,MountKupeand
MountManengouba(WWF,n.d.).Thenative
plantsandanimalspeciesaredistributedin
certainhabitatsorbetweennarrowaltitudinal
bandswithmoreendemicspeciesinhabiting
thelarger,moreisolatedpatches.
MtCameroonisanactivevolcanolocatednearthecoastbutisconsideredaseparate
ecoregionfromtheolder,non-volcanicCameroonianHighlandsForests.At3011m,Mount
Okuisthehighestpeakinthisecoregion.Theremainderofpeaksarebetween800-2600m
inelevation(WWF.n.d.).
ThereisacollaborativeprojectbetweentheRoyalBotanicGardens,Kew,andthe
DepartmentofGeomaticEngineering,atUniversityCollegeLondontomonitorvegetation
coverchangesinMountOkuandtheIjimRidge(Cameroon)usingsatelliteandaerialsensor
detection.MountOkuandtheIjimRidgeisthelargestremainingpatchofmontaneforestin
WestAfricaandcontainsexceptionallevelsofendemismamongstflora(forexample,
Kniphofiareflexa)andfauna–especiallyamongstbirds.Since1987aconservationproject
managedbyBirdlifeInternationalaimstoreduceforestlossandtoimproveagricultural
practices.TheKilum-IjimforestliesatthecentreoftheBamendaHighlandsinnorth-western
Cameroon.Thisregionincludesthemountainsandhighlandareasoftheborderregion
betweenNigeriaandCameroon.MountOkuisthehighestpointwithinthisregionat3011m
abovethesealevel.ThemajorityoftheareaenclosedbytheKilum-Ijimboundaryisatan
altitudeofover2000masl.Thevegetationishighlyinfluencedbythisaltitude:above
2000m,wherethestudyareaismainlylocated,itconsistsofmontaneforestmixedwith
montanegrasslandandsubalpinecommunities.Belowthis,mostofthesubmontaneforest.
Theproject,studyingthechangesinvegetationcoverovertime,wascarriedoutusing
remotesensingimagery(satelliteimagesandaerialphotographs).Themethodology
involveddifferentprocessingtechniquesforbothsatelliteimagesandaerialphotographyin
ordertocreateatime-seriesofimages(1958-2001).Eachofthesatelliteimagesinthedata
setwasclassifiedtodelimittheforestboundaries.Inthecaseofaerialphotographs,before
anyanalysiscouldbeperformedtheyhadtobeortho-rectifiedusingaDEMderivedfroma
Radarsatstereopair.Theforestboundariesforthesephotographswerethendefinedbyonscreendigitisingandconvertedtorasterformat.Alltheimagesshowingtheforestextension
forthedifferentdatesstudiedwerecombinedinaGISenvironmenttoperformsubsequent
analysis.
Theresultsshowstrongspatialpatternsofdeforestationbetween1958and1988(more
than50%ofthemontaneforestwaslostinthisperiod)followedbyaregenerationperiod
startingin1988,justaftertheConservationProjectwascreated.Inthislast1988-2001
period,7.8%ofthe1988extentofmontaneforesthasbeenrecovered,mainlyonthe
easternsideofthemountain.Theforestvegetationboundaryinthenorth-easthasbeen
heldatthe1988level,whileintheeastithasrecoveredandextendedby800metres(until
1995).From1995theforestboundaryhas
remainedstaticandmarksthelimitsofthe
reserve.Inthewesternboundary,thereserve
limitshavealsobeenheldatthe1995level;
regenerationisstilltakingplaceinsidethese
limits.
TheKilum-IjimForestProjectstartedin1987,
ForestedgeatKilumIjimforest,Cameroon
whenthemostdramaticdeforestationinthe
areaoccurred.Itsestablishmenthasbeen
followedbyaregenerationperiod.After1995therateofregeneration(3.9%)significantly
exceededthedeforestation,andtheforestareahasincreasedby10.6%.2
Selectedpublicationsofnote:
1. EpuleE.T.,PengC.,LepageL.andChenZ(2014).Policyoptionstowardsdeforestationreduction
inCameroon:Ananalysisbasedonasystematicapproach.LandUsePolicy,36,405–415.
2. FaJ.E.,SeymourS.,DupainJ.,AminR.,AlbrechtsenL.andMacdonaldD.(2006).Gettingtogrips
withthemagnitudeofexploitation:BushmeatintheCross–Sanagariversregion,Nigeriaand
Cameroon.BiologicalConservation,129(4),497-510.
2.2GuineanForestsofWestAfricaBiodiversityHotspot
TheGuineanForestsofWestAfricabiodiversityhotspotcoversallofthelowlandforestsof
politicalWestAfrica,fromGuineaandSierraLeoneeastwardtotheSanagaRiverin
Cameroon.ThisincludesforestsinLiberia,IvoryCoast,Ghana,Togo,Benin,andNigeria,
whichcontainremnantfragmentsoftheforests.Thehotspotalsoincludesfourislandsin
theGulfofGuinea:BiokoandAnnobon,whicharebothpartofEquatorialGuinea,andSao
ToméandPrincipe,whichtogetherformanindependentnation.Biokoisacontinental-shelf
island,whereastheremainingthreeareoceanic.
