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2 Computer Engineering ББК Авторы: М.Г. Бондарев, А.С. Андриенко, Л.В. Буренко, О.Г. Мельник, Э.А. Сидельник. Computer Engineering: Издание 2-е (испр. и доп.): Учебное пособие. – М: Изд-во «Флинта», 2014.– 147 с. Под общей редакцией Г.А. Краснощековой. Учебное пособие “Computer Engineering” предназначено для студентов высших учебных заведений, обучающихся по направлениям «Информатика и вычислительная техника» (08.03.01); «Автоматизация технологических процессов и производств» (15.03.04); «Информационные системы и технологии» (09.03.02) и «Системный анализ и управление» (27.09.03). Основной целью пособия является формирование и развитие иноязычной профессиональной коммуникативной компетентности студентов компьютерных специальностей на старших курсах технического вуза для осуществления профессионально ориентированного общения с зарубежными специалистами в интенсивно развивающейся сфере международного научно-технического содружества. Изучение материала предлагаемого пособия предоставит возможность студентам совершенствовать профессиональную компоненту инженерного образования с акцентом на их профильную специальность, повышать мотивацию к изучению иностранного языка для профессиональных целей. Данное учебное пособие также может быть использовано студентами, аспирантами, специалистами и широким кругом изучающих, имеющих базовый уровень сформированности компетенций по английскому языку и интересующихся актуальными проблемами в области развития компьютерных технологий и информационных систем. «Рекомендовано Учебно-методическим объединением по образованию в области лингвистики Министерства образования и науки Российской Федерации в качестве учебного пособия для студентов-бакалавров технических направлений» Рецензенты: К.ф.н., доцент, заведующий кафедрой английского языка ТГПИ Е.В. Полякова. К.п.н., доцент кафедры иностранных языков ИУЭС ЮФУ О.Н. Черноморова. © М.Г. Бондарев, А.С. Андриенко, Л.В. Буренко, О.Г. Мельник, Э.А. Сидельник. 2014. English for special purposes Computer Engineering Предисловие Практика организации современного учебного процесса, необходимость повышения качества образования в отечественных высших учебных заведениях технического профиля актуализирует необходимость изучения дисциплины «Иностранный язык для профессиональных (специальных) целей» с целью развития и совершенствования определенного программными документами уровня сформированности иноязычной коммуникативной профессиональной компетентности студентов. Развитие иноязычной профессиональной коммуникативной компетентности позволит студентам и будущим выпускникам осуществлять эффективное профессионально ориентированное общение со специалистами других стран, участвовать в процессе академической и профессиональной мобильности в национальном и международном образовательном поликультурном пространстве на современном этапе интеграции вузов, быть конкурентоспособными на рынке труда, совершенствовать и приумножать национальные достижения. Учебное пособие “Computer engineering” разработано с учетом программы обучения иностранному языку для студентов неязыковых вузов по направлениям «Информатика и вычислительная техника» (08.03.01); «Автоматизация технологических процессов и производств» (15.03.04); «Информационные системы и технологии» (09.03.02) и «Системный анализ и управление» (27.09.03). Аутентичный текстовый материал тематических разделов пособия и разработанная система упражнений имеют профессионально ориентированную проблематику. Уровень сложности текстового материала, представленного в пособии, ориентирован на студентов с уровнем сформированности лингвистической компетенции в объеме базового курса изучения дисциплины «Иностранный язык». В вузе данный уровень эквивалентен первому и второму курсам обучения студентов на образовательном уровне бакалавриата. Текстовый материал и система заданий учебного пособия могут быть использованы для групповой и самостоятельной работы студентов в аудитории под руководством преподавателя, а также для внеаудиторной работы. Организация обсуждения предложенных в тематических разделах пособия проблем в студенческой аудитории в форме ролевой игры, диспутов, игр-соревнований, обсуждений «круглого стола», проектов, презентаций и других форм общения студентов на иностранном языке представляется значимой, так как имитирует ситуации естественной языковой профессионально ориентированной коммуникации. Пособие “Computer engineering” может быть рассчитано на 150-200 и более часов аудиторной работы в вузе в зависимости от индивидуального календарного планирования и, соответственно, структурно-содержательного блока рабочих программ с учетом специфики обучения студентов в определенном вузе. Весь предлагаемый материал разбит на 10 разделов (Units), содержащих следующие проблемы для обсуждения: “Computer & Computing”, “Software”, “Portable computers”, “Programming languages”, “Computer networking”, “Computer graphics”, “Multimedia”, “Telecommunications”, “Virtual reality”, “Computer security”. Каждый раздел пособия имеет свое тематическое направление. Структура раздела позволяет студентам снять трудности языкового, речевого и психологического характера в процессе усвоения учебного материала раздела, легко ориентироваться в структурно-содержательном блоке текстовых заданий и упражнений. Каждый раздел имеет в своей структуре следующие типы заданий: English for Special Purposes 3 4 Computer Engineering Lead In – знакомство с предлагаемой проблемой раздела, выполнение предтекстовых заданий с целью предварительного обсуждения представленной проблемы с опорой на фоновые знания студентов. Pronunciation – имеет целью проведение фонетического тренинга блока основных лексических единиц раздела. Word Study – содержит дефиницию лексического материала по проблеме раздела с целью дальнейшей эффективной работы с текстом. Word Building – знакомство с особенностями словообразования. В задании Grammar Focus – представлена грамматическая проблема для изучения студентами, исходя из специфики конкретного тематического раздела пособия. Снять грамматические трудности и изучить грамматический материал, представленный на русском языке более подробно можно в секции Grammar Files, которая находится в конце пособия после тематических разделов. Specialist Reading – включает в себя аутентичный текстовый материал по проблеме раздела. Vocabulary in Use – предлагает задания лексического характера с опорой на прочитанный текстовый материал. Comprehension Check – представляет систему заданий с целью выявить степень понимания прочитанного текстового материала. Ряд следующих заданий: Writing, Get Real, Speaking, по мнению разработчиков пособия, заслуживает особого внимания студентов, так как данные задания имеют целью не только интенсивное совершенствование всех видов речевой деятельности студентов, но и эффективное развитие творческого мышления и индивидуального подхода студентов к рассмотрению проблемы раздела в процессе подготовки. Разделы Writing и Speaking содержат задания, имеющие целью развитие творческого мышления и индивидуальной точки зрения студентов, которые мотивируют обучаемых к дальнейшему изучению и критическому видению предлагаемой проблемы, дополнительному использованию различных информационных источников по изучаемой теме. Writing – в разделе представлена система письменных заданий. Speaking – раздел включает в себя систему заданий с целью развития коммуникативной компетенции студентов в процессе профессионально ориентированного общения. Get Real – в данном разделе даны ссылки на Интернет сайты, работа с которыми поможет студентам творчески использовать дополнительный материал по проблематике всех разделов пособия (особенно в ходе выполнения заданий разделов Writing и Speaking) наиболее полно реализовать профессиональные интересы, проявить индивидуальность и креативность в процессе подготовки к занятию. Использование предлагаемых информационных источников поможет студентам в процессе выполнения творческих заданий, составления докладов и подготовки презентаций. Возможность использования видеоматериалов по выбору студентов с учетом их профессиональных предпочтений приблизит атмосферу занятия к реальной языковой среде, сделает его более информативным. Применение на занятии информационных технологий в обучении, использование студентами компьютерных средств и информационных источников сети Интернет в аудитории и во внеаудиторное время способствуют повышению уровня профессиональной компетентности, развитию современного взгляда на технические English for special purposes Computer Engineering науки, формированию профессионального мышления средствами иностранного языка, повышению мотивации к изучению дисциплины «Иностранный язык для профессиональных (специальных) целей». Supplementary Reading Section – содержит дополнительный текстовый материал по проблеме тематических разделов пособия. Word List – в данном разделе дан тезаурус языка для специальных целей “Computer Engineering”. Список предлагаемых для изучения лексических единиц структурирован по тематическим разделам пособия. Система упражнений каждого тематического раздела пособия была разработана с целью интенсивного вовлечения студентов в дискуссию, позволяющую анализировать предложенную в разделе проблему с элементами обобщения и оценки, аргументировано выражать собственную точку зрения. Учебное пособие может быть предложено студентам, магистрантам, специалистам и всем желающим изучать английский язык с целью развития и совершенствования иноязычной профессиональной коммуникативной компетентности в процессе обсуждения проблем профессионально ориентированной тематики, а также может быть использовано преподавателями английского языка в учебном процессе в качестве основного и дополнительного практического пособия по направлению “Computer Engineering”. Авторы надеются, что специфика структурно-содержательной организации материала и разработанная система упражнений поможет преподавателю в выборе адекватных методов и приемов в процессе планирования занятия по дисциплине. Авторы пособия выражают благодарность заведующей кафедрой иностранных языков Инженерно-технологической академии Южного федерального университета, доктору педагогических наук, профессору Г.