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Topic: European Retreat from Empire and the
Aftermath, 1945–90 ........................................................................2
1. Case study: British withdrawal from India, 1945–47 .......................2
Key personality ..........................................................................................13
Key concepts .............................................................................................13
Past exam questions on British withdrawal from India, 1945–47 .........13
2. Case study: The secession of Katanga, 1960–63 ............................15
Key personality ......................................................................................... 15
Key concepts .............................................................................................23
Past exam questions on The secession of Katanga, 1960–63..................25
3. Case study: Race relations in France in the 1980s ..........................26
Key concepts .............................................................................................34
Past exam questions on Race relations in France in the 1980s ...............34
For permission to reproduce photographs, the author and publisher gratefully
acknowledge the following:
© Alamy: 32; © Getty Images: 6T, 6B, 7, 13, 15, 16, 24, 29.
European Retreat from Empire
and the Aftermath, 1945–90
1. Case study: British withdrawal from India,
1945–47
After studying this section, you should understand:
l The implications of World War II for British rule in India
l The reasons why Britain decided to withdraw from India
l Britain’s proposals to give independence to India
l Direct Action Day and its impact
l Mountbatten’s plans to transfer power
l Problems Britain faced in transferring power
l The results of British withdrawal from India
l The role Gandhi played in British withdrawal from India (Key
personality, p. 13)
l The relation between Britain and India and Pakistan after
independence
How was India ruled in 1945?
Note: India or British
India covered the area
of present-day India
and Pakistan
British India
Afghanistan
Princely states
Kashmir
Simla
Nepal
1. British India had a
Karachi
population of about 400
million. Most of these
were Hindus, Muslims
and Sikhs.
2. British India was ruled
Arabian
through a Viceroy, but
Sea
Britain ruled part of
India indirectly through
the princely states.
3. The Government of
India Act (1935) set up
provincial assemblies and British India in 1945
governments that ran local
Delhi
Burma
Calcutta
Bombay
Bay of
Bengal
Ceylon
EUROPEAN RETREAT FROM EMPIRE AND THE AFTERMATH
3
government in the provinces.
Viceroys of India
These were mostly controlled by
Linlithgow
1936–43
the majority Congress Party. The
Wavell
1943–47
Viceroy still controlled foreign
Mountbatten
1947
affairs and defence.
4. Relations between Hindus and Muslims: Conflict between Hindus and Muslims
went back many centuries. This was based on historic and religious differences
which led to local conflict. Now Muslims thought they would suffer in a Hindudominated India; Hindus did not want to make concessions to the minority Muslim
League, which would give them separate powers in a united India.
What were the implications of World War II for British rule in
India?
1. Declaration of war: When Britain declared war on Germany in September 1939,
the Viceroy (then Lord Linlithgow) also declared war on behalf of India. He did this
without consulting Indian leaders and this angered many people. The Congress
Party ordered all its members to resign from provincial ministries.
2. Muslim demands: Jinnah and the Muslim League demanded a separate state for
Muslims (in the Lahore Resolution (1942)). The Muslim League co-operated with
Britain during the war, which increased their importance.
3. Atlantic Charter (1941): Churchill and Roosevelt agreed the Atlantic Charter that
said all people should have the right to independence after the war. The United
States put pressure on Britain to give independence to India.
4. Cripps mission (1942): Sir Stafford Cripps was sent by the British government to get
agreement between the Indian leaders about the future of India. He proposed that
India would get full dominion status as part of the Commonwealth after World War II.
l But he failed to get Congress and the Muslim League to agree.
5. Quit India: Gandhi and the Congress Party demanded Britain quit India
immediately.
l Britain responded by jailing Gandhi and other Congress leaders.
l Then it put down the Quit India campaign.
6. Defeat of British forces: The Japanese defeat of the British army in Singapore
(1942) undermined the confidence of the British. It also encouraged Indians to
believe that they could overthrow the British as well.
7. Japanese Indian National Army: The Japanese Indian National Army was organised
by Chandra Bose, but it was easily defeated when it attacked eastern India from
Burma (1944). After the war, some soldiers were court-martialled in the Red Fort
Trials. This outraged many Indians and contributed to the Indian Navy Mutiny in
1946. This mutiny showed Britain that it could not depend on its forces in India.
8. British army in India: There were only 50,000 soldiers in India at the end of the war
in 1945. The British government would not increase the size of the army and many
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of the solders wanted to go home after the war. This made it very difficult for the
British government to control disturbances in India.
9. Growing Indian influence: 2.5 million Indians joined the British armed forces.
Most of these supported the independence cause. They were now experienced in
war.
l Many Indians were employed in the Indian civil service, which meant they were
ready to take over after independence.
10. The British economy: Britain was virtually bankrupt at the end of World War II,
and the country was heavily dependent on US loans. Shortages and unemployment
continued in Britain for some years after the war.
l By the end of World War II, it was clear that Britain could not govern India and
that Hindus and Muslims would go their separate ways.
British withdrawal from India
World War II
(1939–45)
l
Quit India campaign
l
Wavell as Viceroy
l
Cripps Mission
1945
l
British general election
1946
l
Red Fort Trials
l
Mutinies
l
Cabinet Mission
l
Simla Conference
l
Direct Action Day
l
Interim government
l
Mountbatten as Viceroy
l
Plan Balkan
l
Menon or Partition Plan
l
Independence of India Act
l
Independence for India and Pakistan
l
Deaths of Gandhi and Jinnah
1947
1948
Why did Britain decide to withdraw from India?
Britain promised post-war independence to India.
1. Indian nationalism: The Indian Congress Party led the demand for independence
for India.
2. Gandhi’s campaigns: In the 1920s and 1930s, Gandhi, leader of the Congress Party,
used non-violent civil disobedience to reduce British power in India. This led to the
Government of India Act (1935), which gave power to provincial governments
controlled by the Congress Party.
EUROPEAN RETREAT FROM EMPIRE AND THE AFTERMATH
5
3. Educated leadership: The leaders of the Indian nationalist movement were mostly
educated, middle-class lawyers. It became easier to organise the vast Indian subcontinent with the spread of the telegraph and telephone, the use of the railway and
the English language.
4. World War II: The Japanese successes in capturing parts of the British Empire/
Commonwealth in Asia showed up the weakness of Britain.
5. The British economy: The British economy was weakened before World War II,
but the war brought Britain to the verge of bankruptcy. It was now dependent on
American loans. The country owed £3 billion by 1945 and money was needed for
reconstruction after the war and to develop the Welfare State.
l The cost of maintaining an army and administration in India was too great.
l The Indian economy was not as important to Britain anymore – British exports
to India had fallen; and British investment in India fell before World War II.
6. Attitude to India: Britain wanted to prevent a civil war in India between Hindus
and Muslims. It also wanted to keep independent India in the Commonwealth.
Britain felt the best way to do these things was to negotiate a withdrawal sooner
than later. It wanted to withdraw peacefully in order to maintain its international
reputation.
7. The Labour Party victory: The Labour Party was committed to Indian
independence, so its victory in the 1945 British general election speeded up British
withdrawal. If Churchill and the Conservative Party had won the election, the
process of withdrawal might have been slowed down because Churchill was very
much opposed to Indian independence.
8. The influence of the US and USSR: Both the United
States and the USSR were opposed to colonialism
(imperialism). The US put pressure on Britain to move
COLONIAL RULE:
towards independence. Britain feared the USSR would
Rule by one country
extend its influence southwards and Britain needed a
over another country.
friendly India to maintain its influence in Asia.
What proposals did Britain make to give India its
independence? (1)
What problems did Britain
1. Wavell’s proposals (1945): Viceroy Wavell
encounter in negotiating
made efforts to get the Congress leaders
withdrawal from India
and the Muslim League to agree to a
between 1945 and 1947?
system for transferring power. He proposed
an Executive Council which would be composed of both Muslims and Hindus.
l There was disagreement about how Muslims on the Council would be chosen.
