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Advanced Materials Research
ISSN: 1662-8985, Vol. 627, pp 449-455
doi:10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMR.627.449
© 2013 Trans Tech Publications, Switzerland
Online: 2012-12-27
Study on the evolution of the looms in ancient China
Bin Li 1, a, Anding Liu1, b, Qiang Li 2, c, Xiaoming Yang1, d
1
College of Textiles, Donghua University, Shanghai ,201620, China
2
College of Textiles, Wuhan Textile University, Wuhan, 430200, China
a
b
c
[email protected], [email protected], [email protected],
d
[email protected]
Keywords: weaving instruments, ancient China, evolution
Abstract. The development path of the looms is a key to study on the looms in ancient China. Based
on the studies on historical materials and archeological findings of the looms in ancient China, we
found that there were two paths in the development process of the looms in ancient China. Before the
Han Dynasty (206BC-AD220), plain weave and figure-weave fabrics were produced on similar
looms. But after the Han Dynasty, the two kinds of looms evolved into all kinds of the treadle loom,
the multi-heald and multi-treadle loom and the draw loom.
Introduction
Reviewing the history of the textile technology of ancient China, the development of the looms was
not a simple linear process. On the one hand, the development of the plain looms went through three
stages: (1)The original back-strap looms;(2)The two-bar loom;(3)The treadle looms. The treadle
looms included the single-heald and single-treadle loom, the single-heald and two-treadle loom, the
two-heald and two-treadle loom. On the other hand, the development of the figure looms included the
two stages: (1)The multi-heald and multi-treadle loom;(2) The draw loom. The draw loom in turn has
developed in two main stages: the draw loom with minor pattern sheets and the draw loom with major
pattern sheets.
Research method
The research objects included the first document evidence of the looms in ancient China, all papers
about structure and operation process of the looms in ancient China, the archeological findings
involving the looms in ancient China. The three steps were included: firstly, the types of the looms in
ancient China were analyzed according to the archeological findings and the first document
evidences. Secondly, two paths of the development process of the looms in ancient China were
analyzed based on the study on the shapes and shedding mechanism of the looms in the time. Finally,
the reasons for the development of the looms of ancient China were analyzed.
Results and discussion
The original back-strap looms in ancient China. The original back-strap loom is the oldest loom in
China. The structure of the back-strap loom is not complicated. According to the archaeological
finding at Hemudu of Zhejiang Province, dated to about 4000 years ago, the components of the loom
included a battening blade, a pirn, a lease rod, a cord lever and two horizontal wooden bars. The lease
rod was used to divide the warp yarns into two layers: odd-numbered yarns and even-numbered yarns.
The original back-strap loom can be seen in Fig.1. During operation, one end of the warp was fastened
to the waist of the weaver, and the other end attached to a wood column. The weaver sat on the
ground. Firstly, he pulled the lease rod forward to form a shed and inserted the weft yarn by a pirn, and
then he beat and firmed the fabric with a battening blade. After the first course finished, the weaver
raised the cord lever, which brought up the lower layer of warp yarns, thus, another shed was formed,
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and then the pirn was used to insert weft and battening blade to secure the second course. Finally, the
weaver repeated the above process. [1]According to researches on the weaving tools unearthed at
Hemudu and the fabrics unearthed at Qianshanyang, we believe that the back-strap loom has been
invented during early Neolithic Age.
Fig.1 A sketch showing a weaver working on a primitive loom
The two-bar loom in ancient China. The structure of the type of looms is more complicated than the
original back-strap looms. According to the records in Instructions on weaving in Biographies of
Famous Women, the two-bar loom had been invented in the Spring and Autumn Period (770BC-476
BC) in China and it can be seen in Fig.2. The loom was constantly perfected by adding such important
components as the supporting frame, the width reed, and the warp beam. During operation, a worker
sat at a loom with the cloth beam fastened around his waist by a girdle. When tabby cloth was woven,
the worker raised the stick-heald with one hand and brought up the odd-numbered or even-numbered
yarns to form a shed, and then he threw the Kun with another hand, which Kun was a device for weft
insertion and batterning. Next, he placed down the stick-heald, and shed was formed with the help of
the lease rod, in turn finished batterning and wefting. The same process was repeated again and again
until the cloth was woven.