А.Краснощековой за ценные замечания и плодотворное обсуждение идей, представленных в пособии; также авторы благодарны рецензентам и коллегам кафедры иностранных языков ИТА ЮФУ за поддержку и методические рекомендации в процессе практической работы над пособием. Авторы с благодарностью примут все замечания, предложения и пожелания и учтут их в дальнейшей работе. Официальный сайт ЮФУ: http://tti.sfedu.ru. English for Special Purposes 5 6 Computer Engineering Map of the book Word building Grammar Reading A 1. Computer & Computing p. 8 Useful suffixes Present Tenses and Voices What’s a computer 2. Software p. 18 Useful prefixes 1 Conditionals Software 3. Portable computers p. 28 Useful prefixes 2 Comparing & Predicting Portable Computers 4. Programming languages p. 38 5. Computer networking p. 48 Up- & -up verbs Past tenses Programming Language Abbreviations Relative clauses with a participle Computer Networking 6. Computer graphics p. 58 Noun suffixes -ing forms Computer Graphics 7. Multimedia p. 68 Useful prefixes 3 Participle II Multimedia 8. Telecommunication p. 77 Suffixes -able, ize Passive infinitives Telecommunication 9. Virtual reality p. 86 -ed/-ing adjectives Noun attributes Virtual Reality 10. Computer Security p.96 Word building revision Infinitive Constructions Malicious software Unit/page Grammar files p.107 Appendix p.120 Supplementary reading p.122 English for special purposes Computer Engineering Word list p.136 Reading B Writing Typical PC hardware Computer development Map of the book Speaking Operating system Computer OS development Supplementary reading Computer history & Famous people in evolution computer tech development. CPU. Computer systems Unix Tablet computers Tablet computers vs. laptops Predictions for the future The future of Portable computers History of Programming Languages TCP/IP vs. PPP Practical application of computer languages LAN (WLAN) description Universal programming language Computer networking JAVA Computer animation Computer graphics technologies Computer graphics branches The concept of computer graphics Multimedia Web Design Summary Multimedia applications Rich media features Satellite services Summary The role of telecommunication Telecommunications save lives. Inosphere. Head mounted display technology Virtual reality devices & applications Virtual reality products Shadow dexterous hand Network security management Computer crimes prevention Computer security Phishing Global networking infrastructure for the 21st century English for Special Purposes 7 8 Computer Engineering Unit 1 Computer & Computing Useful suffixes Present Tenses and Voices What’s a computer Typical PC hardware Introducing a problem LEAD-IN: Computer evolution 1. Focus on the following stages of computer inventions’ development. Try to give the names of inventors and denote the period of time when these inventions appeared. analytical engine abacus ENIAC* transistor mechanical calculator punch card analog computer digital computer *Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer Will you add more information concerning the unit problem and give your opinion on further evolution in computer development from abacus to modern and future-planned devices. PRONUNCIATION 2. Make sure you pronounce the following words properly: hardware ['hɑːdwɛə] keyboard ['kiːbɔːd] software ['sɔftwɛə] application [æplɪ'keɪʃ(ə)n] device [dɪ'vaɪs] circuitry ['sɜːkɪtrɪ] embedded [ɪm'bedɪd] semiconductor [semɪkən'dʌktə] computer [kəm'pjuːtə] chassis ['ʃæsi:] punch card [pʌnʧ] [kɑːd] access ['æksəs] communicate [kə'mjuːnɪkeɪt] data ['deɪtə] technology [tek'nɔləʤɪ] digitization [dɪʤɪtaɪ'zeɪʃ(ə)n] WORD STUDY 3. Translate the following definitions and memorize the terms: English for special purposes Computer Engineering hardware (n) - the machines, wiring and other physical components of a computer or other electronic system: processing hardware, storage hardware; integrated circuit (n) - an electronic circuit formed on a small piece of semiconducting material: circuit board, circuit diagram, printed circuit (board); computer (n) - an electronic device (machine) which is used for storing data, organizing and finding words, numbers and pictures, for doing calculations and for controlling other machines; central processing unit (n) - the part of a computer in which operations are controlled and executed; input device (n) - a piece of computer equipment such as a keyboard which enables you to put information into a computer; memory-storage device(n) - the part of a computer in which data or program instructions can be stored for retrieval; bus (n) - a distinct set of conductors carrying data and control signals within a computer system, to which pieces of equipment may be connected in parallel; mainframe (n) - a large high-speed computer, especially one supporting numerous workstations or peripherals; software (n) - the collection of computer programs and related data that provide the instructions telling a computer what to do: system software, application software; operating system (n) - the system software that allows all the hardware and software components to work together. It consists of a set of programs that manages all the computer's resources, including the data in main memory and in auxiliary storage. chassis (n) - the frame, base of a device, equipment or a vehicle onto which the metal covering is fixed; semiconductor (n) - a material, such as silicon, which allows electricity to move through it more easily when its temperature increases, or an electronic device made from this material; digitization (n) - the process of putting information into digital form, usually so that it can be processed by a digital computer. 4. Match the following words with their synonyms (A, B) and the Russian equivalents (C, D): A technology data software screen main memory chassis device communicate B system unit monitor exchange information facility ways to perform tasks RAM programs and data information C input device application keyboard digitization output device access hardware embedded D встроенный аппаратное обеспечение доступ оцифровка устройство ввода клавиатура устройство вывода приложение English for Special Purposes 9 10 Computer Engineering 5. Match a verb in A with a noun in B: A connect perform store transmit push surf calculate computerize B the net a button the system data signals the expenses specific tasks two computers together 6. Complete the puzzle using the clues. a small hand-held device which is moved across a mat or flat surface to move the cursor on a computer screen e a panel of keys that operate a computer or typewriter b a device with a screen on which words or pictures can be shown d o a connection technology for attaching peripheral devices to a computer, providing fast data exchange a computer input device containing different touch-sensitive areas t permanent software programmed into a read-only memory f b h r m k WORD BUILDING: “-wares” The suffix -ware refers to products of the same type. In computing, software refers to programs executed by a computer, as opposed to hardware which concerns physical devices on which programs run. It is commonly used to form jargon terms for different classes of software. 7. Match the words with their definitions. freeware shareware malware spyware designed to infiltrate or damage a computer (e.g. viruses, Trojan horses) devised to display advertisements; some includes spyware available free of charge, but protected by copyright: it differs from 'free software", which can be changed and distributed subject to license enables a group of people connected to a network to work on the same project English for Special Purposes Computer Engineering adware groupware distributed similarly to freeware, except that it requires payment after a trial period designed to monitor the actions of your computer and send this data via the Net Consult your dictionary to find more “-wares”. GRAMMAR FOCUS : Present Tenses: Simple and Continuous (Active & Passive Voice) 8. Underline the correct form of the verb and translate the sentences. If you need help use GRAMMAR FILES 1 (p. 107). 1. When one computer system is set up / sets up / set up to communicate with another computer system, connectivity becomes / become an important system element. 2. People are the most important component / is the most important component of the computer system: they create / creates / are created the computer software instructions and respond to the procedures that those instructions present. 3. Computer uses / is used / are using to convert data into information and to store information in the digital form. 4. Nowadays computer development is rapidly progressing / rapidly progresses. 