Thehotspot(seeMapbelow,sourcedfromhttp://www.microsfere.org/en/ghana/guineanforests-of-west-africa-biodiversity-hotspot.htmlincludestwodistinctsub-regions,which
incorporateseveralimportantforestrefugiacreatedbytheretractionandfragmentationof
forestsduringthePleistoceneEpoch.Thefirstsub-region,UpperGuinea,stretchesfrom
southernGuineaintoeasternSierraLeoneandthroughLiberia,IvoryCoastandGhanainto
westernTogo.Thesecondsub-region,Nigeria-Cameroon,extendsalongthecoastfrom
westernNigeriatotheSanagaRiverinsouthwesternCameroon.Thetwosub-regionsare
separatedbytheDahomenyGapinBenin,anareaoffarmland,savannahandhighly
degradeddryforest.Thehotspotsupportsseveralimportantmontaneregions,includingthe
CameroonHighlands(Mt.Cameroon,at4,095meters,isthehighestpeakinWestAfrica)
andtheNimbaHighlands.BirdLifeInternationalhasrecognizedsixEndemicBirdAreasas
lyingpartlyorentirelywithinthehotspot.TheUpperGuineaForestsEBAhas15endemic
birdspecies,andtheCameroonMountainsEBA,whichincludestheislandofBioko,isthe
solehabitatofnearly30birdspecies.Thesemontaneregionssupportanumberof
endemics:theMountCameroonfrancolin(Francolinuscamerunensis,EN)andtheMount
Cameroonspeirops(Speiropsmelanocephalus,VU)areendemictoMountCameroon,while
theMountKupebush-shrike(Malaconotuskupeensis,EN)islargelyconfinedtoMountKupe,
2
http://www.kew.org/gis/projects/oku_cameroon/index.html
whereonly21squarekilometersofhabitatremains(ithasrecentlybeendiscoveredattwo
additionallocalities).TheconservationoftheforestsofMountOkuisthelastremaining
hopefortwospecies,Bannerman'sturaco(Tauracobannermani,EN)andthebanded
wattle-eye(Platysteiralaticincta,EN),whicharerestrictedtomontaneforestsinthe
Bamenda-Bansohighlands.
Figure2:GuineanForestsofWestAfricabiodiversityhotspot
TheGuineanForestshotspotofwhichthemountainsintheSouthWestregionofCameroon
ispartishometoanestimated9,000vascularplantspecies,about20%(1800species)of
whicharethoughttobeendemic(25%).Nearly2500plantspecieshavebeenrecordedon
MountCameroonalone(Microsfere,n.d.).
ThebiodiversityofMountBamboutoslandscapecontainsendemicandgloballythreatened
plantstoprimatessuchasTernstroemiaspandAllanblankiagabonensis,CrossRivergorilla,
andNigeria-CameroonChimpanzee(Pantroglodytes).Itisforthisreasonthatin1900,the
governmentclassifieditasaForestReserveandin2009,Cameroongovernmentre-classified
MtBamboutosasaproposed“IntegralEcologicalReserve”),(StatusIUCN1.a.).Forthis
reason,thesemountainshavebeenidentifiedassomeofAfrica'smostcriticalprimate
conservationareas.AsmanyasninespeciesareendemictotheforestsofNigeriaand
Cameroonborderregion.ThehotspotalsohaspopulationsoftwoofAfrica'sgreatapes,
includingremainingscatteredpopulationsofchimpanzees(IUCNRedList:EN)andCross
Rivergorillasendemictothisarea(IUCNRedList:CR).Theareaclaimsone-thirdofAfrica's
primatespecies.LargemammalssuchastheAfricanForestElephantstilloccurherein
reasonablenumberswithanotablemountainsubpopulationfoundonMtCameroon.
Thesemountainecosystemssupplyover30%oftheCameroonfoodneedsandharbora
populationoftheindigenousMbororocommunity.Mt.Bamboutosisalsoveryimportantfor
itsecologicalservicestothepopulationinCameroonwithbetween3and5millionpeople
dependingonthewaterresourcesfromthismountain.About30%oftheCameroonenergy
sectorisderivedfromBamboutosmountainwhicharealsoimportanttouristicdestinations
nationallyandinternationallywithMtCameroonreceivingover3,000touristsinayear.
MountCameroonisoneofAfrica'slargestvolcanoes,risingto4,095mandisthebiggest
touristattractionnationallywithitsoutstandingbeachesinthecityofLimbe.Themountain
generateshundredsofmillionsofdollarsintothelocalandnationaleconomiesduetoits
traditional,regional,nationalandinternationalimportance.
TheMountNimbarangeisaWorldHeritagesite
withintheGuineanForestsofWestAfricaBiodiversity
Hotspot,butisontheWHSinDangerlist.MtNimba
risesabruptlyfromthesurroundingplainstoan
altitudeof1752masl,thehighestpointinWest
Africa.PartoftherangeisprotectedasatransboundaryreservebetweenGuinea,Côted'Ivoireand
Liberia,supportinganexceptionalvarietyofforest
andsavannahabitatsandbiodiversity.Butits
protectedstatusiscompromisedbecausetherange
containssomeofthehighestgradeironoreintheworld,andmininginterestshavetaken
precedenceintheLiberiansectorandresultedinanextensiveexcisionontheGuineanside.
Itslocationandisolationfromothermountainshasresultedintheevolutionofmany
endemicornear-endemicspecies,especiallyamongstthefaunaandfloraofthehigh
altitudegrasslands.3
2.3TheEasternAfromontaneHotspot
TheEasternAfromontanebiodiversityhotspotencompassesseveralwidelyscattered,but
biogeographicallysimilarmountainrangesineasternAfrica,fromSaudiArabiaandYemenin
thenorthtoZimbabweinthesouth.Themainpartofthehotspot'smorethanonemillion
km2ismadeupofthreeancientmassifs:theEasternArcMountainsandSouthernRift,
whichstretchfromsouth-easternKenyatosouthernTanzaniaandMalawi,withsmall
outliersineasternZimbabweandwesternMozambique;theAlbertineRiftincluding
portionsofRwanda,Burundi,Uganda,TanzaniaandtheDemocraticRepublicofCongo.In
additiontothesemainmassifs,anumberofoutlyingmountainsarepartofthishotspot,
includingtheneogenevolcanicsoftheKenyanandTanzanianHighlands(e.g.,Mt
Kilimanjaro,MtMeru,MtKenya,MtElgon,AberdaresRange,andotherpeaks),theAsir
MountainsofsouthwestSaudiArabia,thehighlandsofYemen,andtheChimanimani
HighlandsofeasternZimbabwe.Manyofthesemassifsarevolcanicinorigin,andindeedthe
AlbertineRiftincludesthestill-activeVirungaVolcanoes(McGinley,2009).