Jinnah said the Muslim League would nominate them; the Congress Party
wanted to nominate some Muslims. They failed to agree on how the Executive
Council would be chosen.
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2. The new Labour government: The new Labour government, headed by the Prime
Minister, Clement Attlee, was committed to Indian independence. There were also
strong links between the Labour Party and the Congress Party. The government
wanted to hold elections for the provincial councils and to set up a group to work on
a new constitution.
3. 1946 Indian elections: The Congress Party won most of the seats, but the Muslim
League won most of the support in Muslim areas. The election showed that the
demand for a separate country for Muslims – Pakistan – was strong.
4. The Cabinet Mission (1946): Attlee sent a threeperson mission to India to get agreement between
Congress and Muslim League leaders. Its purpose was
to set up the structure which would lead to a transfer
of power and to enable an independent India, as
Attlee said, ‘to attain her freedom as speedily and
fully as possible’.
l The main driving force behind the mission was
Stafford Cripps, whose earlier mission in 1942
had failed.
5. Simla Conference (1946): The Cabinet Mission
brought the Indian leaders together in Simla to
J. Nehru
discuss the Mission’s main proposals:
l A united independent India, based on a federal
government to run foreign affairs and defence
l Provincial governments to run local affairs.
6. Nehru claimed that these proposals would lead to a
Congress-dominated India. Jinnah and the Muslim
League rejected this and withdrew their agreement to
them.
7. The May Statement: The Cabinet Mission failed to get
agreement between the two sides. Instead, it proposed to
create a Constituent Assembly which would draft a
constitution for a new united state.
d Jinnah
l It also proposed to create an Interim Government made Muhamma
up entirely of Indian leaders, with Wavell as governor-general.
8. The failure of the Cabinet Mission to get both sides to agree ended any possibility of
an agreed united India.
What was Direct Action Day and what was its impact?
1. Jinnah and the Muslim League decided that they wanted to show:
l that they were opposed to the Cabinet Mission’s proposals
l their demand for an independent Pakistan was serious.
EUROPEAN RETREAT FROM EMPIRE AND THE AFTERMATH
7
2. They called for a Direct Action Day on 16 August 1946. This was meant to be a
peaceful protest, but it developed into clashes between Muslims and Hindus in
Calcutta.
l Over 4 days, about 6,000 people were killed in the Great Calcutta Killings, most
of them Muslim. These riots and clashes later spread to other parts of India.
3. Effects: These clashes and deaths made a united India more unlikely.
l The communal clashes between Hindus and Muslims continued into the winter
of 1946.
l Wavell warned the British government that India was on the brink of civil war. He
made plans to evacuate British people from India.
What proposals did Britain make to give
India its independence? (2)
1. The Interim government: Wavell appointed an Interim
Government of Indian leaders (September 1946). These
were dominated by the Congress Party since the Muslim
League refused to take part.
l The appointment of an Interim government meant a
huge transfer of power to Indian leaders. For
example, Nehru acted as Prime Minister and dealt
with foreign affairs while Patel controlled home
affairs, including security.
2. Eventually, Jinnah and the Muslim League were
Lord Mo
persuaded to take part in the interim government.
untbatte
n
3. London talks: Attlee invited the Indian
leaders – Nehru, Jinnah and others – to
London for further talks. These talks made no
BRITISH COMMONWEALTH:
progress.
An association of former British
4. Mountbatten, the last Viceroy: Attlee
colonies which work towards
common goals such as democracy
replaced Wavell as Viceroy of India in March
and economic development.
1947.
l He was given the authority to establish a single government for British India and
the princely states, within the British Commonwealth.
l He had to complete the transfer of power no later than June 1948.
What were Mountbatten’s plans to transfer power?
1. Mountbatten consulted with Indian leaders. He developed good relations with
leaders of the Congress Party, but he did not get on well with Jinnah. He soon learnt
from Jinnah that the creation of Pakistan was necessary.
2. Plan Balkan: Mountbatten first proposed the 11 British provinces of India would
each decide whether they wanted to be independent or join a larger grouping of
states. The princely states could also do the same.
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Mountbatten consulted Nehru privately about the Plan before he announced it.
Nehru said it would lead to ‘fragmentation, conflict and disorder’. Plan Balkan
was dropped.
3. The Menon Plan: Mountbatten developed a new plan – the Menon Plan or
Partition Plan – and got the agreement of the British government and the Indian
leaders to it.
l Mountbatten proposed two states, India and Pakistan, with dominion status
within the British Commonwealth.
l Each provincial assembly would decide whether its state would join India or
Pakistan, or remain independent
l The princely states would do the same
l The date for British withdrawal was brought forward from June 1948 to 15
August 1947.
l
What was Gandhi’s role in British withdrawal from India?
1. Before 1945: Gandhi’s campaigns in the 1920s, 1930s and during World War II
helped undermine British rule in India. His methods of non-violent civil
disobedience had weakened British control of the country. The British
government agreed to the Government of India Act (1935), which transferred
local power to the provinces. During the war, Gandhi’s Quit India campaign was
not successful.
How important was
2. 1945 and after – during the process of
Mohandas (Mahatma)
British withdrawal: Gandhi was 76
Gandhi in the movement for
years old in 1945 and had resigned as
Indian independence, 1945–47?
leader of the Congress Party. But his
influence was still strong, so he was consulted by Wavell, Mountbatten and the
leaders of the Congress Party.
3. Gandhi wanted to see a united India with Hindus and Muslims. Other leaders of
the Congress Party realised that if there was no compromise, India would be torn
by civil war.
4. Gandhi tried to stop the violence between Hindus and Muslims. He walked and
lived in the areas of the worst violence (e.g. East Bengal) to try to persuade local
people to stop the fighting. In some areas he was listened to.
5. When the Cabinet Mission consulted him, he said he wanted power to be
transferred to Congress leaders so that they would decide the future of India. He
also proposed that Jinnah form the government with a Hindu majority in the
parliament. Wavell said of him: ‘He is a tough politician and not a saint’.
6. Gandhi was opposed to the Indian Navy Mutiny (1946) – he wanted to ensure
that the Congress Party had control of an independent India.
7. At the Simla Conference (1946), Gandhi said he would stop any moves towards
partition.
EUROPEAN RETREAT FROM EMPIRE AND THE AFTERMATH
9
8. Gandhi ensured that Nehru was elected president of the Congress Party.
9. Gandhi was opposed to the Menon or Partition Plan. He wanted to create unity
between Hindus and Muslims, so he proposed putting Muslims in charge of a
united India. This was rejected by Congress leaders.
10. Independence: Gandhi went on a 24-hour fast when India was declared
independent on 15 August 1947. He continued his campaign to create peace
between Hindus and Muslims. He did a ‘fast to the death’ to stop violence in
Delhi and Calcutta. This worked when local leaders promised to stop the violence.
11. Assassination: Gandhi was shot dead by a Hindu fanatic, Nathuram Godse, who
blamed him for the partition of India and for giving more to Pakistan when the
resources of the country were divided.
12. Influence: Gandhi undermined British rule in India. His methods became the
acceptable methods for demanding Indian independence. Alternative methods
such as fighting and going to war (as proposed by Chandra Bose before and during
World War II) were rejected. Gandhi’s methods led to a democratic India.
What problems did Britain face in transferring power?
1. The Indian Independence
Kashmir
Act was passed in June 1946.
Punjab in India
ir
This laid out the stages of the
Afghanistan
Punjab in Pakistan
shm
Ka
transfer of power.
Lahore Amritsar
b
2. The two countries:
nja
Pu
Provinces with a Congress
West Pakistan
Nepal
New Delhi
East
government formed India,
Karachi
Pakistan
while Muslim majority
Dhaka
I n d i a
provinces formed Pakistan.