5. Researchers are currently developed / are currently developing microchips called digital signal processors (DSPs). 6. Data feed / is feeding / is fed into the computer's memory. 7. The main memory holds / is holding / is held the instructions and data which are being processed / are processed / are processing by the CPU. 8. Peripherals include /are including / are included storage devices and input/output devices. 9. Disk drives are used / is used / are using to read and write data on disks. 10. Input devices enable / are enabled / were enabled data to go into the computer’s memory. SPECIALIST READING A: What is a computer? English for Special Purposes 11 12 Computer Engineering 9. Before starting, answer the following questions. This kind of information is well known and you will deal easily with the quiz. COMPUTER-quiz Who founded Microsoft corporation? Who set up Apple Computers’ Corporation? Who invented a tabulating machine using punched cards for computation? Who designed the “analytical engine”? Who developed logical algebra? Charles Babbage Herman Hollerith Bill Gates George Boole Steven Jobs and Stephen Wozniak 10. These phrases and sentences have been removed from the text. 1. There are two different types of computers – analog and digital. 2. People are the most important component of the computer system… 3. The most common form of computer in use today is the embedded computer. 4. In addition, hardware devices can include external components... 5. An incredible important contribution in computer technology development … 6. IBM made punch-card office machinery… 7. …Hardware, Software, People, Procedures, and Data. 8. This process is called digitization. Read the text quickly and fill in the gaps with the suitable phrases or sentences to form a logically correct text. Mind that one extra sentence you don’t have to use is given. Ch.Babbage H.Hollerith English for Special Purposes J. Atanasoff C. Berry The term computer is used to describe a device made up of a combination of electronic and electromechanical components. Computer has no intelligence by itself and is referred to as hardware which is the computer's physical electronic and mechanical parts. A computer system can be viewed as consisting of five most vital elements: _____________________________________ ______________. When one computer system is set up to communicate with another computer system, connectivity becomes the sixth system element of the total computer system. ______________________________________________ _________________: they create the computer software instructions and respond to the procedures that those instructions present. The basic job of the computer is the processing of information. Computers accept information in the form of instruction called a program and characters called data to perform mathematical and logical operations, and then give the results. The data is raw material while information is organized, processed, refined and useful for decision making. Computer is used to convert data into information. Computer is also used to store information in the digital form. ______________________________________________ ________________________. Analog computers solve problems by using continuously changing data (temperature, pressure, voltage) rather than by manipulating discrete binary digits (1s and 0s) as digital computers do. In current usage, the term computer usually refers to digital computers. Hybrid computers combine elements of both types. Digital computers are generally more effective than analog computers for three principal reasons: they are not as susceptible to signal interference; they can convey data with more precision; and their coded binary data are easier to store and transfer than are analog signals. Such computers can represent any type of data, from numbers and letters to musical notes._________ __________________________________________. A vague image of modern computer was first outlined in 1833 by British mathematician Charles Babbage. His design of an “analytical engine” contained all the necessary elements of a modern computer: input devices, a store (memory), a mill (computing unit), a control unit, and output devices. Computer Engineering The design called for more than 50,000 moving parts in a steam-driven machine as large as a locomotive. Most of its actions were executed through the use of perforated cards: a method that was already used to control automatic silk-weaving machines called Jacquard looms by the name of the inventor. It was one of the first programmable devices. In the 1880s Herman Hollerith developed a calculating machine able to count, collate, and sort information stored on punch cards. His “tabulator” quickly demonstrated the efficiency of mechanical data manipulation. In 1896 Hollerith founded the Tabulating Machine Company to produce similar machines. In 1924 the company changed its name to IBM. The most popular of operating systems – which are used to run mainframes, built by the industry leader IBM – include 1 2 3 MVS , DOS/VSE , and VM .______________________ ___________________________ the dominant business information system until the late 1960s. From 1939 to 1942, American physicists John V. Atanasoff and Clifford Berry built a computer based on the binary numbering system. Their ABC (Atanasoff-Berry Computer) is often credited as the first electronic digital computer. Furthermore, George Boole, a British mathematician, had already devised a complete system of binary algebra that could be applied to computer circuits. Boolean algebra, developed in 1848, bridged the gap between mathematics and logic by symbolizing all information as being either true or false. _______________________________________________ ______________ is made by Steven Jobs and Stephen Wozniak, the founders of the Apple II computer. It is also worth mentioning William Henry Gates III, (known as Bill Gates), the father of Microsoft Company. The first devices that resemble modern computers date to the mid-20th century (1940–1945). Early electronic computers were the size of a large room. Modern computers are based on tiny integrated circuits and are millions to billions of times more capable while occupying a fraction of the space. _________________________________________ __________________. Embedded computers are small, simple devices that are used to control other devices - for example; they may be found in machines ranging from fighter aircraft to industrial robots, digital cameras, and children's toys. The dominant operating system is the disk operating system (DOS) developed by Microsoft Corporation. Also popular is Microsoft's Windows NT, an adjunct to DOS that provides enhanced computer graphics. Comments: 1 IBM MVS (Multiple Virtual Storage) - множественное виртуальное хранилище, операционная система, разработанная IBM (1974). 2 DOS/VSE (Virtual Storage Extended) – дисковая операционная система с расширенной виртуальной памятью. 3 VM (Virtual Machine) — операционная система для мэйнфреймов фирмы IBM. Первая версия была выпущена в 1972 году для семейства компьютеров IBM System/370. VOCABULARY IN USE 11. Replace the italicized words with the equivalents from the box: modern plain invented consider kept productivity different kinds tiny information presented give commands to 1. Software consists of the programs that instruct the hardware to perform tasks. 2. Varieties of types of integrated circuitry are used in contemporary supercomputers. 3. Embedded computers are small, simple devices, which are used to control other devices. 4. Herman Hollerith, an American inventor, fabricated a calculating machine able to count information stored on punch card. 5. A device called “tabulator” quickly demonstrated the efficiency of mechanical data manipulating. 6. IBM introduced its Personal Computer in 1981. English for Special Purposes 13 14 Computer Engineering COMPREHENSION CHECK 12. Put the facts in the logical order as they are given in the text: № Steven Jobs and Stephen Wozniak, his engineer partner, founded a company named Apple Computer, Inc. Hollerith founded the Tabulating Machine Company to produce similar machines. Bill Gates founded Microsoft. IBM introduced its Personal Computer (PC). American physicists John V. Atanasoff and Clifford Berry built a computer based on the binary numbering system. 13. Mark the following statements as “true” or “false”, correct the false ones. Find information in the text if necessary. True False 1. A computer has an artificial intellect. 2. Connectivity can be viewed as an important element of a computer system. 3. The basic job of a computer is to encode algorithms written in a programming language. 4. Hybrid computers have elements of both analog and digital computers. 5. Hardware is used to store data. 6. American mathematician Charles Babbage was the first to outline a vague image of a modern computer. 7. The ABC Computer was the first image of the first electronic digital computer. 8. Steven Jobs and Stephen Wozniak were the founders of the Apple II computer. 9. The dominant operating system was developed by Apple Computer Company. 10. Nowadays DOS is not the prevailing operating system. SPECIALIST READING B: Typical PC hardware 14. Read the text and underline the information to prove the following statements: 1. Software is not a part of hardware. 2. The term” motherboard” is the point of argument. 3. External Bus Controllers are used to connect to external peripherals. 