3
http://www.africanworldheritagesites.org/natural-places/mountains/mount-nimba-reserve-guinea-and-cotedivoire.html
ThefloraoftheEasternAfromontaneHotspotshowsgreatuniformityandcontinuity,with
itscompositionchangingwithincreasingaltitude.Theloweraltitudinallimitisbetween
1500and2000meters,whiletheKnysnaForestsintheCape,whichareconsideredtobe
thesouthernmostreachesoftheAfromontanehabitat,areat300meters.Themost
widespreadtreegenusisPodocarpus,althoughJuniperusisfoundindrierforestsof
northeasternandeasternAfrica.Azoneofbambooisoftenfoundbetween2000and3000
meters,abovewhichthereisoftenaHageniaforestzoneupto3,600meters.Manyspecies
commoninmontaneforest,suchastreesofthegeneraPodocarpusandJuniperushave
economicimportance,whileseveralcropsincludingcoffee(Coffeaarabica)andtef
(Eragrostistef)fromtheEthiopianHighlandshavebeendomesticated(McGinley,2009).
Atthehighestelevations,suchastheRwenzoriMountains,Aberdares,Mt.Elgon,Mt.
Kilimanjaro,Mt.Kenya,andtheBaleandSimienMountains,Afro-alpinevegetationtypically
occursabove3400meters.Afroalpinevegetationischaracterizedbythepresenceofgiant
senecios(Dendroseneciospp.),giantlobelias(Lobeliaspp.),andHelichrysumscrub
(McGinley,2009).
2.4TheEasternArcMountains
IntheEasternArcMountains,vegetationtypesincludeuppermontane,montane,
submontaneandlowlandforests,withAfromontanegrasslandandheathlandplant
communitiesathigheraltitudes.GrasslandsaretheprimaryhabitatsoftheSouthernRift,
whileforestsarefoundinshelteredvalleysandalongmountainridges.Themainvegetation
typeonthemountainsoftheAlbertineRiftismontaneforest.Glaciersandrockoccuratthe
highestaltitudes,belowwhichisalpinemoorlandwithgiantSenecio,giantlobeliaandbogs,
followedbyzonesofgiantheather,bamboo,montaneforest,mid-altitudeforest,lowland
forest,woodland,andsavanna.TheAlbertineRiftalsohaspapyrusandCarexwetlands,as
wellashotspringsandapeculiartypeofsclerophyticvegetationthatcolonizesoldlava
flowsintheVirungaNationalParkineasternDemocraticRepublicofCongo(McGinley,
2009).
Thehotspotholdsnearly7600speciesofplants,ofwhichmorethan2350areendemic.
TheEasternArcMountainshaveover1100speciesofendemicplants,aswellasabout40
endemicplantgenera.EndemismislowerintheSouthernRift,withperhapsonly100
speciesendemic.However,thegrasslandsoftheSouthernRiftareparticularlyrichinorchids
includingmorethan500species,andplantsofthegenusProtea.TheNyikaPlateausupports
nearly215orchidspecies,ofwhichaboutfourspeciesandtwosubspeciesareendemic
(McGinley,2009).
TheAlbertineRiftcontainsabout14%(about5800species)ofmainlandAfrica'splant
species,withmorethan550endemicspecies,includingthreeendemicgenera:
Afroligusticum,MicractisandRhaesteria.TheEthiopianHighlandsharboranestimated5
200plantspecies,ofwhich555areendemic.ThegenusSenecioisparticularlydiverse,with
halfofthetwodozenspeciesfoundnowhereelse.Thisareaalsohasamonotypicendemic
genus,Nephrophyllumabyssinicum,whichisfoundonheavilygrazedpastures,openground,
androckyareasonsteepslopesbetween1650and2700masl.Africanviolets(Saintpaulia
spp.)fromthisregionaregloballyknownasapotplantbuttherearewithupto20endemic
speciesofSaintpauliaintheEasternArcMountains.Therearealsoabout13endemic
speciesofAfricanprimroses(Streptocarpusspp.)intheEasternArcMountains,and18
endemicspeciesofImpatiensintheAlbertineRift(McGinley,2009).
About1300birdspeciesoccurintheEasternAfromontaneHotspot,andabout110ofthese
arefoundnowhereelse.TheEasternArcandSouthernRiftMountainsformasingleEndemic
BirdArea,asdefinedbyBirdLifeInternational.
Othermammals,reptiles,amphibiansandinvertebratesarealsohighlyendemicandnotable
(McGinley,2009).However,themostcharismaticflagshipspeciesoftheAlbertineRift,and
indeedoftheentirehotspot,arethegreatapes.Thewell-knownmountaingorilla(Gorilla
beringeiberingei,CR)isrestrictedtoabout380individualsintheVirungas.Grauersgorilla
(G.b.graueri,EN),wasestimatedtonumberabout16900ineasternDRCin1996,buthas
sincesufferedmajordeclinesasaresultofhunting,habitatlossanddegradation.Although
therearerobustchimpanzees(Pantroglodytesschweinfurthii)inmanyoftheAlbertineRift
forests,theirpopulationsaregenerallysmall(McGinley,2009).
