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Macromolecules
1
Living organisms:
– are composed of cells
– are complex and ordered
– respond to their environment
– can grow and reproduce
– obtain and use energy
– maintain internal balance
– allow for evolutionary adaptation
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Properties of Life
How to Define Life
• Organization of living systems begins with atoms, which make up basic building
blocks called elements.
• The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all living things.
• Different cells combine to make up tissues (e.g., myocardial tissue).
• Tissues combine to make up an organ (e.g., the heart).
• Specific organs work together as a system (e.g., the heart, arteries, veins, etc.).
• Multicellular organisms (each an “individual” within a particular species) contain
organ systems (e.g., cardiovascular, digestive, respiratory, etc.).
• A species in a particular area (e.g., gray squirrels in a forest) constitutes a
population.
• Interacting populations in a particular area comprise a community.
• A community plus its physical environment is an ecosystem.
• The biosphere is comprised of regions of the Earth’s crust, waters, and atmosphere
inhabited by organisms.
• Each level of organization is more complex than the level preceding it.
• Each level of organization has emergent properties due to interactions between
the parts making up the whole; all emergent properties follow the laws of physics
and chemistry.
• Emergent property quality that appears as biological complexity increases
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Living Things Are Organized
Levels of Biological Organization
Organisms
Organ Systems
Complicated
Large
Populations
Organs
Cells
Simple
Small
Tissues
Cells
•A cell is the most basic unit of
structure
Nucleus
Cell Membrane
Cytoplasm
Tissues
1)
2)
3)
4)
Muscle
Connective
Nerve
Epithelial
Organs
What does
Structure and Function mean?
• Structure = the body plan, or the way
the parts are arranged
• Function = the job for that part of the
organism
Organ Systems
Organisms
The hierarchy of Life
•
•
•
•
•
•
Organ systems
Organs
Tissues
Cells
Organelles
Molecules
Biologists investigate the full
spectrum of life, from the
biosphere to the biochemical
reactions within a cell.
There are four classes of
biological macromolecules:
Proteins, lipids, carbohydrates
and nucleic acids
Before you can understand the topics in this
unit there are some key vocabulary terms you
need to know.
Macromolecule
Polymer
Monomer
What do these words mean?
So What Is A
Macromolecule?
A very large molecule, such as a
polymer or protein, consisting of many
smaller structural units linked
together. Also called supermolecule.
Biological
Macromolecule
All biological macro-molecule are made
up of a small number of elements:
Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen,
Phosphorus and Sulfur
Next Word…..
Polygons
Polyester
Polygamy
What does
“Mono” mean?
A Polymer
Here are some analogies to better
understand what polymers and monomers
are….
EXAMPLE of
POLYMER
A TRAIN
A NECKLACE
MONOMER
?
?
If the train is the whole polymer, what would be the small
groups that make up the train? If the necklace is the
polymer, what are the monomers that make up the necklace?
A Polymer
Here are some analogies to better
understand what polymers and monomers
are….
EXAMPLE of
POLYMER
A TRAIN
A NECKLACE
MONOMER
THE CARS
EACH PEARL
If the train is the whole polymer, what would be the small
groups that make up the train? If the necklace is the
polymer, what are the monomers that make up the necklace?
Now you and a buddy
need to think of at least 2 other
analogies for a polymer and its
monomers.
Three out of the 4 types of
biochemical macromolecules
can be found on food
nutrition labels…
Look at the label to the left. 3
of the 4 macromolecules can
be found in foods.
The 3 biochemical molecules
found on a nutrition label are:
1____________________
(0 grams in this product)
(13 grams in this product)
2____________________
(9 grams in this product)
3____________________
• Compounds that contain CARBON
are called organic.
• Macromolecules are large organic
molecules.
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Organic Compounds
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Carbon (C)
• Carbon can form covalent bonds
with as many as 4 other atoms
(elements).
• Usually with C, H, O or N.
• Example:
CH4(methane)
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• Carbon has 4 electrons in outer
shell.
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• Large organic molecules.
• Also called POLYMERS.
• Made up of smaller “building blocks”
called MONOMERS.
• Examples:
1. Carbohydrates
2. Lipids
3. Proteins
4. Nucleic acids (DNA and RNA)
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Macromolecules
35
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Question:
How Are
Macromolecules
Formed?
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• Also called “condensation reaction”
• Forms polymers by combining
monomers by “removing water”.