15. Say if the text touches upon the following points (tick them) and put the information in the correct order: X № X RAM description information about CAE software power supply features central processing unit functions external components of a computer networking connections description history of computer-aided engineering (CAE) the definition of the term “mouse” typical personal computer case keyboard usage English for Special Purposes № Computer Engineering 1) A personal computer is made up of multiple physical components of computer hardware, upon which can be installed an operating system and a multitude of software to perform the operator's desired functions. Typical personal computers consist of a case or chassis in a tower shape (desktop) and the following parts: 2) Motherboard is the "body" or mainframe of the computer. The term “motherboard” is the point of argument in the USA even at Court level. It was even proposed to use the term “mainboard” not to give any privileges to male or female belonging of the word. 3) Central processing unit (CPU) performs most of the calculations which enable a computer to function; sometimes it is referred to as the "brain" of the computer. 4) Computer fan is used to lower the temperature of the computer; a fan is almost always attached to the CPU, and the computer case will generally have several fans to maintain a constant airflow. 1 5) Random Access Memory (RAM ) is also known as the physical memory of the computer. Fast-access memory that is cleared when the computer is powered down. RAM attaches directly to the motherboard, and is used to store programs that are currently running. 2 Firmware is loaded from the Read only memory ROM run from the Basic Input-Output System (BIOS) or in newer systems Extensible Firmware Inter-face (EFI) compliant. 6) Internal Buses are connections to various internal 3 components: PCI, PCI-E, USB, Hyper Transport, CSI , and AGP (being phased out). 7) External Bus Controllers are used to connect to external peripherals, such as printers and input devices. These ports may also be based upon expansion cards, attached to the internal buses. 8) Controllers for hard disk, CD-ROM and other drives for a PC are IDE/ATA; the controllers sit directly on the motherboard or on expansion cards, such as a Disk array controller. IDE is usually integrated, unlike SCSI (Small Computer System Interface) which can be found in some servers. The floppy drive interface is a 4 legacy MFM interface, which is now slowly disappearing. All these interfaces are gradually being 5 phased out to be replaced by SATA and SAS . 9) Video display controller produces the output for the visual display unit. This will either be built into the motherboard or attached in its own separate slot (PCI, PCI-E, PCI-E 2.0, or AGP), in the form of a Graphics Card. 10) Internal storage encompasses hardware that keeps data inside the computer for later use and remains persistent even when the computer has no power (hard disk – medium-term storage of data; solidstate drive – a device similar to hard disk, but containing no moving parts; disk array controller – a device to manage several hard disks to achieve performance or reliability improvement). 11) Sound card enables the computer to output sound to audio devices, as well as accept input from a microphone. Most modern computers have sound cards built-in to the motherboard, though it is common for a user to install a separate sound card as an upgrade. 12) Networking connects the computer to the Internet and/or other computers (modem is used for dial-up connections, network card – for DSL/Cable internet, and/or connecting to other computers, direct cable connection – use of a null modem, connecting two computers together using their serial ports or a Lap link cable, connecting two computers together with their parallel ports). 13) Hardware devices can include external components of a computer system. The following are either standard or very common including various input and output devices, usually external to the computer system. 14) Keyboard is used to input text and characters by depressing buttons (referred to as keys), similar to a typewriter. The most common English-language key layout is the QWERTY layout. Mouse is a pointing device that detects two dimensional motions relative to its supporting surface. Webcam is a low resolution video camera used to provide visual input that can be easily transferred over the internet. Microphone - an acoustic sensor that provides input by converting sound into electrical signals. Printer is a machine that can be connected to a computer in order to make copies on paper of documents or other information held by the computer. Monitor is a screen which displays an image generated by a computer. Computer speakers, or multimedia speakers, are external speakers, commonly equipped with a low-power internal amplifier. The standard audio connection is a 3.5mm (1/8 inch) stereo jack plugs often colour-coded lime green (following the PC 99 standard) for computer sound cards. English for Special Purposes 15 16 Computer Engineering Comments 1 RAM – запоминающее устройство с произвольной выборкой (ЗУПВ). ROM – постоянное запоминающее устройство (ПЗУ). 3 CSI – высокоскоростная шина Common Systems Interconnect - последовательный точка-точка интерфейс. 4 MFM – устаревшая ныне шина для подключения жестких дисков. Использовалось два шлейфа – один для управляющих сигналов, другой – для обмена данными. Один из шлейфов был очень похож на шлейф для FDD. 5 SAS – компьютерный интерфейс, разработанный для обмена данными с такими устройствами, как жёсткие диски, накопители на оптическом диске и т. д. для замены параллельного интерфейса SCSI и обеспечения более высокой пропускной способности. SAS совместим с интерфейсом SATA, поддерживает передачу информации со скоростью до 3 Гбит/с (в перспективе до 10 Гбит/с). 2 WRITING: Computer development 16. What are in your opinion on the most urgent computer problems? Could you give the ways of future computer development? Give characteristics of your own computer components and try to describe a model of a Computer of the Future. Do you consider that the future of human development belongs to the computer? Prove your ideas. Use links from Get Real to help you. ● Get Real Check these websites to find out more additional computer history facts and the latest computer evolution achievements: http://www.accessscience.com http://science news.org English for Special Purposes Computer Engineering SPEAKING: Computer history and evolution 17. Work in pairs or in groups with your partner(s) to discuss the following problems: “What type of computer in your opinion is the most suitable for home and office use, for specific engineering tasks: for Computer Aided Design (CAD), for instance, or other engineering fields?” “What are the most important characteristics and the functions of main memory, I/O devices, storage devices, CPU?” “What peculiar facts can you give about different computer programs and data, about CPU, the heart of the computer? (The Supplementary Reading Section may help you).” “What will future computer technology development result in”? Could you create a presentation on the problems, marked above? Role-play the discussion problems in the form of a conference. The following discourse markers may help you: Introducing a problem I would like to present you (to touch upon) a problem; I’d like to state (maintain) the importance of this problem, to say that this problem is very vital and extremely popular; I’d like to mention that I have studied and used a lot of information from the following (different) sources. Carving the main idea I’d like analyze the main facts; It’s worth mentioning; I’d like to give my opinion on the problem, which concerns…; I share the authors opinion (I agree/disagree) Summing up the presented information on a problem Now I’d like to draw a conclusion; I’d like to conclude; summing up; as I’m running out of time I’d like to summarize English for Special Purposes 17 18 Computer Engineering Unit 2 Software Useful prefixes 1 Conditionals Software Operating system LEAD-IN: Operating Systems 1. Study the following list of Operating Systems. What other Operating Systems could you name? Will you characterize them? What are the main functions of OS? • Slax • Open SUSE • React OS • Mona OS • MINIX3 • Haiku • Ubuntu • Symbian OS PRONUNCIATION 2. Make sure you pronounce the following words properly: amount [ə'maunt] commercially [kə'mɜːʃ(ə)lɪ] require [rɪ'kwaɪə] schedule ['ʃedjuːl ]; extensively [ek'sten(t)sɪvlɪ] sequence ['siːkwən(t)s] function ['fʌŋkʃ(ə)n] subroutine ['sʌbruːˌtiːn] fundamental [fʌndə'ment(ə)l] total ['təut(ə)l] laboratory [lə'bɔrət(ə)rɪ] typing ['taɪpɪŋ] provide [prə'vaɪd] instruction [ɪn'strʌkʃ(ə)n] WORD STUDY 3. Translate the following definitions and memorize the terms: software (n) - the collection of computer programs and related data that provide the instructions telling a computer what to do: system software, application software; operating system (n) - the system software that allows all the hardware and software components to work together; a set of programs that manages all the computer's resources; bug (n) - an error in a computer program or system; computer programmer (n) - a person whose job involves writing programs for computers; English for Special Purposes Computer Engineering debugging (n) - the process of identifying and removing errors from computer hardware or