Fig.2 A drawing of two-bar loom
The treadle looms in ancient China. Based on historical materials and archeological discoveries of
the looms, we find that the treadle looms have been created in the Han Dynasty. The invention of
treadle loom signal a significant technical improvement in the structure of the loom. With the help of
heald frame and treadle on the loom, it not only boosted the productivity by freeing weaver’s hands
from the tedious job of forming a shed, but also gave further impetus to improvement of the wefting
and battening tools. An illustration of the treadle looms was given in the ancient books such as
“Time-honoured Institutions of Carpentry”, “complete Treatise on Agriculture” and “Collection of
Important Essays on Sericulture”. Through studying these materials, we believe that the treadle loom
can be divided into three types.
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(1) single-heald and single-treadle loom. The drawing of the kind of loom was firstly found from
the Han tomb at Zhenjiabo of Sichuan province. [2]The loom illustrated in this stone was a kind of
loom with one pedal and one shaft in Fig.3, and a reconstruction of this kind of loom can be seen in
Fig.4.The most important part of the loom was the shedding mechanism, which consists of the lease
bar, heald frame, treadle. The lease bar was used to divide the warp yarns into odd-numbered yarns
layer and the other even-numbered yarns layer. And the heald frame connected with the lower layer of
the warp. When weaver pressed the treadle, the lower layer of the warp lifted to the position of the
upper shed, a triangular shed was formed. Then, weaver finished the wefting and battening. The foot
was taken off the pedal; the shed was formed by effect of the lease bar.
Fig.3 A rubbing of the single-heald and single-treadle loom from a stone relief of the Han Dynasty
Fig.4 A reconstruction of the single-heald and single-treadle loom
(2) single-heald and two-treadles loom. The stone relief illustrated the kind of loom in Fig5, which
had been excavated from the Han tomb in the area of Honglou in Jiangshu province, and a
reconstruction of the loom can be seen in Fig.6. This kind of loom had two treadles and single heald.
The two pedals were of unequal lengths. The longer one was linked up with the heald-lifting lever,
whereas the shorter one was attached to the lower part of the heald frame. Weaver pressed the longer
treadle to lift the warp for forming an upper shed, whereas pressed the shorter one to pull down the
warp for forming an under shed.
Fig.5 A rubbing of the single-heald and two-treadles loom from a stone relief of the Han Dynasty
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Fig.6 A reconstruction of the single-heald and two-treadle loom
(3) two-heald and two-treadle loom. This kind of loom included two-heald and two-treadle loom of
half-shed and that of full-shed. The pictorial information of half shed in the two-heald and two-treadle
loom in Fig.7 was found in Liang kai’s The Silkworm Weaving, which recorded the general picture of
silk production techniques in the period of South Song(AD1127-AD1279). And the drawing of
mechanism of it can be seen in Fig.8. During the weaving operation, firstly, the weaver pressed the
longer pedal to bring up the front heald by means of the longer lever, thus an upper shed was formed
and wefting and battening were done by using shuttle and reed. When these processes were
accomplished, the weaver’s foot was taken off the pedal. Then, the weaver pressed the shorter pedal
to bring up the back heald to ensure an under shed was formed and started to weft and batten again.
This procedure can be repeated over and over throughout the operation until the whole length of cloth
was woven. The reed was made of bamboo. It was hung from two curved rods. The purpose of this
arrangement was to make use of the elastic force of the curved rods and the weight added to it to
ensure that the battening process can be carried out more efficiently.