TheforestsoftheAlbertineRiftarealsohometoatleast27otherprimatespecies,including
Hoestsmonkey(Cercopithecuslhoesti),theowl-facedmonkey(C.hamlyni),andthegolden
monkey(C.mitiskandti).OthermammalsiincludetheRuwenzoriduiker(Cephalophus
rubidus,EN),whichisrestrictedtotheRwenzoriMountains,andtheRuwenzoriottershrew
(Micropotamogaleruwenzorii,EN),oneofonlythreerepresentativesofthefamily
TenrecidaeontheAfricanmainland(McGinley,2009).
Itisoftendifficulttodefinebiodiversityareastocreatealistofendemicspecies.FortheEasternArc
Mountains,theecoregiondefinition,combinedwithrigoroustaxonomy,shouldendanyconfusion
byprovidingaconsistentspatialplatformuponwhichthestateofknowledgecanbecontinually
updated.4TheworkofRoyGereau(MissouriBotanicalGarden),theecoregiondefinitionisbeing
usedtoproduceadefinitiveplantchecklistofdistributionandendemismfortheEasternArc
Mountains.Atthelastcount(2014),atotalof4066indigenousvascularplantspecies(4996plant
4
Kitewebsite,UniversityofYork.https://www.york.ac.uk/environment/research/kite/resources/#tab-3
taxaincludingspecies,subspeciesandvarieties)wereknownfromtheEAM.Ofthese,508species
(609taxa)havebeenfoundnowhereelseonEarth,281speciesareendemictoasinglemountain
bloc,and486species(12%)havebeenassessedinathreatenedcategoryfortheIUCNRedList.
OneofthehighestprojectionsofplantendemismintheEAMcomesfromLovettandWasser(1993),
whosuggestedtheremaybe800plantspeciesfoundnowhereelse.Twentyyearson,many
publicationsandwebsitesstillquote800plantspeciesendemictotheEAM,alongsideawiderange
ofestimatesforforestandmountainarea.
TheprimarythreattothebiodiversityoftheEasternAfromontaneHotspotishabitatloss,
duetoconversionoflandforagriculture,plantationsandcommercialestates,aswellas
logging.Otherthreatsincludefires,mining,infrastructuredevelopment,gatheringof
firewoodandcollectionofplantsformedicinaluse,whilehuntinganddiseasehaveledto
majordeclinesinthepopulationsofmanyspecies.Itisestimatedthatonlyabout10%of
thehotspot'soriginalvegetationremainsinpristinecondition(McGinley,2009).
Nearly12%oftheAlbertineRiftisprotectedinparks,gamereserves,andforestreserves.
Thelargestoftheseprotectedareasisthe8000km2VirungaNationalPark,whichlinkswith
VolcanoesNationalParkinRwanda,andQueenElizabeth,RwenzoriMountains,andSemuliki
NationalParksinUgandatoformthe12800km2GreaterVirungaLandscape.Other
importantareasintheAlbertineRiftincludetheas-yet-unprotectedItombweMassif,the
6000km2Kahuzi-BiegaNationalParkintheDRC,KibaleandBwindiImpenetrableNational
ParksinUganda,andNyungweNationalParkinRwanda.Virunga,RwenzoriMountains,
BwindiImpenetrableandKahuzi-BiegaareallWorldHeritageSites(McGinley,2009).
Since2001,aprocesssupportedbytheJohnD.andCatherineT.MacArthurFoundationhas
soughttodevelopastrategicframeworkforconservationandjointplanningforprotected
areasintheAlbertineRift.ThisprocessbringstogetherNGOs,protectedareaauthorities,
andgovernmentministriesineachcountry.TheCongoBasinForestPartnership,an
associationof29governmentalagenciesandNGOsthatwasformedin2002,isworkingto
promotesustainablemanagementofCongoBasinForestecosystemsandwildlife,andto
improvethelivesofpeoplelivingthere(McGinley,2009).
Selectedpublicationsofnote:
1. DelveR,RamischJ(2006)LandmanagementoptionsinWesternKenyaandEastern
Uganda.In:PenderJ,PlaceF,EhuiSK(eds)Strategiesforsustainablelandmanagementinthe
EastAfricanHighlands.WorldBankandInternationalFoodPolicyResearchInstitute(IFPRI),
Washington,DC,pp319-331.
2. DetschF.,OtteI.,AppelhansT.,HempA.andNaussT.(2016).Seasonalandlong-term
vegetationdynamicsfrom1-kmGIMMS-basedNDVItimeseriesatMt.Kilimanjaro,Tanzania.
RemoteSensingoftheEnvironment,178,70-83.
3. PearceF.(2015).InKenya’sMountainForests,ANewPathtoConservation.24thMarch
2015.Sourcedonlinefromhttp://www.mtnforum.org/content/kenya%E2%80%99smountain-forests-new-path-conservation
4. PeturssonJ.G.,VedeldP.andSassenM.(2013).Aninstitutionalanalysisofdeforestation
processesinprotectedareas:ThecaseofthetransboundaryMt.Elgon,UgandaandKenya.
ForestPolicyandEconomics,26,22-33.
5. PeturssonJ.G.andVedeldP.(2015).The“ninelives”ofprotectedareas.AhistoricalinstitutionalanalysisfromthetransboundaryMtElgon,UgandaandKenya.LandUsePolicy,
42,51-263.
6. RoveroF.,MtuiA.S.KitegileA.andNielsenM.R.(2012).Huntingorhabitatdegradation?
DeclineofprimatepopulationsinUdzungwaMountains,Tanzania:Ananalysisofthreats
BiologicalConservation,Volume146(1),89-96.