software; disk operating system (n) - a computer operating system that controls and manages files and programs stored on disk; DOS is a shorthand term for several closely related operating systems (MS-DOS, PC DOS, DR-DOS, etc.) that dominated the IBM PC compatible market; flowchart (n) - a graphical representation of a computer program in relation to its sequence of functions; graphical user interface (n) - a visual way of interacting with a computer using items such as windows, icons, and menus, used by most modern operating systems; LINUX (n) - an operating system modeled on Unix, whose source code is publicly available at no charge; program (n) - a set of instructions that a computer follows in order to perform a particular task; schedule (n) - a plan for carrying out a process or procedure, giving lists of intended events and times; eliminate (v) - completely remove or get rid of something; file (n) - holder, cover, case, box, etc. for keeping data; server (n) - a computer or computer program which manages access to a centralized resource or service in a network; UNIX (n) - a computer operating system developed in 1969 by K. Thompson and D. Ritchie; today is used to describe any operating system that conforms to Unix standards, meaning the core operating system operates the same as the original Unix operating system; 4. Match the following words with their synonyms (A, B) and the Russian equivalents (C, D): A acquaint coder series bug expel schedule execute operation version efficiency B error introduce eliminate programmer time-table performance sequence edition carry out procedure C restore paging file task manager kernel calculation flowchart debug sequence provide amount D удалять ошибки последовательность ядро количество восстанавливать диспетчер задач обеспечивать блок-схема вычисление файл подкачки English for Special Purposes 19 20 Computer Engineering 5. Match a verb in A with a noun in B: A B store conform solve load embed eliminate access follow a computer mistakes data the instructions to standards a problem software the files 6. Complete the puzzle using the clues. a set of rules to be followed in calculations or other problem-solving operations, especially by a computer a a graphical representation of a computer program in relation to its sequence of functions r l c a program that controls the operation of a device such as a printer or scanner i an open-source version of the UNIX operating system the simultaneous execution of more than one task by a single CPU m t n i k WORD BUILDING: Useful prefixes 1 A prefix is placed at the beginning of a word to modify or change its meaning. These are some prefixes used in English for Computer Engineering. You can find more detail or precision for each prefix in a dictionary. The origins of words are extremely complicated. You should be very careful, because what often appears to be a prefix is not a prefix at all. 7. Match the prefixes with their meanings in the box. Two of them have the same meaning. again repredisun- not (negative) before means ______________________________________________________________ means ______________________________________________________________ means ______________________________________________________________ means ______________________________________________________________ 8. Write a prefix in front of each word (some of them can take more than one prefix). English for Special Purposes g Computer Engineering ___ write ___ do ___ like ___ agree ___ view ___ titled ___ appear ___ format ___ finish ___ start GRAMMAR FOCUS : Conditionals 9. Underline the correct form of the verb and translate the sentences. If you need help you can use GRAMMAR FILES 2 (p. 108). 1. If system software were not / was not / is not a permanent component of the computer, it wouldn’t / does not / will not control its fundamental function. 2. If a database system won’t include / doesn’t include / didn’t include programs, it isn’t possible / wasn’t possible / won’t be possible to allow multiple users to access the files concurrently. 3. If we manage / can manage / managed to store endless amounts of data, probably, it wouldn’t be necessary to have such hard storage devices we have now. 4. Even if a program works / will work / worked correctly it will have bugs. 5. If the name “UNIX” wasn’t / weren’t / isn’t a trademark of The Open Group, it wouldn’t license it for use with any operating system. 6. If operating system was not responsible / were not responsible / is not responsible for the management and coordination activities of the computer, it wouldn’t serve as an interface between Hardware and User. 10. Complete these sentences with the correct form of the verbs in brackets. 1. If you (bring) __________ your digital video camera, we can make a movie on my PC. 2. You won't be able to play those video files if you (not have) __________ the correct plug-in. 3. If the marketing manager (have) __________ PowerPoint, she could make more effective presentations. 4. If I could afford it, I (buy) __________ a new game console. 5. If I had the money, I (invest) __________ in some new multimedia software. SPECIALIST READING A: Software English for Special Purposes 21 22 Computer Engineering 11. Before starting, answer the following questions. This kind of information is well known and you’ll deal easily with the quiz: COMPUTER-quiz What is the purpose of a device driver? What are apps? What is the difference between Notepad and WordPad? What functions does Adobe Reader perform? What is DOS? 12. Read the text and study the information about processes called ‘alpha testing,’ ‘GUI-based software’, UNIX OS, a version of UNIX called Linux and debugging. Be ready to find out more information about these problems and to discuss them. English for Special Purposes Two types of software instruct a computer to perform its tasks — systems software and applications software. Systems software is a permanent component of the computer that controls its fundamental functions. Different kinds of applications software are loaded into the computer as needed to perform specific tasks for the user, such as word processing. Applications software requires the functions provided by the systems software. Modern operating systems provide a graphical user interface (GUI) to make the applications software easier to use. A GUI allows a computer user to work directly with an application program by manipulating text and graphics on the monitor screen through the keyboard and a pointing device such as a mouse rather than solely through typing instructions on command lines. The Apple Computer company's Macintosh computer, introduced in the mid-1980s, had the first commercially successful GUI-based software. Another example of systems software is a database system. A database system works with the file system and includes programs that allow multiple users to access the files concurrently. Computers that use disk memory-storage systems are said to have disk operating systems (DOS). Popular operating systems for PCs are MS-DOS and Windows, developed by the Microsoft Corporation in the early 1980s and 1990s, respectively. Workstations, servers, and some mainframe computers often use the UNIX OS originally designed by Bell Laboratories in the late 1960s. A version of UNIX called Linux gained popularity in the late 1990s for PCs. Software is written by professionals known as computer programmers. Most programmers in large corporations work in teams, with each person focusing on a specific aspect of the total project. Computer programs consist of data structures and algorithms. Data structures represent the information that the program processes. Algorithms are the sequences of steps that a program follows to process the information. For example, a payroll application program has data structures that represent personnel Computer Engineering information, including each employee's hours worked and pay rate. The program's algorithms include instructions on how to compute each employee's pay and how to print out the paychecks. Generally, programmers create software by using the following development process: 1) Understand the software's requirements, which is a description of what the software is supposed to do. Requirements are usually written not by programmers but by the people who are in close contact with the future customers or users of the software. 2) Create the software's specifications, a detailed description of the required tasks and how the programs will instruct the computer to perform those tasks. The software specifications often contain diagrams known as flowcharts that show the various modules, or parts, of the programs, the order of the computer's actions, and the data flow among the modules. 3) Write the code – the program instructions encoded in a particular programming language. 4) Test the software to see if it works according to the specifications and possibly submit the program for alpha testing, in which other individuals within the company independently test the program. 5) Debug the program to eliminate programming mistakes, which are commonly called bugs. (The term bug was coined in the early 1940s, when programmers looking for the cause of a mysterious malfunction in the huge Mark I computer discovered a moth in a vital electrical switch. Thereafter the programmers referred to fixing programming mistakes as debugging.) 