Calcutta
Calcutta
Burma
Pakistan was divided
Bombay
Bay of
between West and East
Arabian
Bay
of
Bengal
Pakistan.
Sea
Arabian
Bengal
Sea
3. Bengal and the Punjab:
Madras
These states had large
numbers of Hindus and
Muslims. The states were
Ceylon
divided between India and
Pakistan. East Bengal became
India and Pakistan after independence with the disputed states of
East Pakistan.
Punjab and Kashmir.
4. The border: A boundary
commission, led by Cyril Radcliffe, drew up a border – the Radcliffe Line – which
divided the two countries, including the division of Bengal and the Punjab. It had
to do its work in six weeks. It was very difficult to draw a border through the mixed
populations of the Punjab. Its border here divided villages and valleys.
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5. The princely states: The princely states could choose whether to join India or
Pakistan. Mountbatten persuaded the majority of states to join with India.
6. Assets: All assets – the army, police, civil service, trucks, horses, pens, paper and
many more things – were divided between India and Pakistan on an approximately
80/20 basis.
7. Kashmir: Kashmir was a majority-populated Muslim state with a Hindu prince.
Mountbatten tried to persuade the prince to join with Pakistan. He refused to do
so, but instead joined India when Kashmir was attacked by Muslim groups.
What were the results of British withdrawal from India?
Pakistan and India got their independence on midnight of 14–15 August 1947.
1. The transfer of power: the transfer of power between governments was done
smoothly. Resources were divided by the Partition Council – later Pakistan was
angry because resources which should have been handed over to it were not.
2. Partition: British India was partitioned. The partition avoided a civil war, but
resulted in the massacre of Hindus and Muslims.
3. Massacre: 7 million Muslims and 7 million Hindus moved
between the two countries – Muslims moving to Pakistan,
and Hindus to India. Up to 1 million people were
DECOLONISATION:
massacred, largely in the Punjab.
The process by which
countries (colonies)
4. India: India was the largest country decolonised and it set
an example for other countries, such as the African colonies. become independent
of a colonial power.
l Nehru as leader of the Congress Party created a modern,
industrialised and secular society.
l India made an important contribution to English as a world language and to
post-colonial literature, e.g. Salman Rushdie, Arundhati Roy
5. Pakistan: Jinnah became governor-general of Pakistan, but died shortly after the
country got its independence. It began as a democratic country, but later military
governments took over.
l East Pakistan broke away from West Pakistan in a civil war in 1971 and called
itself Bangladesh.
6. The Commonwealth: India and Pakistan were republics, but they remained within
the Commonwealth. They recognised the king of England as symbolic head of the
Commonwealth, but not as head of state.
Was partition inevitable?
1. Hindus and Muslims: Relations between Hindus and Muslims worsened so much
during the 20th century that by the end of World War II it was impossible to bring
them together. By then, Muslims believed that they would suffer in a Hindumajority state.
EUROPEAN RETREAT FROM EMPIRE AND THE AFTERMATH
2. Gandhi: Gandhi wanted a united India and peace between Hindus and Muslims.
But actions which he and the Congress Party took often widened the gap between
Hindus and Muslims.
3. Spread of violence: There was constant local violence between Hindus and
Muslims. This was increased by the effects of the Direct Action Day. After this,
violence spread through different parts of India where Hindus and Muslims
clashed.
4. Mountbatten’s plan: Mountbatten was sent to India to transfer power to a united
India. But very soon he realised he would have to accommodate the Muslim
minority. He hoped that his partition plan would give Muslims a separate country
and would prevent civil war. But the movement of people and the resulting
massacres before and after independence showed how deeply divided Hindus and
Muslims were.
Could violence have been prevented or lessened?
l
l
l
l
l
Relations between Hindus and Muslims worsened in the early 20th century.
The Muslim League’s Direct Action Day worsened the situation.
Violence became more widespread after this and continued after partition.
There were many extremist groups on both sides who wanted to increase the
violence.
The British army was small and Attlee refused to strengthen it, so it was not
strong enough to control the violence. After independence, Attlee said the army
was barred from intervening, and Nehru did not want the British army involved
in peace-keeping duties.
Relations between Hindus and Muslims in modern India continued to worsen.
How did relations between Britain and India develop after
independence?
1. Relations between Britain and India were influenced by
l Membership of the Commonwealth
l The development of the Non-Aligned Movement
2. India remained a dominion of the British Commonwealth until it agreed its own
constitution and a republic was declared in 1950.
3. From 1947 to 1950, Mountbatten was governor-general of India, representing the
king of England as head of state.
4. When India became a republic, it remained in the Commonwealth. It recognised
the king of England as head of the Commonwealth, not head of state. This meant
the Commonwealth could include future republics as other states in Asia and
Africa became independent.
5. India’s membership changed the Commonwealth in another way. Prior to this, the
Commonwealth was largely composed of states set up by white settlers (e.g. Canada,
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South Africa and Australia). Now the Commonwealth became multiracial.
6. India’s membership changed the balance of power in the Commonwealth as
Britain’s power and influence was reduced.
7. India’s relationship with Britain was helped by Commonwealth Preference (dutyfree access to the British market) and the Sterling Area (the value of the Indian
currency was tied to the pound sterling).
8. The relationship was also maintained by immigration from India to Britain in the
1940s and 1950s, the English language and cricket.
9. Relations between India and Britain were strained by Nehru’s development of an
independent foreign policy. He did not want to join either side of the Cold War.
Instead, India promoted a policy of non-alignment and became a founder of the
Non-Aligned Movement.
10. India took a different position from Britain on certain issues – e.g. India backed
Communist China to get a seat in the Security Council of the United Nations.
11. Nehru organised the Bandung Afro-Asian Conference in 1955. The conference
denounced colonialism and criticised the Cold War. Nehru criticised the British
for the part they played in the Suez Crisis in 1956, looking on it as an extension of
British imperialism.
12. Nehru had to get significant help from Britain and the United States when the
Sino-Indian border war was fought in October 1962.
How did relations between Britain and Pakistan develop after
independence?
1. Pakistan remained a dominion of the British Commonwealth until it became a
republic in 1956. It recognised the king of England as head of state. Pakistan’s first
governor-general was Muhammad Jinnah.
2. Pakistan developed a close relationship with Britain. Pakistan needed British and
western support because it was facing a much stronger neighbour – India.
3. Britain needed Pakistan to block Soviet Union movement southwards.
4. Pakistan was drawn into the Cold War. It formed SEATO (South-east Asia Treaty
Organisation) along with Britain, the United States and other countries to combat
the spread of communism.
5. Pakistan also was part of CENTO (Central Treaty Organisation) with Britain and
Middle Eastern countries to contain the spread of communism.
6. Relations with Britain disimproved because it felt that Britain favoured India in
disagreements between Pakistan and India.
7. Pakistan left the Commonwealth in 1972 because Britain and other
Commonwealth countries recognised East Pakistan as Bangladesh after a civil war
between the two separate parts of Pakistan.
8. Pakistan did not re-enter the Commonwealth until 1989.
EUROPEAN RETREAT FROM EMPIRE AND THE AFTERMATH
Key personality
Mohandas (Mahatma) Gandhi –
Summary
l Main inspiration for the movement for
Indian independence.
l Used the methods of non-violence to
encourage resistance to British rule.
l Leader of the Indian Congress Party in
the 1920s and 1930s, but handed over
leadership to Nehru, who led the Congress
Party during negotiations for British withdrawal.
l Gandhi was 77 years old by the end of World War II, so he did not play a direct role
in negotiations with the British, led by Lord Mountbatten.
l Gandhi wanted a united India with Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs – opposed to a
separate Muslim state.
l Gandhi was originally opposed to Mountbatten’s partition plan.
l He tried to stop the racial violence between Hindus and Muslims.
l He persuaded the Congress Party to hand over £40 million due to Pakistan after
independence.
l He was assassinated in January 1948 by a Hindu fanatic, Godse, who blamed
Gandhi for the partition of India.