7. WinterbottomB.andEiluG.,(2006)Ugandabiodiversityandtropicalforestassessment.
Finalreport’.InternationalResourcesGroup.Sourcedonlineat
http://www.vub.ac.be/klimostoolkit/sites/default/files/documents/uganda_biodiversity
_assessment_usaid.pdfUganda
2.5ImportantBirdAreasandRamsarsites
ManycountriesinAfricahaveveryhighlevelsofbirdendemismandarealsoonimportantmigration
routesforbirds,andtherearemanyImportantBirdAreasandRamsarsites(designatedWetlandsof
InternationalImportance).ForExample,Tanzaniahas62ImportantBirdAreas5andfourRamsar
sites.CameroonhassevenRamsarsites,Guineahas16Ramsarsites,Kenyahas6Ramsarsites,
Moroccohas24Ramsarsites,SouthAfricahas22RamsarSitesandTunisiahas41Ramsarsites.
Ugandahas12Ramsarsites.
ManyImportantBirdAreasarelocatedinmontaneregions,butthereisstillaconcernthatmanyof
theothersitesdocaterforthefullrangeofbirdspeciesbecausetheydonot,ingeneral,coversome
ofthemorethreatenedhabitatsforendangeredbirds,suchascoastalormontaneforest,
seasonalandpermanentswamps,alkalineandfreshwaterlakesoruplandgrasslands.
Ugandahas30ImportantBirdAreas(IBAs)coveringsome7%oftheareaofthecountry.Uganda
alsohasthreeendemicbirdareas(EBAs)whichliepartlywithinUganda:theAlbertineRift
5
http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/userfiles/file/IBAs/AfricaCntryPDFs/Tanzania.pdf
mountains;theEasternDemocraticRepublicofCongolowlands;andtheKenyanmountainsaswell
asthreesecondaryareas:drywoodlandswestofLakeVictoria;northUgandanswampsandnortheastUganda.Ugandahasover30restrictedrangebirdspeciesofwhich24arefoundonlyinthe
AlbertineRiftmountains.
Ethiopiahas69ImportantBirdAreasandsome816speciesofbirdhavebeenrecordedfrom
Ethiopia,ofwhichatleast596areresidentand224areregularseasonalmigrants,including176
fromthePalearctic.SixteenspeciesareendemictoEthiopiaandafurther13aresharedonlywith
Eritrea.Thirty-onespeciesofglobalconservationconcernhavebeenrecorded.6Thereare
numerouswetlandsofimportanceforbirds.TheseincludethelakesoftheRiftValleyand,
elsewhere,montanemarshesandbogsand,particularlyinthewest,lowlandswamps.artsorallof
threeEndemicBirdAreas(EBAs)liewithinEthiopia.TheJubbaandShabeellevalleysEBA(EBA
113)issharedwithSomaliaandthreeofitsfourspeciesoccur,thewholeoftheSouthEthiopian
highlandsEBA(EBA114)fallswithinitsborders(allfivespeciesoccur)whilemostoftheCentral
EthiopianhighlandsEBA(EBA115)doessoandallitsfourspeciesoccur(seeTable2).Thereisalso
oneSecondaryArea-NorthernEthiopia(s063),definedbythedistributionofCercomeladubia.
Partsoffourbiome-restrictedassemblagesarepresent.Theseare:theSahelbiome(A03),ina
smallareaofthefarnorth(eightofthe16speciesthatarerestrictedtothisbiomehavebeen
recordedinEthiopia);theSudan–GuineaSavannabiome(A04)whichoccupiesmuchofthewest
ofthecountry(16ofits54specieshavebeenrecorded);theAfrotropicalHighlandsbiome(A07)
whichstraddleslargepartsofthecentreofEthiopia(49speciesinEthiopia);and,acrossthe
eastandremainingcentralparts,theSomali–Masaibiome(A08;98speciesoccur).7
TheCameroonHighlandsAfrotropicalecoregioncomprisesmontaneforest/grasslandpatches
mainlyabove900melevation,scatteredinanarchipelagoalongtheborderareabetweenNigeria
andCameroon.Theecoregioncontainsexceptionallevelsofavianendemism.Thereareseven
strictlyendemicbirdspecies,theBamendaapalis(Apalisbamendae),Bangwaforestwarbler
(Bradypterusbangwaensis),white-throatedmountain-babbler(Kupeornisgilberti,EN),banded
wattle-eye(Platysteiralaticincta,EN),Bannerman'sweaver(Ploceusbannermani,VU),Bannerman's
turaco(Tauracobannermani,EN)andMt.Kupebushshrike(Telophoruskupeensis,EN).An
additionalninemontaneendemicsincommonwithMtCameroonandBioko,theseare
Psalidoprocnefuliginosa,Andropadustephrolaemus,Phyllastrephuspoensis,Phylloscopusherberti,
Urolaisepichlora,Poliolaislopezi,Nectariniaoritis,Nectariniaursulae,Nesocharisshelleyi.Thereare
also14speciesincommonwithjustMtCameroonandnotBioko,addingAndropadusmontanus,
6
7
http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/userfiles/file/IBAs/AfricaCntryPDFs/Ethiopia.pdf
http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/userfiles/file/IBAs/AfricaCntryPDFs/Ethiopia.pdf
Phyllastrephuspoliocephalus,Laniariusatroflavus,Malaconotusgladiator,Cossyphaisabellaeand
theraceCisticolachubbidiscolor(sometimesconsideredaseparatespeciesC.discolor).8
Selectedpublication:
BennunL,MatikuP,MulwaR,MwangiS,BuckleyP(2005).MonitoringImportantBirdAreasin
Africa:towardsasustainableandscaleablesystem.BiodiversityandConservation(2005)14:2575–