Fig.7 A drawing of the two-heald and two-treadle loom of half-shed
Fig.8 A drawing of mechanism of the two-heald and two-treadle loom of half-shed
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The drawing of the two-heald and two-treadle loom of full-shed was firstly found in Collection of
Important Essays on Sericulture, which was written by Wei Jie in the Qing Dynasty
(AD1644-AD1911). It can be seen Fig.9. The two healds controlled respectively the odd-numbered
yarns and the other even-numbered yarns and they are hung respectively from the ends of the lever and
connected with two treadles. When the weaver presses the longer pedal to bring down the heald at the
back, the lever was made to swing by means of cord on the rear heald to lift the front heald. Thus, a
full shed was formed. Then, the worker presses the short pedal to bring down the front heald, and as a
result of the lever principle, the back heald was lifted and formed another shed.
Fig.9 A drawing of two-heald and two-treadle loom of full-shed
The multi-heald and multi-treadle loom. The first reference to a multi-heald and multi-treadle loom
was found in “The Miscellaneous Notes of the Western Capital” by Ge Hong of the Jin Dynasty
(AD317-AD420), in which it was stated that during the reign of Emperor Xuan of the Han
(73BC-48BC), the wife of Huo Guang sent Chun Yuyan bolts of brocade and twill silk as a present.
The twill silk was woven on a loom which with 120 treadles, and the weaving machine was invented
by the wife of Cheng Baoguang who produced a bolt of twill silk in sixty days, and each bolt was
worth as much as one hundred thousand coins.[3]In fact, still a number of well–preserved primitive
multi-heald and multi-treadle looms can be found in the neighbourhood of Chengdu of Sichuan
Province. The multi-heald and multi-treadle loom can be seen in Fig.10, pegs were nailed each on one
treadle so that the positions of the pegs on the neighboring treadles successively separated from one
another. As these nails were arranged in the same manner as Ding Qiao which a series of stepping
stones lined up in a stream for crossing, this kind of loom has been given the name Ding Qiao loom. In
the front of Ding Qiao loom were the six ground harnesses for controlling the ground warp motion,
while at the rear of the machine were the twenty- four figuring harnesses for manipulating the figuring
warp motion. After a course of weft was woven, a figuring harness and a ground harness were lifted.
The multi-heald and multi-treadle loom was utilized for silk fabrics with small pattern cycle. Thus it
can be seen that the multi-heald and multi-treadle loom integrated foot-operated shedding mechanism
with the multiple-heald patterning device.
Fig.10 A schematic drawing of a Ding Qiao loom
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The draw loom. According to the description of Rhapsody on Women weavers, the technology of
string-heddle pattern has appeared in the Han Dynasty. It was impossible to make out from the literary
work by Wang Yi of the Eastern Han (AD25-220AD) what the loom was exactly like and how it was
set in motion. However, through analysis and research of textile-design patterns of the Tang Dynasty
(AD618-AD907), we believe that the draw loom had been perfected during the Tang Dynasty. After
the Tang Dynasty, the draw loom gradually developed into draw loom with minor pattern sheets and
draw loom with a major pattern sheets. Their working principle was almost similar. However, the
differences between the two looms were that draw loom with a major pattern sheets could weave
exceedingly large figures. The procedure of making the pattern draft was a key link in draw loom. The
product was the bridge for the pattern from sketch to fabric. It was a weaving process in which silk
threads and cotton threads were woven according to patterns and the ancient method of keeping
records by tying knots.[4] The invention of the pattern draft in the form of knotted threads was indeed
a significant technical development, because it introduced important principles which were seen
embodied in punched cards incorporated on a modern jacquard. So, in present-day terms, the making
of a pattern draft for use on the draw loom was the programmer control and storage technique. The
draw loom with minor pattern sheets can be seen in Fig.11. During the weaving operation, one worker
was sitting on the figuring attachment, pulled up figure threads while the other was sitting behind the
cloth roller, working the pedals one by one. The fabric together with the motif was woven through
close cooperation between the two weavers.