Key concepts
Colonial rule: Rule by one country over another country.
Decolonisation: The process by which countries (colonies) become independent of a
colonial power.
British Commonwealth: An association of former British colonies which work
towards common goals such as democracy and economic development.
Past exam questions on British Withdrawal from
India, 1945–47
Higher level
2013 –
2012 – (DBQ Case study) What were the difficulties associated with British
withdrawal from India?
2011 –
13
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2010 – Did British withdrawal help or hinder India? Give reasons for your answer.
2009 – What were the aims and achievements of Mohandas Gandhi?
2008 – What were the difficulties associated with the British withdrawal from India,
1945–47?
2007 –
2006 –
Ordinary level
2013
2012
2011
2010
2009
2008
2007
2006
–
– (DBQ – Case study) For what reasons did the British partition India in 1947?
–
– How important was Mohandas Gandhi in the movement for Indian
independence?
– Did British withdrawal help or hinder India, 1945–47? Argue your case.
– What problems did Britain encounter in negotiating withdrawal from India
between 1945 and 1947?
– How important was Mohandas Gandhi in the movement for Indian
independence?
– What problems faced the British government in deciding to withdraw from
India in 1947?
Contextualising the British withdrawal from India, 1945–47
British withdrawal
from India, 1945–47
Implications of
World War II for
British role in India
Immigration
patterns and
policies in Britain
Key personality
Mohandas (Mahatma)
Gandhi
Key concepts
Colonial rule
Decolonisation
British
Commonwealth
Politics and
administration
Decolonisation in
Asia – independence
struggles and the
reaction of the
European powers
English as a world
language
Post-independence
relations with the
colonial power
Post-colonial
literature
EUROPEAN RETREAT FROM EMPIRE AND THE AFTERMATH
15
2. Case study: The secession of Katanga, 1960–63
After studying this section, you should understand:
l Why Katanga broke away (seceded) from the Congo
l The efforts made by Lumumba and the Congolese government to end
the secession
l The reasons why Katanga was able to resist
l The role of the United Nations in the secession of Katanga
l The influence of the Cold War on the secession
l The impact of the secession of Katanga
l The role of Joseph Mobutu during and after the secession (See pp.
23–24)
How and why did Belgium give
independence to the Congo?
COLONIAL RULE:
1. Since the 19th century, the Congo was ruled by King
Rule by one country
Leopold II of Belgium or the Belgian government.
over another country.
2. Belgium exploited the Congo Free
State for its mineral resources – its
copper, diamonds and uranium.
3. The Belgians did not give the
Congolese any rights, and they did
not want to develop an educated
middle class who would want to
change the country.
4. A nationalist movement grew in
the 1950s. One of its leaders was
Patrice Lumumba.
5. There was widespread trouble in
1959, especially in Leopoldville, the
Patrice Lumumba
capital, and Belgium was forced
to negotiate with Congolese
leaders at the Round Table
DECOLONISATION:
Conference in Brussels .
TRANSNATIONAL
The process by which
ECONOMY:
6. The Belgians wanted a gradual
countries (colonies)
An economy which
transfer of power over four years;
become independent
joins several
the Congolese leaders wanted
of a colonial power.
countries together.
immediate independence.
Belgium gave in and the Congo got its independence as the Democratic Republic
of the Congo on 30 June 1960.
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Area of Katanga
succession, 1960–63
Railways
ORIENTALE
State borders
Diamonds
Stanleyville
EQUATEUR
Gold
Uganda
Tin
Manganese
KIVU
Coal
Ruanda
Burundi
LÉOPOLDVILLE
Albertville
ny
ik
a
Zinc
KASAI
ga
Léopoldville
Ta
n
Copper
Cobalt
Uranium
KATANGA
Iron ore
Atlantic
Ocean
Angola
(Portuguese colony)
Elizabethville
Northern Rhodesia
(Zambia 1964)
The provinces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, including the mineral-rich Katanga and Kasai.
What difficulties did the Congo face after independence?
Congo
Facts
Size: 2.3 million sq. kms (about ¼
size of the United States)
Capital: Léopoldville (Kinshasa)
Katanga
Size: 0.5 million sq. kms
Capital: Elizabethville
(Lubumbashi)
Direct distance from Léopoldville to Elizabethville: 1,000 miles/1,500 kms approx.
1. The Congolese President was Joseph Kasavubu
and the Prime Minister was Patrice Lumumba.
2. Elections were held which showed how divided
the country was. Many political parties gained
support in different tribal areas. In the province of
Katanga, for example, Moise Tshombe’s
CONAKAT party won.
3. The government itself was headed by Lumumba
with the support of twelve different parties.
4. Army mutiny: There was a rebellion in the
Congolese army as native soldiers rebelled against
their white Belgian officers and attacked white
civilians.
ombe
5. The Belgian government flew in thousands of troops
Moise Tsh
to protect white civilians.
6. Lumumba declared that Belgium was at war with the Congo.
7. Shortly after this, the province of Katanga rebelled and Moise Tshombe declared its
independence on 11 July 1960.
EUROPEAN RETREAT FROM EMPIRE AND THE AFTERMATH
17
Why did Katanga secede (break away) from the Congo?
1. On 11 July 1960, Moise Tshombe announced
Why did Katanga break
that Katanga was seceding from the Republic
away from the Congo, and
of the Congo, which was led by President
how did it affect relations
Kasavubu and Prime Minister Patrice
between the two states?
Lumumba.
2. Katanga was influenced by the spread of independence in many African countries.
Most British colonies in Africa got their independence between 1957 and 1964,
especially after Macmillan’s ‘wind of change’ speech. French colonies also had a
choice of becoming independent after de Gaulle’s speech in Brazzaville in 1958. As
far as Katanga was concerned, if the Congo could get its independence from
Belgium, then Katanga could gain its independence from the Congo.
3. Initially, Tshombe and his CONAKAT party favoured a federal government
structure in the Congo. Katanga had been developed differently under Belgian rule;
it was populated by the Lunda tribe, and it was distant from Léopoldville. Tshombe
put forward these ideas in the negotiations for independence at the Round Table
Conference in Brussels. He believed that this would give more power to the
provinces, including Katanga. But Tshombe and other parties did not succeed.
Instead, Lumumba wanted a strong central government and this is what was
established.
4. Tshombe was encouraged to make Katanga independent by the Belgian
government and the Belgian mining company, Union Minière. Katanga was rich in
minerals such as copper, diamonds, cobalt and tin. Their production was controlled
by Union Minière, which made very large profits. Belgium also benefited through
increased trade. Both the country and the company wanted to protect their
investments there. They feared the spread of the chaos caused by the mutiny of
soldiers of the Congolese army. Consequently, the Congolese army was expelled by
local units helped by Belgian troops.
5. Tshombe and Katanga also feared the rule of Lumumba. He was regarded as a
socialist and a communist and some feared he would establish another Cuba. This
could lead to the government takeover of the rich mines in Katanga. Katanga would
lose all the taxes it got from mining and the company would lose its profits.
Lumumba was not strong enough to prevent the secession. His army had mutinied,
Belgian troops came in to restore order and there were no United Nations troops in
the country when Katanga seceded. At any rate, UN troops could do nothing since
their mandate said they could not interfere in the internal affairs of a country.
6. Tshombe and Katanga were in a strong position to resist the Congolese
government. They could use taxes from the mining companies to pay for Belgian
officers and mercenaries who organised and trained the Katangan gendarmerie. The
secession lasted almost two and a half years, until the United Nations forces moved
from peacekeeping to peace enforcement and took over Katanga, bringing it back
into the Congo.