2590.DOI10.1007/s10531-005-8389-7
2.6TheEthiopianHighlands
TheEthiopianHighlandscoversmuchofEthiopia,aswellassmallpartsofEritrea,Djibouti,
andSudan,andisbisectedbytheGreatRiftValley.IntheEthiopianHighlands,thefoothills
supportwoodlandvegetation,whileforestsatslightlyhigherelevationsaredominatedby
conifers.Above3000meters,theAfroalpineecosystemconsistsofgrasslandandmoorland,
withanabundantherblayer,whiletheheathlandscrubabovethisisdominatedbyheathers
(McGinley,2009).ThehighplateausoftheEthiopianHighlandsarehometothegiant
Lobeliarhynchopetalum,whichgrowstoaheightofabout2-3metersbeforesendingupa
singleinflorescenceofdarkblue-purpleflowersthatcanreachaheightofninemeters.Every
fewyears,thelobeliashaveamusthyearwhenthegreatmajorityofplantsflower
(McGinley,2009).IntheEthiopianHighlands,theEthiopianWildlifeConservation
Organization(EWCO)wasestablishedin1964withtheassistanceofinternational
conservationorganizations.TheEWCOisplaguedbyalackofresourcesandlegislationthat
hasbeenimpossibletoenforce.Althoughasystemofconservationareaswasproposedto
formthebasisofwildlifeconservationinthecountry,onlytwooftheplanned14national
parksandsanctuarieshavebeenlegallyconstituted,namelyAwashNationalParkand
SimienMountainsNationalPark.Eventhesetwoparksarenotadequatelysecured,staffed
orequipped.Thesedifficultieshavebeenexacerbatedbyfamines,refugeeproblems,civil
unrest,armedrebellions,andwar,whichthreatenthelivelihoodsofpeopleandmakeit
unlikelythatconservationmeasureswillbeimplemented(McGinley,2009).
ThemostimportantoftheconservationareasinEthiopiaistheBaleMountainsNational
Park,which,whileaformalnationalpark,itisyettobeofficiallygazetted.ThisKey
BiodiversityAreaharborsthefinestandmostintactremnantsofthehighlands'original
vegetation.Thesemountainsarealsohometofourthreatenedendemicspecies,andto
morethanhalfoftheglobalpopulationoftheEthiopianwolf.TheEthiopianWolf
ConservationProgram(EWCP)hasbeenworkingintheBaleMountainsforseveraldecades
8
http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0103
tosecuretheconservationofareasofAfroalpineecosystem;assess,addressandcounteract
threatstothewolf'ssurvival;andenhancethefocusonandstrengthoftheenvironmental
sectorinEthiopia(McGinley,2009).
Selectedpublications:
1. Dessie,G.andKlemanJ.(2007).Patternandmagnitudeofdeforestationinthesouthcentralrift
valleyregionofEthiopia.MountainResearchandDevelopment,27(2),162–168.
2. GetahunK.,VanRompaeyA.,VanTurnhoutP.andPoesenJ.(2013).Factorscontrollingpatterns
ofdeforestationinmoistevergreen-AfromontaneforestsofSouthwestEthiopia.ForestEcology
andManagement,304,171–18
3. Legesse,D.,Vallet-CoulombC.andGasseF(2003).Hydrologicalresponseofacatchmentto
climateandlandusechangesinTropicalAfrica:casestudySouthCentralEthiopia.Journalof
Hydrology,275,67–85
4. NyssenJ.,FranklA.,MaileM.,HurniH.,DescheemaekerK.,CrummeyD.,RitlerA.,PortnerB.,
NievergeltB.,MoeyersonsJ.,MunroN.,DeckersJ.,BilliP.andJeanPoesen(2014).Environmental
conditionsandhumandriversforchangestonorthEthiopianmountainlandscapesover145
years.ScienceoftheTotalEnvironment,485–486,64-179.
5. ReusingM.(2000).ChangedetectionofnaturalhighforestsinEthiopiausingremotesensingand
GIStechniques.InternationalArchivesofPhotogrammetryandRemoteSensing,33(B7)(2000),
pp.1253–1258.
2.7ProgrammefortheCongoRiverBasinecosystems
In1999,theYaoundéSummit,ameetingofsixheadsofstatefromCongoBasincountries
ledtopartnercountriesagreeingtomanagetheforestsoftheCongoBasinsustainably.
Since1999,millionsofacreshavebeenprotected,newinitiativesonbushmeatandantipoachinghavebeenputinplace,andsustainableforestryisbeginningtotakeroot.
OthermeetingsoftheCentralAfricanRegionalProgrammefortheEnvironment(CARPE)led
totheidentificationof12importantLandscapes:Monte-Alen-MontsdeCristal,GambaMavumba-Conkouati,Lope-Chailu-Louesse,Dja-Odzala-Minkebe,SanghaTri-National,
Econi-Bateke-Lefini,LacTele-Lac-Tumba,Selonga-Lukenie-Sankuru,Maringa-Lapori-Wamba,
Maiko-Tayna-KahuziBiega,Ituri-Epulu-AruandVirunga.The12landscapesformtheCongo
Basinthatspansanareaof680300km2acrossCameroon,theCentralAfricanRepublic,
Congo,Gabon,EquatorialGuinea,DRC,RwandaandUganda.
AttheJohannesburgEarthSummitin2002,theCongoBasinForestPartnership(CBFP)was
launchedandisanon-profitinitiativetopromotetheconservationandresponsible
managementoftheCongoBasin'stropicalforests.Theprojectaimstoimprovethe
techniquesandinformationsharingofinvolvedorganizations.ItisledbytheUnitedStates
andsponsoredbymorethan40internationalgovernmentsandinvestors.