Fig.11 A drawing of the draw loom with minor pattern sheets from “The Silkworm Weaving”
The analysis of the development of the looms in ancient China. Based on historical materials and
the textile archeological discoveries, we find that the looms have developed along two paths in
ancient China. One path was the development path of the plain looms; other path was development
path of the draw looms. At first, the ancient weavers employed figure techniques by increasing the
number of cord rods and manual-figuring method on the original back-strap loom and the two-bar
loom to weave the brocades with small motifs. The weaver used the original back-strap loom with 3
or 4 core rods to weave twill weave. If more complicated figures were to be woven, the number of
cord rods must be greater than 4.On the unearthed bronze weapon of the Shang Dynasty, the trace of
packing fabric showed that the weft repeat was 28 picks, which needs more than 14 core rod.[5]When
it came to the Han Dynasty, the treadle loom which produced plain weave and the multi-heald and
multi-treadle loom have been became popular. Since then, the looms had developed in the specialized
direction. The treadle looms were designed for producing plain weave. The multi-heald and
multi-treadle loom was combination of the foot-operated shedding mechanism with the
multiple-heald patterning device, it could weave complicated motif. But there were limit to the weft
cycle index of a pattern because of there was a limit to the number of healds on the loom. In order to
solve this problem, the draw loom was successfully developed during the Han Dynasty. In the Tang
Dynasty, the technique of weft-faced pattern was introduced from Persia into China. It promoted the
invention of draw loom with minor pattern sheets in the Tang Dynasty. In the period from the Ming
Dynasty (AD1368-AD1644) to the Qing Dynasties, draw loom with a major pattern sheets was
invented in order to weave exceedingly large figures.
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We believe that the development of ancient looms have reflected the increasing of material and
cultural needs of the people in ancient China. Firstly, the shedding mechanism of the plain looms
changed from the technique of forming a shed by hand to forming a shed by treadle in order to
improve the productive efficiency of the loom and reduce labor intensity of weaver. Secondly, ancient
Chinese had custom of the worship of silkworm and ancestors. On the one hand, the life process of a
silkworm has a transition from cocoon to moth. Chinese connected such transformation with the life
circle of human beings, and considered silk a mystic media between men and heaven. As a result, it
was believed that the soul must break through a cocoon like a pupa, if it was to ascend to the heaven.
Accordingly, bodies of the dead were wrapped up with silk as an artificial cocoon, with which their
souls could break through to the heaven. On the other hand, the custom of worshipping ancestors was
prevalent in ancient China. They consecrated plenty of silk to their ancestors. Thirdly, Etiquette
embodied the autocratic and hierarchical thinking in ancient China, and costume system became an
important tool of the governing and a powerful weapon of politics. According to “Old History of the
Tang Dynasty”, twill silks with different patterns and specification represented the various ranks of
officials. Therefore costume system accelerated the development of the draw loom.
Conclusions
The development pedigree of the looms in ancient China was not also linear. We believe that the
looms have developed along two paths in ancient China. The first path was the development path of
civilian, which focused on the plain looms. The second path was the development path of nobility,
which focused on the draw looms. The pedigree of the looms in ancient China developed as follow:
The development of the plain loom of ancient China:
The original back-strap looms(Neolithic Age)→the two-bar loom(the Spring and Autumn Period)
→the single-heald and single-treadle loom, the single-headl and two-treadles loom(the Han Dynasty)
→the two-heald and two-treadle loom of half shed (the Song Dynasty)→the drawing of the two-heald
and two-treadle loom of full-shed(the Qing Dynasty).
The development of the figure looms of ancient China:
Figure techniques on the original back-strap looms by rods (Neolithic Age) →multi-heald and
multi-treadle loom (the Han Dynasty) →draw loom with minor pattern sheets (the Tang Dynasty) →
draw loom with a major pattern sheets (the Ming Dynasty).
References
[1] W.J. Chen: History of Textile Technology of Ancient China (Science Press, China 1992).
[2] F. Zhao: Reconstruction of axle-treadle loom in Han Dynasty. Journal of China Textile University,
Vol.14 (1997), P.63.
[3] H. Ge: The Miscellaneous Notes of the Western Capital (Guizhou People Press, China 1993).
[4] T.F. Zhu: Nanjing Brocade Gem of China (Nanjing Press, China 2003).
[5] Q.C. Zhou, H.X. Tu, W.H. Cheng: Introductory History of Textile Science and Technology
(Donghua University Press, China 2003).