6) Submit the program for beta testing, in which users test the program extensively under real-life conditions to see whether it performs correctly. 7) Release the product for use or for sale after it has passed all its tests and has been verified to meet all its requirements. These steps rarely proceed in a linear fashion. Programmers often go back and forth between steps 3, 4, and 5. If the software fails its alpha or beta tests, the programmers will have to go back to an earlier step. Often the most difficult step in program development is the debugging stage. A program is considered to have bugs if it is slower or less efficient than it should be. 23 VOCABULARY IN USE 13. Replace the italicized words with the equivalents from the box: hard get rid of stable big contain parts explanation order 1. System software is a permanent component of the computer that controls its functions. 2. Most programmers in great corporations work in teams. 3. Often the most difficult step in a program development is the debugging stage. 4. When you debug the program you eliminate programming mistakes. 5. The program’s algorithms include instructions. 6. Algorithms are the sequences of steps that a program follows to process the information. 7. Software specifications are a detailed description of the required tasks. 8. Large programs consist of dozens of modules broken up into smaller units. 14. Complete the following sentences with the appropriate words: encoded interface instructions programmers loaded programs sequences eliminate bugs 1. Applications are ________ into the computer as needed to perform specific tasks for the user. 2. Modern operating systems provide graphical user ________ to make the applications software easier to use. 3. A database system includes ________ that allow multiple users to access the files concurrently. 4. Software is written by ________ 5. The code is the program instructions ________ in a particular programming language. 6. To debug the program is to ________ mistakes, which are called ________ 7. Algorithms are the ________ of steps that a program follows to process the information. 8. The program algorithms include a set of ________ English for Special Purposes 24 Computer Engineering PROBLEM SOLVING 15. Which IT professionals are described here? Complete these definitions with jobs from the box. software engineer computer security specialist blog administrator help desk technician DTP operator hardware engineer network administrator webmaster 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. A _________________________ designs and develops IT devices. A _________________________ writes computer programs. A _________________________ edits and deletes posts made by contributors to a blog. A _________________________ uses page layout software to prepare electronic files for network. A _________________________ manages the hardware and software that comprise a publication. A _________________________ designs and maintains websites. A _________________________ works with companies to build secure computer systems. A _________________________ helps end-users with their computer problems in person, by email or over the phone. COMPREHENSION CHECK 16. Give definitions to the following notions: algorithm instruction specification requirement module 17. Mark the following statements as “true” or “false”, correct the false ones. Find information in the text if necessary. True False 1. A database system is another example of systems hardware. 2. LUNIX is another reimplementation of UNIX. 3. UNIX-like systems was run in the early 1990s and was applied for PCs. 4. The Macintosh Computer company had the first commercially successful GUIbased software. 5. Algorithms are the sequences of steps that a program follows to process the information. 18. Answer the following questions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Why is it so important to understand the software requirements? What does it mean “to write the code”? For what purpose should programmers debug the program? What is an “algorithm”? When did The Apple Computer Company’s Macintosh computer appear? English for Special Purposes Computer Engineering 25 SPECIALIST READING B: Operating system 19. Read the text quickly and say if it touches upon the following ideas. Yes No The description of operating systems. The versions of Microsoft Windows family. Some facts of microchips development. The structure of integrated circuit. The history of languages of programming. Characteristic of UNIX-like family. The history of Mac OS. The description of operating systems. 20. Find in the text and mark the information to prove the following statements: 1. the Unix-like family is a diverse group of operating systems with several major subcategories; 2. software is not a part of hardware; 3. UNIX-like systems run on a wide variety of machine architectures; 4. Microsoft Windows versions are a family of proprietary operating systems. An operating system (commonly abbreviated as either OS or O/S) is an interface between hardware and user. An OS is responsible for the management and coordination of activities and the sharing of the resources of the computer. The operating system acts as a host for computing applications run on the machine. One of the purposes of an operating system is to handle the details of the operation of the hardware. Operating systems offer a number of services to application programs and users. Applications access these services through application programming interfaces (APIs) or system calls. By invoking these interfaces, the application can request a service from the operating system, pass parameters, and receive the results of the operation. Users may also interact with the operating system with some kind of software user interface (SUI) such as typing commands by using command line interface (CLI) or using a graphical user interface (GUI, commonly pronounced “gooey”). For hand-held and desktop computers, the user interface is generally considered part of the operating system. On large multi-user systems like Unix and Unix-like systems, the user interface is generally implemented as an application program that runs outside the operating system. Whether the user interface should be included as a part of the operating system is now a point of contention. Common contemporary operating system families include BSD, Darwin (Mac OS X), GNU/Linux, SunOS (Solaris/Open Solaris), and Windows NT (XP/Vista/7/10). While servers generally run Unix or some Unix-like operating system, embedded system markets are split amongst several operating systems. Dave Cutler developed the VMS operating system for Digital Equipment Corporation for Microsoft. Steve Jobs, a co-founder of Apple Inc., started NeXT Computer Inc., which developed the Unix-like NEXTSTEP operating system. NEXTSTEP would later be acquired by Apple Inc. and used, along with code from FreeBSD as the core of Mac OS X. Minix, an academic teaching tool which could be run on early PCs, would inspire another reimplementation of Unix, called Linux. Started by computer science student Linus Torvalds with cooperation from volunteers over the Internet, an operating system was developed with the tools from the GNU Project. English for Special Purposes 26 Computer Engineering The Berkeley Software Distribution, known as BSD, is the UNIX derivative distributed by the University of California. Microsoft Windows is a family of proprietary operating systems that originated as an add-on to the older MSDOS operating system for the IBM PC. Modern versions are based on the newer Windows NT kernel that was originally intended for OS/2. Windows runs on x86, x8664 and Itanium processors. The Unix-like family is a diverse group of operating systems with several major sub-categories including System V, BSD, and Linux (be acquainted with supplementary reading text of the Unit). The name "UNIX" is a trademark of The Open Group, which licenses it for use with any operating system that has been shown to conform to their definitions. "Unix-like" is commonly used to refer to the large set of operating systems, which resemble the original Unix. Unix-like systems run on a wide variety of machine architectures. They are used heavily for servers in business, as well as workstations in academic and engineering environments. Free Unix variants, such as GNU, Linux and BSD, are popular in these areas. Some Unix variants like HP's HP-UX and IBM's AIX are designed to run only on that vendor's hardware. Others, such as Solaris, can run on multiple types of hardware, including x86 servers and PCs. Apple's Mac OS X, a hybrid kernel-based BSD variant derived from NEXTSTEP, Mach, and FreeBSD, has replaced Apple's earlier (non-Unix) Mac OS. Unix interoperability was sought by establishing the POSIX standard. The POSIX standard can be applied to any operating system, although it was originally created for various Unix variants. Mac OS X is a line of partially proprietary, graphical operating systems developed, marketed, and sold by Apple Inc., the latest of which is pre-loaded on all currently shipping Macintosh computers. Mac OS X is the successor to the original Mac OS, which had been Apple's primary operating system since 1984. The most recent edition is Mac OS X v10.6, which was first made available on August 28, 2009. Releases of Mac OS X are named after big cats; the current version of Mac OS X is nicknamed "Snow Leopard". Mac OS X Server includes work group management and administration software