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How was Katanga ruled during its secession?
1. Katanga was ruled from its capital, Elizabethville.
2. Tshombe got the help of Belgians to run the province and the mines. The mines
paid taxes directly to Tshombe’s government.
3. Belgian officers trained the Katangan army and Tshombe recruited mercenaries to
strengthen his army. He was also able to buy supplies and aircraft from Belgium,
South Africa and Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe).
What efforts did the Congo make to
end the secession of Katanga?
TRIBALISM:
1. When Tshombe declared the secession, Lumumba
A strong feeling of loyalty
called on the Belgian army to withdraw. They
to a tribe; actions shaped or
refused to do so.
influenced by tribal culture.
2. Lumumba got support from other African
countries, such as Ghana, which were part of the non-aligned movement. But they
could do little.
3. Lumumba’s position was weakened because the Congolese army was controlled by
Mobutu, who favoured the United States.
4. Lumumba also called on the United Nations for help. The UN, led by SecretaryGeneral Dag Hammarskjöld, agreed to send military help to the Congo provided it
could only be used in self-defence. It was meant to establish law and order.
5. UN troops landed in Léopoldville, the capital of the Congo.
6. Lumumba wanted the UN forces to move against Katanga, but the UN said it could
not get involved in an internal conflict. The UN followed a policy of peacekeeping
rather than peace enforcing.
7. Lumumba asked the Soviet Union for help. He wanted transport planes, trucks and
weapons to move against Katanga (and another breakaway province, Kasai).
8. By the early 1960s, the Cold War was at its height as tension grew between the
United States and the Soviet Union.
9. Soviet help arrived, which worried the Americans because the Soviet Union could
use the Congo as a base to extend its influence to other countries in central Africa.
The US feared that the Congo was ‘a Cuba in the making’.
10. The United States was also interested in uranium for nuclear power and cobalt for
its space programme, as well as the other mineral wealth.
11. The United States planned to kill Lumumba. Belgium was also planning to do this,
separately.
The influence of the Cold War
l
l
l
The Cold War was a period of tension between the United States and the
USSR (Soviet Union), which lasted from 1945 to 1990.
The USSR saw an opportunity of using the Congo to gain influence in central
Africa.
The United States feared this and wanted to protect the mineral wealth for
the West.
EUROPEAN RETREAT FROM EMPIRE AND THE AFTERMATH
19
Congo crisis and the secession of Katanga, 1960-63
Pre-1960
l
Belgium took Congo in 19th century
1960
l
Independence for Democratic Republic of the Congo
Lumumba as Prime Minister
Revolt of troops of Congolese army
Secession of Katanga, led by Moise Tshombe
Lumumba asked for UN intervention
Lumumba ousted, Mobutu took control temporarily; Lumumba arrested,
handed over to Katangan troops
l
l
l
l
l
1961
l
Death of Lumumba
1962
l
l
UN attacks Katanga
Hammarskjöld in plane crash
1963
l
UN capture of Katangan capital, end of secession of Katanga
1964
l
Tshombe Prime Minister of the Congo
1965 and after
l
Mobutu set up one-party state in the Congo
Why was the Congo not able to end the secession?
1. The government of the Congo was split between Kasavubu and Lumumba, who were
opposed to each other. As well as this, the Congolese army was controlled by Mobutu.
2. The country was split into four different power groups, so the government had many
problems to deal with.
l The central government in Léopoldville
l Tshombe’s government in Katanga
l Supporters of Lumumba in Stanleyville
l The Province of Kasai
3. The country also was very large – the distance from Léopoldville to Elizabethville
was about 1,500 kilometres.
4. Katanga was able to buy military equipment and it had the support of Belgium and
other countries.
Assassination: What happened to Lumumba?
1. President Kasavubu dismissed Lumumba, who had the backing of the parliament.
2. Mobutu intervened and led an army takeover. He ordered Soviet personnel out of
the Congo.
3. Lumumba left Léopoldville for Stanleyville, which was the centre of his support. He
was captured by Mobutu’s troops and handed over to Tshombe’s forces in Katanga.
4. After being beaten and tortured, Lumumba and two colleagues were shot in the
countryside. The firing squads were led by a Belgian officer. The decision to execute
him was taken by Tshombe, who was present, with the support of Belgium ( January
1961).
5. The news of Lumumba’s death was kept quiet for three weeks.
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What was the impact of Lumumba’s death on the secession of
Katanga?
1. When news of Lumumba’s death was announced, many people around the world
were shocked, and Katanga lost support.
2. His death got rid of a strong opponent of Katangan independence and supporter of
unitary government.
3. He was a supporter of the USSR – so Soviet influence was lessened.
4. The US role was strengthened. The US was opposed to Katangan secession and it
wanted a unitary state.
5. The US wanted to extend its influence in Africa and many African states supported
Congo over Katanga.
6. The US influenced the United Nations to become more aggressive towards Katanga;
resolutions were passed in the UN authorising the use of force against Katanga.
What efforts did the United Nations make to end the
secession of Katanga?
1. Change in UN policy? UN policy changed from one of peacekeeping to peace
enforcing. It now became more active in attempting to end the secession of
Katanga.
2. Why was there a change in UN policy?
l The death of Lumumba shocked many people. Katanga was blamed for his death.
l US policy changed. A new president, Kennedy, took a definite line on the Congo
– he wanted one state, with Katanga back under the Congo’s control. He would
use the UN operations to achieve this goal and he
How and why was
knew that once Lumumba was gone, the chief-ofthe succession of
staff of the Congolese army, Mobutu, would
Katanga ended?
favour the West. The US was interested Katanga’s
uranium for nuclear power and cobalt for its space programme, as well as the
other mineral wealth.
3. In Resolution 161 (February 1961), the UN authorised the use of force if necessary
to prevent civil war in the Congo
4. As a result, Conor Cruise O’Brien, Hammarskjöld’s representative in Katanga,
organised Operation Rumpunch in August 1961. This was a UN action to round
up mercenary soldiers in Katanga, but it failed.
5. The second UN operation to round up mercenary soldiers in Katanga was
Operation Morthor (September 1961). During the operation, the UN
representative, O’Brien, claimed that Katanga’s secession was at an end. In addition,
the central government of the Congo issued arrest warrants for Moise Tshombe,
which the UN troops were authorised to execute. But the UN operation failed and
Tshombe fled to Rhodesia.
EUROPEAN RETREAT FROM EMPIRE AND THE AFTERMATH
21
6. Hammarskjöld arranged to meet with Tshombe in Rhodesia, but he died on his way
there in a plane crash.
7. By November 1961, in a further resolution (Resolution 169), the UN deplored the
secessionist activities of Katanga and rejected its claim of being an independent
state. It agreed to use force if necessary to end the secession of Katanga. In
December 1961 Operation Unokat was undertaken – a further UN action against
Katanga, which resulted in unity talks with Tshombe that lasted for a year without
reaching an agreement.
8. Finally, in December 1962, UN forces launched Operation Grand Slam. Within a
month, they had captured Elizabethville and Tshombe’s position had collapsed. In
January 1963, he agreed to end the secession.
9. According to the UN, ‘The United Nations Operation in the Congo (ONUC),
which took place in the Republic of the Congo from July 1960 until June 1964,
marked a milestone in the history of United Nations peacekeeping in terms of the
responsibilities it had to assume, the size of its area of operation and the manpower
involved. It included, in addition to a peacekeeping force which comprised at its
peak strength nearly 20,000 officers and men, an important Civilian Operations
component.’ About 30 countries, including Ireland, contributed soldiers for
operations in the Congo.
10. 250 UN personnel were killed on duty in the Congo between 1960 and 1964.
What was the impact of the secession of Katanga?
1. The secession of Katanga, and rebellions in
l Why did Katanga secede
other parts of the Congo, threatened to
from the Congo and what
break up the country.
were the results of that
secession, 1960–63?