HO
H
HO
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Answer: Dehydration Synthesis
H
H2O
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HO
H
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Question:
How are
Macromolecules
separated or digested?
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Answer: Hydrolysis
HO
H
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• Separates monomers by “adding
water”
H2O
HO
H
HO
H39
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Carbohydrates
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Carbohydrates
• Examples:
A. monosaccharide
B. disaccharide
C. polysaccharide
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• Small sugar molecules to large
sugar molecules.
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Carbohydrates
Examples:
glucose
glucose (C6H12O6)
deoxyribose
ribose
Fructose
Galactose
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Monosaccharide: one sugar unit
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Carbohydrates
• Sucrose (glucose+fructose)
• Lactose (glucose+galactose)
• Maltose (glucose+glucose)
glucose
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Disaccharide: two sugar unit
Examples:
glucose
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Carbohydrates
glucose
glucose
glucose
glucose
cellulose
glucose
glucose
glucose
glucose
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Polysaccharide: many sugar units
Examples: starch (bread, potatoes)
glycogen (beef muscle)
cellulose (lettuce, corn)
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Lipids
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• General term for compounds which are not
soluble in water.
• Lipids are soluble in hydrophobic solvents.
• Remember: “stores the most energy”
• Examples:
1. Fats
2. Phospholipids
3. Oils
4. Waxes
5. Steroid hormones
6. Triglycerides
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Lipids
46
Six functions of lipids:
1. Long term energy storage
2. Protection against heat loss
(insulation)
3. Protection against physical shock
4. Protection against water loss
5. Chemical messengers (hormones)
6. Major component of membranes
(phospholipids)
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Lipids
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Lipids
H
O
H-C----O C-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3
O
H-C----O C-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3
O
fatty acids
H-C----O C-CH -CH -CH -CH
2
2
2
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Triglycerides:
composed of 1 glycerol and 3
fatty acids.
H
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glycerol
Fatty Acids
2. Unsaturated fatty acids: double bonds (good)
saturated
O
C-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3
O
unsaturated C-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH
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There are two kinds of fatty acids you may see these on
food labels:
1. Saturated fatty acids: no double bonds (bad)
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Proteins
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Proteins (Polypeptides)
• Six functions of proteins:
1. Storage:
albumin (egg white)
2. Transport:
hemoglobin
3. Regulatory:
hormones
4. Movement: muscles
5. Structural: membranes, hair, nails
6. Enzymes:
cellular reactions
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• Amino acids (20 different kinds of aa) bonded
together by peptide bonds (polypeptides).
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Four levels of protein
structure:
A. Primary Structure
B. Secondary Structure
C. Tertiary Structure
D. Quaternary Structure
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Proteins (Polypeptides)
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Primary Structure
Amino Acids (aa)
aa1
aa2
aa3
aa4
aa5
aa6
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Amino acids bonded together
by peptide bonds (straight
chains)
Peptide Bonds
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• 3-dimensional folding arrangement of a
primary structure into coils and pleats
held together by hydrogen bonds.
• Two examples:
Alpha Helix
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Secondary Structure
Beta Pleated Sheet
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Hydrogen Bonds
• Secondary structures bent and folded
into a more complex 3-D arrangement
of linked polypeptides
• Bonds: H-bonds, ionic, disulfide
bridges (S-S)
• Call a “subunit”.
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Tertiary Structure
Alpha Helix
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Beta Pleated Sheet
Quaternary Structure
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• Composed of 2 or more “subunits”
• Globular in shape
• Form in Aqueous environments
• Example: enzymes (hemoglobin)
subunits
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Nucleic Acids
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• Two types:
a. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNAdouble helix)
b. Ribonucleic acid (RNA-single
strand)
• Nucleic acids are composed of long
chains of nucleotides linked by
dehydration synthesis.
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Nucleic acids
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• Nucleotides include:
phosphate group
pentose sugar (5-carbon)
nitrogenous bases:
adenine (A)
thymine (T) DNA only
uracil (U) RNA only
cytosine (C)
guanine (G)
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Nucleic acids
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Nucleotide
Phosphate
Group
5
CH2
O
N
C1
C4
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O
O=P-O
O
Nitrogenous base
(A, G, C, or T)
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Sugar
(deoxyribose)
C3
C2
DNA - double helix
O
3
3
O
P
5
O
C
G
1
P
5
3
2
4
4
2
3
1
P
T
5
A
P
3
O
O
P
5
O
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5
3
61
5
P
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