tools that provide simplified access to key network services, including a mail transfer agent, a Samba server, an LDAP server, a domain name server, and others. English for Special Purposes Minix – MINIX is a Unix-like computer operating system based on microkernel architecture. Andrew S. Tanenbaum wrote the operating system to be used for educational purposes; MINIX also inspired the creation of the Linux kernel. Its name is a portmanteau of the words minimal and Unix. Samba – is a free software re-implementation of SMB/CIFS networking protocol, originally developed by Australian Andrew Tridgell. As of version 3, Samba provides file and print services for various Microsoft Windows clients and can integrate with a Windows Server domain, either as a Primary Domain Controller (PDC) or as a domain member. It can also be part of an Active Directory domain. LDAP – Lightweight Directory Access Protocol is an application protocol for querying and modifying directory services running over TCP/IP. Domain name server – DNS, domain name server, the system that automatically translates Internet addresses to the numeric machine addresses that computers use. 21. Summarize the main ideas of the text using the following phrases: This text concerns the problem of… Currently under development is… It is worth mentioning that… The main idea of this text is… We can draw a conclusion that… Computer Engineering WRITING: Computer OS development 22. Try to give your own ideas on the following questions. What are in your opinion the most urgent OS problems? Could you give you opinion on the ways of future OS development? Give characteristics of your own OS on your computer. Prove your ideas.Use links from Get Real to help you. ● Get Real Check these websites for useful information: www.coolwebmasters.com http://en.wikipedia.org/ SPEAKING: Computer systems 23. Think of the computer system that will meet the needs of office users (software engineers, web designers, computer security specialists, gamers etc.), complete the diagram, describe it and give reasons for your choice. Study supplementary reading material and Internet sources in order to get useful information. PC Software OS Applications Hardware CPU Memory RAM Peripherals ROM Input Output Storage _____ _____ _____ English for Special Purposes 27 28 Computer Engineering Unit 3 Portable computers Useful prefixes 2 Comparing & Predicting Portable Computers Tablet computers Contrasting LEAD-IN: Computer evolution 1. Read the lines from descriptions of some portable computers (B) and guess the type of a computer (A) then match them with pictures below (1-5). Justify your guess. Give more details about each type. What other types of portable computers are popular nowadays? A B The personal digital assistant (PDA) …with handsfree interface, and usually some voice capability (speech recognition and speech synthesis)… The pocket computer …it has a flat panel display and a keyboard, requiring a seated position and both hands … …it is something between a laptop and a PDA. They have a full keyboard (often in reduced size), 11-13’ screens and usually no internal optical drive… …it is a small calculator-sized handheld programmable computer… …usually held in one hand and operated with the other, can be used as an organizer, a diary, a ‘to do’ list… The laptop The wearable computer The Netbook 2 1 4 3 PRONUNCIATION 2. Make sure you pronounce the following words properly: ultra-mobile ['ʌltrə 'məubaɪl] typical palmtop ['pɑːmtɔp] configuration [kənfɪgju'reɪʃ(ə)n] wearable ['wɛərəbl] thickness ['θɪknəs] designed [dɪ'zaɪnd] weigh [weɪ] dimension [daɪ'men(t)ʃ(ə)n] weight [weɪt] augment ['ɔːgmənt] behavioral [bɪ'heɪvjərəl] optimize ['ɔptɪmaɪz] stylus ['staɪləs] prosthetic [prɔs'θetɪk] isometric [ˌɪsə'metrik] majority [mə'ʤɔrətɪ] companion [kəm'pænjən] WORD STUDY 3. Translate the following definitions and memorize the terms: English for Special Purposes ['tɪpɪk(ə)l] 5 Computer Engineering portable (adj) - having the ability to run on a variety of computers (portable software) without reference to a particular type of hardware; small and lightweight, able to be easily carried or moved (hardware); chipset (n) - a highly integrated circuit on the motherboard of a computer that controls many of its data transfer functions; docking station (n) - a device used to connect one appliance to another, esp. a portable computer and a desktop computer, to make use of its external power supply, monitor, and keyboard, esp. to enable the transfer of data between the machines; pen computing (n) - a computer system employing a user-interface using a pointing device plus handwriting recognition as the primary means for interactive user input; smartphone (n) - a mobile telephone with computer features that may enable it to interact with computerized systems, send e-mails, and access the web; touchscreen (n) - a visual display unit screen that allows the user to give commands to the computer by touching parts of the screen instead of using the keyboard; omit (v) - to neglect to do or include; stylus (n) - an electronic input device that is used to draw or write on the screen; slot (n) - or expansion slot, a spare space on the system board of a computer to which expansion boards can be fitted; performance (n) - the action or process of carrying out or accomplishing an action, task, or function; general-purpose (adj) - having a range of uses or applications; not restricted to one function; optical disc (n) - an inflexible disc on which information is stored in digital form by laser technology; consistency (n) - agreement or harmony between parts of something complex; compatibility; configuration (n) - the particular choice of hardware items and their interconnection that make up a particular computer system; pointing stick (n) - an isometric joystick used as a pointing device. It was invented by research scientist Ted Selker and now it is present on many brands of laptops; flip (adj) - an electronics form factor which is in two or more sections that fold via a hinge. 4. Complete the puzzle using the clues and the words from exercises 2 and 3. to work at several different tasks simultaneously able to be carried or moved easily, especially by hand t k p denoting a computer system that is small enough to be used at a desk a computer input device in the form of a small panel containing different touch-sensitive areas to modify something in order to achieve maximum efficiency k t p h p z English for Special Purposes 29 30 Computer Engineering 5. Match the following words with their synonyms: A B trackpad housing omit portable compatibility A neglect mobile touchpad consistency case B traditional utilize run dimension enhance size operate conventional improve use 6. Match A and B to make up phrases often used to speak about portable computers and then give their Russian equivalents (C): A B housing recognition mode battery life station resolution battery device panel display docking voice high keyboard longer pointing rechargeable portrait C WORD BUILDING : Useful prefixes 2 Prefix Examples Meaning macro-/mega- large or great in size or duration macroeconomics, megabyte micromultisemidecdereultra- very small many or much half ten remove/reduce again/back very/extremely microprocessor multi-access semiconductor decimal decode reboot ultramodern 7. Fill in the gaps with the correct prefix from the list. re- de- dec- semi- ultra- mega- micro- multi- 1. Portable computers, by their nature, are _____computers. 2. A _____byte equals approximately one million bytes. 3. Once you finish your program, you will have to test it and _____bug it to remove all the mistakes. 4. The introduction of _____conductor technology revolutionized the computer industry. 5. If a computer system has two or more central processors which are under common control, it is called a _____processor system. 6. The _____imal system is a number system with a base of 10. 7. The _____chargeable battery of a laptop is charged from an AC adapter and typically stores enough energy to run the laptop for 2 to 3 hours in its initial state. 8. _____portables typically weigh less than four pounds and, when closed, are 1.5" thin or thinner. English for Special Purposes Computer Engineering GRAMMAR FOCUS : Comparing & predicting 8. Translate the following sentences paying attention to the comparing techniques. If you need help use GRAMMAR FILES 3 (p. 109). 1. Many computers in this class cost as much as two desktop computers with similar specifications. 2. Netbooks typically have less powerful hardware than larger laptop computers. 3. The capabilities of an analog computer are not as great as those of a digital one. 4. The smaller the computer the faster it operates. 5. Convertible tablets are by far the most popular form factor of tablet PCs. 6. Typical battery life for standard laptops is two to five hours of light-duty use, but may drop to as little as one hour when doing power-intensive tasks. 7. The memory effect happens when one does not use a battery to its fullest extent then recharges it. 9. Choose the correct variant to complete the sentences. 1. Some notebooks achieve a (further; more further) portability improvement by omitting an optical drive. 2. Portable computers will become much (commonly; more commonly) available. 3. A bit is (a small; the smallest) unit of information. 4. What is (the good; the best) way to compile a program? 