2. The defeat of Katanga and the coming to
l
What
impact
did the secession of
power of Mobutu created a unified state.
Katanga have on the Congo?
3. The death of Lumumba ended a danger to
United States and Belgian influence in the area. It also ended Soviet influence there.
l
l
l
Summary: To what extent did Mobutu owe his rise to power
to the secession of Katanga?
Background: Mobutu – soldier, journalist; personal aide to Patrice Lumumba;
member of National Congolese Movement led by Lumumba; present at Round
table Conference in Brussels on negotiation of Congo’s independence; appointed
chief-of-staff of Congolese army by Lumumba after army mutiny.
Secession of Katanga caused huge problems for Lumumba; called on UN help but
criticised UN later; then got Soviet help; caused Cold War tensions.
Mobutu ended Congolese army mutiny; imposed his control over the army;
supported by the USA who saw him as defence against the spread of communism
in the Congo and Central Africa.
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l
l
l
l
Instability in the government of the Congo – President Kasavubu opposed to
Lumumba; Mobutu encouraged by the USA to take action; dismissed both and
installed a commission; later brought back Kasavubu.
Lumumba captured and handed over to Tshombe in Katanga – here he was
assassinated; the main threat to power of Mobutu was eliminated.
Secession of Katanga ended but there still was unrest in the Congo. In 1965
Mobutu decided to take over again, this time as President; he used Cold War
tensions to ensure he got US backing and economic support; he maintained a
united Congo.
Mobutu also owed his rise to power to his own personality – he was pragmatic,
hardworking, courageous, able speaker, personal charisma; he was in power for
the next 32 years.
What role did Mobutu play during the secession of Katanga?
1. After the independence of the Congo was declared in June 1960, Mobutu became
the head of the army.
2. When Kasavubu dismissed Lumumba in September 1960, Mobutu intervened
and took over the government in a coup.
3. Mobutu had links with the CIA, which encouraged him to take over in order to
limit Lumumba’s influence and to prevent the spread of communism.
4. He set up an interim government, which replaced parliament for six months.
After that, Mobutu supported a series of weak civilian governments over the next
four years up to 1965.
5. Mobutu’s troops captured Lumumba and handed him over to Katanga. This
resulted in Lumumba’s death.
6. The United States rewarded Mobutu for his loyalty when he visited America in
1963 and met President Kennedy.
What role did Mobutu play after the secession of Katanga?
1. Mobutu was head of the Congolese army, which favoured the establishment of a
single state.
l Mobutu defeated other uprisings in the east of the country in 1964.
2. In 1965 he organised another military takeover (or coup) of the Congo. He
established a military dictatorship, with himself as president, which held power
until 1996.
3. He was supported by the United States and Belgium, as well as by most local
leaders, who wanted an end to the conflict which had destroyed the country over
the previous five years.
4. Mobutu set up his own political party, the Popular Movement for the Revolution
(MPR), which ran a one-party state.
EUROPEAN RETREAT FROM EMPIRE AND THE AFTERMATH
He encouraged the growth of a personality cult (worship of the leader) with
large posters of himself and titles such as the Father of the Nation.
5. He began a programme of economic development.
l Foreign-owned businesses were transferred to local ownership.
l Mobutu nationalised Union Minière, which controlled most of the mining. He
benefited from higher prices for copper until the mid-1970s.
l The process of industrialisation and nationalisation resulted in huge levels of
corruption. Mobutu installed family and tribal supporters in key positions
without any regard to their ability.
6. He also began an ‘Africanisation’ process in the early 1970s.
l He renamed the country ‘Zaire’, and changed the names of cities and towns to
African names (e.g. Léopoldville became Kinshasa and Elizabethville became
Lubumbashi).
l He changed his own name to Sese Seko.
7. Mobutu rebuilt relations with Belgium, going on a visit there in 1969. This
resulted in financial and technical agreements, and a return visit by the king of
Belgium to the Congo.
8. Very soon economic crises hit Zaire:
l First, Mobutu’s takeover of local business frightened off foreign investors.
l Then copper prices fell and oil and grain prices increased. Inflation increased,
there were fuel shortages and debts grew quickly.
l By the end of the 1980s, the Congo was ‘a rotting carcass’, its economy virtually
in ruins.
9. Mobutu retained the support of the United States while the Cold War was in
progress until 1990. When the Cold War ended, the US did not need Mobutu as
much as before. Pressure from the US, bad economic conditions in Zaire and
protests against him forced Mobutu to allow other political parties to be active.
He was overthrown in a revolt in 1997 and lived the rest of his life in exile.
10. Mobutu’s main legacy was a poor and unstable country; he was an example of
corruption and greed which destroyed the hope of independence.
l
Key personality
Mobutu Sese Seko – Summary
l He was a soldier in the Belgian Congolese Army, and later a journalist.
l He served as assistant to Patrice Lumumba, leader of the National Congolese
Movement.
l Lumumba appointed Mobutu chief-of-staff of the Congolese army after Congo
got its independence from Belgium.
23
24
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
l
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Mobutu took power after Lumumba as Prime
Minister and Kasavubu as President disagreed.
Mobutu was backed by the CIA; his soldiers
captured Lumumba and sent him to the breakaway
province of Katanga; here Lumumba was killed.
After the secession (break away) of Katanga ended,
the Congo was still divided; Mobutu took over
power in 1965 and set up a military dictatorship.
He crushed opposition and was elected President on a
number of occasions.
He promoted the Africanisation of the Congo by
changing its name to Zaire and promoting African
culture.
He nationalised foreign-owned companies.
He appointed relations to key positions and there was a great deal of corruption.
He was supported by the US as a barrier to the spread of communism (Soviet
power) in Africa.
He eventually fell from power after the Cold War ended and economic conditions
worsened in his country.
Contextualising the secession of Katanga, 1960–63
The secession of
Katanga, 1960–63
Mobutu’s rule
Key personality
Society and Economy
Mobutu Sese Seko
Economic
consequences of
decolonisation
Africa – winds of
change
Key concepts
Colonial rule
Decolonisation in
Africa
Decolonisation
Transnational economy
The Belgian Congo
Tribalism
Post-independence
relations with the
colonial power
EUROPEAN RETREAT FROM EMPIRE AND THE AFTERMATH
25
Key concepts
Colonial rule: Rule by one country over another country.
Decolonisation: The process by which countries (colonies) become independent of a
colonial power.
Transnational economy: An economy which joins several countries together.
Tribalism: A strong feeling of loyalty to a tribe; actions shaped or influenced by tribal
culture.
Past exam questions on The Secession of
Katanga, 1960–63
Higher level
2013 – (DBQ Case study) Why did Katanga secede from the Congo, and why did
the secession bring about international involvement?
2012 –
2011 – Why did Katanga break away from the Congo and how did the crisis that
followed develop an international dimension?
2010 –
2009 –
2008 – What problems and opportunities did independence present to former
colonies in Africa?
2007 – Why did Katanga break away from the Congo, and how did it affect relations
between the two states?
2006 – Why did Katanga secede from the Congo and what were the results of that
secession, 1960–63?
Ordinary level
2013 – Why did Katanga break away from the Congo and how did outsiders become
involved in the crisis that followed?
2012 –
2011 – Why did Katanga seek to break from the Congo, 1960–1965, and how did
outside interests become involved?
2010 – What impact did the secession of Katanga have on the Congo?
2009 – Why did Katanga seek to break away from the Congo during the early 1960s?
2008 – Why did Katanga break away from the Congo during the period, 1960–65,
and how did this secession affect the Congo?
2007 – What impact did the secession of Katanga have on the Congo?
2006 – Why did the province of Katanga break away from the Congo and what
economic effects had this on the region?