ThereisnowalsoatreatyinplaceontheConservationandSustainableDevelopmentofthe
ForestEcosystemsofCentralAfricainplace(2006),ratifiedby10signatorystatestoalso
assistintheprotectthisarea.ToimplementtheTreaty,asub-regionalorganization,called
“CentralAfricaForestsCommission”(COMIFAC)wasestablished.COMIFACisanorganization
setuptoguide,harmonizeandmonitorforestandenvironmentalpoliciesinCentralAfrica.
TheCOMIFACConvergencePlandefinesthecommoninterventionstrategiesoftheStates
anddevelopmentpartnersofCentralAfricaintheconservationandsustainable
managementofforestecosystems(DoetinchemandMegevant,2013).
2.8TheGreatEscarpment
AfterthebreakupofGondwanaland,interiorsouthernAfricaweatheredinland,leavinga
raisedinlandbasinsurroundedbyaretreatingwallofrock,theGreatEscarpment,the
highestpartofwhichistheeasternsection,theDrakensberg.TheDrakensbergistherefore
arelativelyyoungfeaturewithaltitudesupto2900–3400masl,andthesearethehighest
mountainssouthofKilimajaro(NelandSumner2008).TheDrakenbergescarpmentactsasa
sourceofrainthatsupplieslargepartsofsouthernAfricawithwater(Tyson1986)andinthe
modernera,enablinglong-distancetransferofwatertoseveralurbanandirrigationfarming
areas(deVilliers1996).ThebiggestcatchmentisthatoftheOrange-SenquRiversome100
000km2inextentanddrainingfromtheDrakensberg/Malotimountainswestwardstothe
AtlanticOcean.
TheDrakensberg/MalotiescarpmentsegmentoftheGreatEscarpmentofSouthernAfrica
formsacatchmentthatsupplieswatertolargepartsofsouthernAfrica(Neletal.,2013).In
SouthAfricathesemountaincatchmentshavenowbeendesignatedasStrategicWater
Areas(Neletal.,2013).KeywatersourceareasinSouthAfrica,LesothoandSwaziland
togethercontribute50%oftheregion’swatersupply,capturedfromlessthan8%ofthe
landsurfacearea.IntermsoftheGreatSouthernAfricaEscarpment,keywaterresource
areasinthemountainrangeincludetheEasternCapeDrakensberg,theSouthern
Drakensberg,theMalotiDrakensbergandNorthernDrakensberg(Neletal.,2013).This
makestheDrakensbergacriticalresourceforthesub-region,firstlybecauseitprovidesso
muchofthewater,butalsobecauseseveralinternationalcooperativeinitiativesinsecuring
thewaterfromthismountainrange.TheGreatDrakensbergEscarpmentofsouthernAfrica,
whichformsthebarrierbetweenthecoastallowlandsandthehigherinlandplateau,isthe
majorsourceofwaterforthelowlandareasofSouthAfrica.InSouthAfrica,theGreat
EscarpmentandtheLesothohighaltitudelandscapeisthesourceofmostofSouthAfrica’s
freshwater,yetisunder-studiedintermsofbothitsbiological,hydrologicalandgeological
diversityanditssensitivitytoglobalchange(Grab2013).
TheManicaHighlands,partoftheeasternarmoftheGreatEscarpment,formstheborder
betweenZimbabweandMozambique.Inthewestelementsoftheescarpmentextendto
Namibia(theSchwarzrandandedgeoftheKhomasHighlandinNamibia)andAngola(the
SerradaChela).Duringthelast20millionyearstherehasbeensignificantupliftofthis
plateaubasinwithlargereffectintheeastofSouthAfrica(Truswell1977).Erosionand,
consequently,inlandmovementoftheupliftedescarpmentgaverisetomuchofthecoastal
plainsbetweentheDrakensbergandtheIndianOcean(Truswell1977).
2.9TheMalotiDrakensbergTransfrontierPark
TheMalotiDrakensbergTransfrontierPark(MDTP)WHSisapartnershipbetweenthe
governmentsofSouthAfricaandLesotho.ThemanagementauthorityistheEzemvelo-KZN
wildlifeauthorityinKZN,SouthAfrica.
Thespectacularnaturallandscapeofthe
DrakensbergParkcontainsmanycavesandrockshelterswithawealthofpaintingsmadebythe
Sanpeopleoveraperiodof4000years.They
depictanimalsandhumanbeings,andrepresent
thespirituallifeofthispeople,nownolonger
livingintheiroriginalhomeland.Plusoutstanding
naturalmountainfeaturesandmountainbiota.
TheuKhahlambaDrakensbergPark,composedof
12protectedareasestablishedbetween1903
and1973hasalonghistoryofeffective
conservationmanagement.Covering242813ha
inarea,itisconsideredlargeenoughtosurviveas
anaturalareaandtomaintainnaturalvalues
(‘benignneglect’asamanagementapproach).ItincludesfourproclaimedWildernessareas
almost50%ofthePark,whilelargelyunaffectedbyhumandevelopment,theproperty
remainsvulnerabletoexternallandusesincludingagriculture,plantationforestryand
ecotourism,althoughagreementsbetweenEzemveloKZNWildlifeandlocalstakeholders
havebeenimplementedtomanagethesethreats,andcreatebufferzonesaroundthePark,
andalsomanagefiresinthePark.(Mapfrom
http://www.africanworldheritagesites.org/natural-places/mountains/maloti-sehlahbathebeukhahlamba-drakensberg-mountains-south-africa-lesotho.html).
2.10TheCapeFoldMountains
TheCapeFoldMountainsareaseriesofparallelrangesthatrunalongthesouth-western
andsoutherncoastlinesofSouthAfricafor1000kmfromtheCederberg300kmtothe
northoftheCapePeninsula,andthenalongthesouthcoastasfarasPortElizabeth,700km
totheeast.TheCapeFoldBeltisafoldandthrustbeltoflatePaleozoicage,withacomplex
formationhistorythatpredatesGondwanaland.Thegeologicalformationaffectedthe
sequenceofsedimentaryrocklayersoftheCapeSupergroupinthesouthwesterncornerof
SouthAfrica.ItwasoriginallycontinuouswiththeVentanaMountainsnearBahíaBlancain
Argentinaandotherfold
andthrustbeltsin
Antarcticaandeastern
Australia.Therocksinvolved
aregenerallysandstones
andshales,withtheshales
(Bokkeveldgroup)persisting
inthevalleyfloorsandthe
erosionresistantsandstones
formingtheparallelranges,theCapeFoldMountains,whichreachamaximumheightof
2325maslatSeweweekspoortpiek.TheCapeFoldMountainsarenotpartoftheGreat
EscarpmentofSouthernAfrica,andaremucholderthanthisformation.Thereare11nature
reserveswithintheCapeFoldmountains,includingtheTableMountainNationalpark,theSwartberg
NatureReservewhichwasdeclaredaWorldHeritageSitein2004,theGamkapoortNatureReserve
tothenorthandtheTowerkopNatureReservetothewestandtheAnysbergNatureReserve,as
wellastheBaviaanspoortmega-reserve.AlltheseareasformpartoftheCapeFloristicRegion
WorldHeritageSite.ThisWorldheritagesitewasrecognisedin2004.TheCapeFloralRegionhas
beeninternationallyrecognisedasoneofthemostspecialplacesforplantsintheworldintermsof
diversity,densityandnumberofendemicspecies.ThisWHSpropertyisahighlydistinctive
phytogeographicunitwhichisregardedasoneofthesixFloralKingdomsoftheworldandisbyfar
thesmallestandrelativelythemostdiverse.Itisrecognisedasoneoftheworld’sbiodiversity
hotspotsforitsdiversityofendemicandthreatenedplants,andcontainsoutstandingexamplesof
significantongoingecological,biologicalandevolutionaryprocesses.Thisextraordinaryassemblage
ofplantlifeanditsassociatedfaunaisrepresentedbyaseriesof13protectedareaclusterscovering
anareaofmorethan1millionhectares.Theseprotectedareasalsoconservetheoutstanding
ecological,biologicalandevolutionaryprocessesassociatedwiththebeautifulanddistinctiveFynbos
vegetation,uniquetotheCapeFloralRegion.9
9
http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1007
Gamkabergmountains(photosourcedfrom
http://www.capenature.co.za/reserves/gamkaberg-nature-reserve/)
Selectedpublications:
1. PoulsenZ.C.andHoffmanM.T.(2015).ChangesinthedistributionofindigenousforestinTable
MountainNationalParkduringthe20thCentury.SouthAfricanJournalofBotany,Volume101,
November2015,Pages49-56
2. PhillipsonPB(1987).AchecklistofthevascularplantsoftheAmatolamountains,easternCape
province/Ciskei.Bothalia17,237–256.
3.0Conclusion
ThereismuchbiodiversityofvalueinAfricaandinAfricanmountains,andmanyprojectsand
programmesunderwaytoprotectthisvalue.ManyareasofOutstandingUniversalValueare
protectedthroughnationalparks,naturereserves,UNESCOWorldHeritageSitesandBiosphere
Reserves.Atthesametime,manyareas,forexample,intheCameroons,thereisnoformal
protectionforareasofexceptionalbiodiversityvalue.Thelackofgovernanceandsoundeconomic
opportunitiesinmanyAfricancountriesmeansthatthisbiodiversityisconstantlyunderpressure,
mostlyfromhabitatloss.Inmanymontaneareasgoodvolcanicsoildrawspeopleintocleartheland
foragriculture.Humanactivitiesareincreasinglyfragmenting,degradingandisolatingtheremaining
forestpatchesandthenaturalhabitatsare,ingeneral,highlythreatenedandarebeinglostthrough
conversiontoagriculture,unsustainableuseoftimber,firesfromfarmland,andcollectionof
firewoodandconstructionmaterials.Becausevolcanicrockproducesgoodsoils,thereis
considerablepressuretoconvertareastofarmland.However,thesesoilsalsodryeasily,leadingto
desiccationduringthedryseason.Firewoodcollectionisamajorcauseofthedegradationofforest
patches.Huntingalsothreatenstheremaininglargermammals.
4.0Referencescited
DoetinchemNandMegevandC(2013).DeforestationTrendsintheCongoBasin.Reconciling
EconomicGrowthandForestProtection.WorkingPaper2:Logging.COMIFAC.Sourced
onlineat
http://www.profor.info/sites/profor.info/files/docs/Logging_Sectoral%20Report_FINAL%5Bw
eb%7D_may13.pdf
McGinleyM.,(2009).BiologicaldiversityintheEasternAfromontane.EncyclopediaofEarth.
Sourcedonlineathttp://www.eoearth.org/view/article/150641/
Microsfere(n.d.).GuineanForestsofWestAfricaBiodiversityhotspot.Microsfere
organisation,Sourcedonlineathttp://www.microsfere.org/en/ghana/guinean-forests-ofwest-africa-biodiversity-hotspot.html
TchoutoM.G.P.,YemefackM.,DeBoerW.F,.DeWildeJ.J.F.E.,VanderMaesenL.J.G.,Cleef
A.M.(2006).BiodiversityhotspotsandconservationprioritiesintheCampo-Ma'anrain
forests,Cameroon.BiodiversityandConservation.April2006,Volume15,Issue4,pp12191252.
WWF(n.d.).GlobalEcoregionCameroonForestsHighlands.WorldWideFundforNature
(WWF).Sourcedonlineat
http://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/ecoregions/cameroon_highlands_forests.cfm