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3. Case study: Race relations in France in the
1980s
After studying this section, you should understand:
l Why race relations worsened in France in the 1980s
l What government policy was in relation to integration, assimilation
and immigration
l How political parties reacted to the issue of race relations
l The impact of the Headscarf Affair
l What happened in the city of Dreux
l How anti-racist organisations tried to combat racism
Why did immigrants come to France?
1. After the Second World War, France experienced
migration flows.
CULTURAL DIVERSITY:
l The French population fell due to two world wars
A number of different
and a falling birth rate.
cultures (ways of life)
l Workers were needed for post-war reconstruction
in one country.
and the economic boom which
The Glorious Thirty (Les trente
followed it (the Glorious Thirty)
glorieuses) refers to the years
up to the early 1970s.
1945 to 1975, when the French
2. Most migrants came for economic
economy prospered.
reasons – for jobs and a better standard
of living. Some came for political reasons, such as the Portuguese who lived under a
dictator and could be conscripted to fight in colonial wars in Africa.
What immigrants came to
France?
1. Most of the early post-war
immigration came from Italy,
Spain and Portugal to fill vacant
jobs.
2. Later, French migrants came
largely from Africa, especially
the Maghreb.
Why immigrants came to France
Push factors
Pull factors
Poverty
Jobs
Population growth
Higher standard of living
Disturbances
City living
Educational opportunities
The Maghreb refers to the five north
African countries of Morocco, Algeria,
Tunisia, Libya and Mauritania. French
Maghrebi immigrants came from
Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia.
EUROPEAN RETREAT FROM EMPIRE AND THE AFTERMATH
Cultural diversity in multi-racial
France
27
Foreigners as a percentage (%) of
total population of France, 1936–90
1936
5.3
}
1. Immigration added to cultural diversity in
1946
4.4
France.
Below average
1954
4.1
l Immigration from North and West
Africa and Asia introduced people with 1962
4.7
a different skin colour and most often a 1968
5.3
different religion, Islam.
1975
6.5
l Many of the new immigrants lived in
Above average
1982
6.8
cities.
1990
6.4
2. The French republican policy of
assimilating and integrating the different Average percentage of foreigners in
cultures aimed to lessen cultural diversity France between 1936 and 1990 = 5.4%
in France.
Main nationalities in
3. The French government used education to initiate
France’s foreign
people into the common culture.
population in 1990
4. The road and rail network, and the influence of
Portuguese
649,714
television and radio, created a more unified country
Algerian
614,207
and served to lessen cultural differences.
Moroccan
572,652
5. Some argued that it was the refusal of France to
recognise cultural differences which led to the
Italian
252,759
Headscarf Affair in 1989.
}
What factors influenced race relations in
France in the 1980s?
Spanish
216,047
Tunisian
206,336
During the 1980s, race relations became an important and controversial topic in
France. This was due to a number of factors:
l Changes in the pattern of immigration in the previous decade
l Worsening economic conditions
l Housing and social conditions in working-class areas in French cities
l The rise of the National Front
l Government policies
How did the pattern of immigration change in France?
The main changes in the pattern of
immigration were:
l The increasing proportion of
immigrants from North and West
Africa – these were culturally and
racially different – they were ‘visible
racial minorities’, as one historian
wrote; they were ‘Arab’ and Muslim.
How did race relations become
a major issue in France in the
period, 1945–90?
To what extent did race become a
major issue in France?
How did France become a multi-racial
society and what problems in race
relations developed in the 1980s?
l
l
l
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l
l
The resettlement of families rather than individual working men.
The movement of those families into wider society, attending schools and living in
mixed housing projects.
What other factors influenced race relations in France in the
1980s?
1. The French economy worsened after the two oil crises of the 1970s.
l Unemployment rose to 10 per cent.
l There was more serious unemployment amongst unskilled, largely immigrant,
workers.
2. Housing and social conditions – immigrants lived in poor housing conditions.
l These were usually large blocks of apartments with inadequate social facilities –
les bainlieues. Immigrants in those apartment blocks had higher illiteracy rates,
less prospect of employment and higher school drop-out rates.
How did race relations worsen in the 1980s?
1. During the 1980s examples of racial conflict became more common:
l There were increased attacks on immigrants:
– attacks on Jews (anti-Semitism)
– North Africans (Maghrebis) were attacked and killed
– there was job and housing discrimination
RACISM:
– there was burning of immigrant hostels and mosques
The belief that
– more police identity checks
people’s
– more racial graffiti
characteristics are
– there was also burning of cars by immigrant youths.
influenced by their
race and that some
l The leader of the National Front, Le Pen, made antiraces are superior
Semitic comments on television in 1990.
to other races.
2. French public opinion turned against immigrants.
l In 1973–74, most French people felt immigrants were doing useful jobs.
l In the 1980s they said sending immigrants home would solve the unemployment
problem in France.
Race relations and politics: How did the French National Front
benefit from worsening race relations in the 1980s?
1. The National Front increased its vote during the 1980s
largely due to its exploitation of the immigration issue.
l The National Front benefited from and contributed to
worsening race relations in France.
2. The National Front was formed in 1972 by Jean-Marie Le
Pen, but in the 1981 elections, its candidates only got 0.2
per cent of the vote.
ETHNIC POLITICS:
Political behaviour
influenced by ethnic
(racial) differences.
EUROPEAN RETREAT FROM EMPIRE AND THE AFTERMATH
29
Its success began in 1983 in Dreux, a small city in France,
west of Paris. Here it achieved 17 per cent in the first
round of elections. In the second round, the other main
parties of the Right joined with the National Front to
defeat the Socialists.
l In 1984 the National Front won 12 per cent in the
European elections.
l In 1986 it elected 35 deputies to the National Assembly.
l In 1989 it won 61 per cent of the vote in the second
round voting in a by-election in Dreux.
3. The National Front said that:
l immigrants should go back to their own countries
Jean-Ma
rie Le Pe
l immigrants were a threat to French national identity –
n
their slogan was ‘France for the French’
l social welfare benefits should be given only to genuine French people – this was
called ‘National Preference’, ‘French first’
l all France’s problems – crime, unemployment, the housing crisis – were caused by
immigration.
4. The National Front’s propaganda was effective – they made immigration a key issue
in French elections during the 1980s and afterwards.
l
Race relations in France in the 1980s
1970s
l Oil Crisis
l Zero Immigration policy
1980
l Bombing of synagogue in Paris
l Communist mayor orders demolition of African workers’ hostel
1981
l Mitterand elected President
1982
1983
l Increased vote for French National Front in Dreux
l March against Racism
1984
l SOS-Racisme founded
1985
1986
l Chirac’s victory in general election – promises tougher immigration laws
1987
1988
1989
l Headscarf Affair
l National Front victory in Dreux by-election
1990
l Le Pen anti-Semitic remarks on TV
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LESS STRESS MORE SUCCESS HISTORY FOR
What were government policies
on integration and assimilation?
What problems and
opportunities did cultural
diversity present to French
society between 1960 and 1990?
1. The French looked on themselves as a
unified nation. French nationality was used to unite the people of France so cultural
differences were avoided. The French republican ideal held that all citizens were
free, equal and bound by the laws of the state.
l They expected immigrants to integrate into French society (adopt the ways and
lifestyles of the French).
2. They believed that the job of the state school system
was to ensure that the republican ideal was taught.
IDENTITY:
3. The French were opposed to multiculturalism,
What makes a person or
which would recognise all cultures. They saw it as
people who they are,
divisive to French society.
e.g. national identity;
4. By the 1980s some French people felt that it was less
the feeling of being part
likely that immigrants could be integrated into
of a group or nation.
French society.
l This mostly centred on Islam, which
many saw as differing so much from
the French way of life that it would
INTEGRATION:
not be possible to integrate it.
People fitting into
ASSIMILATION:
another society by
5. These attitudes differed from what
When people from
changing their
immigrants felt themselves. Threeone culture take in
way of life.
quarters of second-generation Muslims
or become part of
said they identified more closely with the lifestyle and culture another culture.
of the French than with that of their own parents.
6. These different viewpoints showed the wide gap in opinion in France.
What were government policies on immigration?
1. The success of the National Front forced the main political parties to change their views.
2. President François Mitterrand had to drop his idea of giving voting rights to
immigrants in local elections because of rising tensions about immigrants.
3. Mitterrand and the Socialists imposed stricter laws on immigrants:
l more illegal immigrants were expelled
l it was more difficult for families to be reunited.
4. Immigration became a key issue in the 1986 general election. A right-wing government
led by the Prime Minister, Jacques Chirac, brought in tougher immigration laws.
l They also made political alliances with the National Front to win local elections.
l They proposed a new nationality law, which said children born in France to
foreign parents could no longer automatically become French citizens at 18. This
law was eventually passed in 1993.
EUROPEAN RETREAT FROM EMPIRE AND THE AFTERMATH
31
What happened in the city of Dreux?
1. Dreux is a small city in France, about 60 miles west of Paris. It grew from being a large
town in 1954 (17,000 people) to a small industrial city by 1975 (33,000 people).
2. Dreux experienced changes similar to other cities in France.
3. Industrial change: Older traditional industries,
such as shoe manufacturing, declined and
new industries came to Dreux. These new
industries depended on unskilled immigrant
labour from Italy, Spain, Portugal, Morocco What happened in the city of Dreux
can be used as an example of how
and Algeria.
race relations and immigration
4. Poorly laid-out public housing schemes were became issues in France.
built on the edge of the city. ‘Dreux’s chaotic
Immigrants as a per cent of
growth created a city segregated by age, social
Dreux’s population
class, and regional and national origin.’
(Françoise Gaspard, A Small City in France)
1954
1.4%
5. Immigrant population: The immigrant
1975
15.0%
population grew.
1982
21.0%
6. The makeup of the immigrants changed.
l In 1971, the Portuguese were the largest number,
The French
followed by Spaniards, Moroccans and Algerians.
population
declined; the
l By 1990, the largest group were Moroccans,
immigrant
followed by Turks, Portuguese and Algerians.
population grew.
National Front victories in Dreux
1. In the 1980s, the National Front won two elections in the city.
l The 1983 election campaign was characterised by the ‘Dear Mustapha’ letter, and
rumours that 800 new Turkish workers would soon arrive in the city and that the
mayor was having a factory built to employ them.
l The National Front vote increased from 2 per cent in 1979 to 17 per cent in 1983.
2. They made an electoral alliance with the moderate right-wing parties to win the
second round of voting.
3. In 1989 Dreux elected Marie-France Stirbois to the National Assembly with 61 per
cent of the vote. The National Front used the issue of the ‘headscarf affair’ of 1989
(see below) to increase their vote.
4. The National Front used slogans to frighten people.
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LESS STRESS MORE SUCCESS HISTORY FOR LEAVING CERT
National Front slogans
National Front poster in elections in Dreux in 1979:
‘One million unemployed, one million immigrants too many. French first!’
National Front slogan in Dreux in 1983:
‘Two million unemployed, two million immigrants too many. French first!’
What was the ‘headscarf affair’ of 1989 and
what was its impact?
1. The ‘headscarf affair’ highlighted issues in relation to the
integration of immigrants.
2. In 1989, three Muslim girls were suspended from a state
school in Creil (north of Paris) for wearing headscarves
(hijab).
3. The girls wore the scarves believing they were following
the Islamic teaching that they should cover their heads
in public.
4. The principal said that they were breaking French laws
on laïcité (secularism), under which church and state are
separated, and which excluded wearing religious symbols or garments.
l Anti-racist organisations appealed their suspension to the Minister of Education,
and he overturned the suspensions.
5. This led to a huge controversy in France. The controversy helped the National Front
to win a by-election in Dreux in 1989 with the slogan, ‘No to the headscarf, no to
mosques.’
6. This forced the Socialist government to introduce measures which they said would
integrate immigrants into French society.
7. Controversy continued during the 1990s, when there were clashes between school
authorities and girls wearing headscarves.
Two sides of the ‘headscarf affair’ debate
For the headscarves
l
Some said the girls were being
discriminated against because of their
religion
l
They said Catholics were allowed to wear
crucifixes
l
350,000 girls from Muslim families
attended school without causing any
problem
l
Excluding these girls from school would
make them more Islamic
Against the headscarves
l
Religious symbols should not be worn in
state schools
l
Some said Muslims should follow the
French way of life
l
Wearing the scarves was an expression of
Muslim fundamentalism and it should not
be encouraged
l
Wearing scarves was a sign that women
were under the control of their husbands
and it should not be allowed
EUROPEAN RETREAT FROM EMPIRE AND THE AFTERMATH
33
What role did anti-racist organisations play in France in the
1980s?
1. Several anti-racist organisations tried to combat racist views in France. They
believed they were in the republican tradition of defending human rights.
l They viewed the National Front as fascists in the tradition of Hitler.
2. Religious leaders declared their churches’ opposition to all racist views.
3. SOS-Racisme was founded in 1984 in direct response to the rise of the National
Front. It attracted support from young French people and it used well-known
entertainers to publicise its cause.
l It promoted racial harmony and protected minority groups against the spread of
racism.
l It was closely linked to the Socialist Party.
4. SOS-Racisme appealed the decision by the principal in the ‘headscarf affair’ to the
Minister of Education and brought the attention of the media to it.
5. France-Plus was also linked to the Socialist Party. It drew its support from young
Maghrebis. It tried to increase their involvement in politics and encouraged political
parties to offer Maghrebis places on their election lists.
6. Marches, such as the March against Racism from Marseille to Paris in 1983, were
also used to highlight issues which affected immigrants.
7. After the desecration of a Jewish cemetery in 1990, over fifty demonstrations against
racism were held around France, including a march by 200,000 people in Paris.
8. These organisations failed to counter the spread of the National Front and racial
tensions continued to cause problems in France.
Contextualising race relations in France in the 1980s
Race relations in
France in the 1980s
Immigration
patterns and
policies in France
(and Britain)
Key personality
None
Key concepts
French in Algeria
Assimilation
Racism
Cultural diversity in
multi-racial France
(and Britain)
Islamic faith in
Europe
Cultural diversity
Identity
Culture and religion
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Key concepts
Assimilation: When people from one culture take in or become part of another
culture.
Cultural diversity: A number of different cultures (ways of life) in one country.
Ethnic politics: Political behaviour influenced by ethnic (racial) differences.
Identity: What makes a person or people who they are, e.g. national identity; the
feeling of being part of a group or nation.
Integration: People fitting into another society by changing their way of life.
Racism: The belief that people’s characteristics are influenced by their race and that
some races are superior to other races.
Past exam questions on Race Relations in France
in the 1980s
Higher level
2013 –
2012 –
2011 – How did France become a multi-racial country and how did race relations
develop there in the 1980s?
2010 – Which country managed race relations better, Britain or France? Argue your
case, referring to both.
2009 – To what extent did race become a major issue in Britain and/or France?
2008 –
2007 – What problems and opportunities did cultural diversity present to (French)
society between 1960 and 1990?
2006 – How did race relations become a major issue in Britain and/or France in the
period 1945–1990?
Ordinary level
2013 –
2012 –
2011 – How did Britain and/or France become multi-racial during the period
1945–1990?
2010 – What problems in race relations developed in France in the 1980s and what
attempts were made to solve them?
2009 – How did France become a multi-racial society and what problems in race
relations developed in the 1980s?
2008 –
REVISING FOR LEAVING CERT 2011
2007 – How and why did France experience problems in race relations during the
1980s?
2006 – How and why did France experience problems in race relations during the
1980s?
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