5. Newer laptops come with LED based screens offering a (less; least) power consumption and (wider; more wider) viewing angles. 6. Much (fewer; less) details are necessary for the new model. 7. (Higher; high) mathematics is a basic subject. 10. Complete the sentences using the verbs in brackets in the correct form. All sentences refer to the Future. If you need help use GRAMMAR FILES 4 (p. 111). 1. Portable computers __________ certainly __________ (be going to) become more powerful and they __________ also __________ (get) cheaper. 2. It’s likely computers __________ (be integrated) with other devices. 3. You __________ (be able to) talk to your computer to control it without using a keyboard. 4. Mobile phones may __________ (replace) computers as the commonest way to access the Internet. 5. If the market for portable computers __________ (grow), prices __________ (be reduced) even more next year. 6. The size of a general-purpose computer will ultimately be limited by the input and output method used. If a screen __________ (be) too small, it either __________ (not display) enough information, or the information displayed __________ (be) too small to read easily. 11. Link these words to make predictions using predicting techniques. Express the level of certainty as you see it. You can make all the necessary changes. If you need help use GRAMMAR FILES 4 (p. 111). Example: computer teaching/ be used/ much. – I think computer teaching will probably be used more. 1) computers / write / own software. 2) a body chip / correct / poor vision. 3) computer teaching / replace / courses. 4) very small devices / be built into clothing. 5) computers / be implanted into the human brain. 6) people / vote in elections online. English for Special Purposes 31 32 Computer Engineering SPECIALIST READING A: Types of portable computers 12. Read the text quickly, ignoring the gaps and find out: what similar characteristics a laptop and a desktop computer have; what operating systems subnotebooks run; what characteristics netbooks optimize for; what PDAs are commonly used for; what main features wearable computers have. 13. Read the text again and choose from the phrases (a-k) the one which fits each gap (1-11). There is one extra phrase you do not need to use. a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. j. k. l. …retains the performance of a standard notebook; …the configuration and power management of the computer; …that are larger than a laptop; …general computing and accessing Web-based applications; …predates the use of a mouse and graphical display; …they may be paired with a docking station; …to sit on a person's lap while in use; …lie flat on the keyboard housing; …by taking notes, holding contacts, and connecting; …general-purpose desktop operating systems; …constant interaction between the computer and user; …solid-state storage devices. English for Special Purposes Though the term portable computer has recently been used almost exclusively to refer to portable computers (1) _____, and usually do not run on batteries, smaller portable computers are also known as mobile computers. They are referred to by their more specific terms: laptops, subnotebooks, hand-held computers, palmtops, and wearable computers. A laptop is a personal computer designed for mobile use and small and light enough (2) _____. A laptop integrates most of the typical components of a desktop computer, including a display, a keyboard, a pointing device (a touchpad, also known as a trackpad, and/or a pointing stick), speakers, and often including a battery, into a single unit. The rechargeable battery (if present) is charged from an AC adapter and typically stores enough energy to run the laptop for 2 to 3 hours in its initial state, depending on (3) _____. Laptops are usually shaped notebook with thicknesses between 18-38 mm and dimensions ranging from 27x22cm, 13" display to 39x28cm, 17" display and up. Modern laptops weigh 1.4 to 5.4 kg. Most laptops are designed in the flip form factor to protect the screen and the keyboard when closed. Modern tablet laptops have a complex joint between the keyboard housing and the display, permitting the display panel to swivel and then (4) _____. A subnotebook (ultraportable) is a laptop designed with an emphasis on portability (small size, low weight and longer battery life) that (5) _____. They are usually smaller and lighter than standard laptops, weighing between 0.8 and 2 kg; the battery life can exceed 10 hours. To achieve the size and weight reductions, ultraportables use high resolution 13" and smaller screens (down to 6.4"), have relatively few ports, employ expensive components designed for minimal size and best power efficiency, and utilize advanced materials and construction methods. Some subnotebooks achieve a further portability improvement by omitting an optical/removable media drive; in this case (6) _____ that contains the drive and optionally more ports or an additional battery. The term "subnotebook" is usually reserved to laptops that run (7) _____ such as Windows, Linux or Mac OS X, rather than specialized software such as Windows CE, Palm OS or Internet Tablet OS. Netbooks are a branch of subnotebooks, a category of Computer Engineering small, lightweight, and inexpensive laptop computers suited for (8) _____. They are often marketed as "companion devices", i.e., to augment a user's other computer access. At their inception in late 2007 — as smaller notebooks optimized for low weight (about 1 kg.) and low cost — netbooks omitted certain features (e.g., the optical drive), featured smaller screens and keyboards, and offered reduced specification and computing power. Some netbooks do not have a conventional hard drive and use (9) _____ instead, as these require less power, are faster, lighter, and generally more shock-resistant, but with much less storage capacity. A personal digital assistant (PDA) is a mobile device, also known as a palmtop computer. Their weight is less than 1 pound. PDAs are used to organize a person's life (10) _____ to the Internet. They commonly have colour screens and audio capabilities, enabling them to be used as mobile phones (smartphones), web browsers or portable media players. Many PDAs can access the Internet, intranets or extranets via Wi-Fi or Wireless Wide Area Networks (WWANs). A typical PDA has a touchscreen, a memory card slot, and IrDA, Bluetooth, Wi-Fi. However, some PSAs may not have a touch screen, using softkeys, a directional pad, and a numeric keypad for input; this is typically seen on telephones that are incidentally PDAs. Wearable computers are computers that are worn on the body. This type of wearable technology has been used in behavioral modeling, health monitoring systems, information technologies and media development. Wearable computers are especially useful for applications that require computational support while the user's hands, voice, eyes, arms or attention are actively engaged with the physical environment. One of the main features of a wearable computer is consistency. There is a (11) _____, i.e. there is no need to turn the device on or off. Another feature is the ability to multi-task. It is not necessary to stop what you are doing to use the device; it is augmented into all other actions. These devices can be incorporated by the user to act like a prosthetic. It can therefore be an extension of the user’s mind and/or body. Portable computers have been increasing in popularity over the past decade, as they do not restrict the user in terms of mobility as a desktop computer would. Wireless Internet, extended battery life and more comfortable ergonomics have been factors driving this increase in popularity. 33 FUNCTIONAL LANGUAGE: Prepositions 14. Complete the sentences with the prepositions from the box. One preposition is not used in any sentences. Consult the APPENDIX (p. 120). of to by in for on 1. Because ___ the additional requirements, laptop components are usually of inferior performance compared ___ similar desktop parts. 2. Laptop motherboards do not conform ___ a desktop form factor. 3. There is a wide range of CPUs designed ___ laptops available. 4. A battery's performance gradually decreases with time, leading ___ an eventual replacement in 1-3 years, depending ___ the charging and discharging pattern. 5. Higher-end laptops and desktop replacements ___ particular often come with dedicated graphics processors on the motherboard or as an internal expansion card. 6. There are also some week points in relation ___ ergonomics. 7. ___ addition, the users will need to move their arms constantly while writing. 8. With primary focus given to web browsing and emailing, netbooks rely heavily ___ the Internet for remote access to web-based applications. 9. Netbooks have their internal storage in the form of solid-state drives and not hard disks, which are essential ___ installing many programs. 10. Tablets, ___ general, were expected to replace standard laptops starting this year and, for the most part, that isn't happening. English for Special Purposes 34 Computer Engineering COMPREHENSION CHECK 15. Read the text again and decide whether these statements are true (T) or false (F), correct the false ones: True False 1. The term “portable computer” is now almost exclusively used to refer to portable computers that are larger than a laptop and do not run on batteries. 2. Laptops can only run on AC power and need to be plugged in. 3. The weight of early models of laptops was more than 5.4 kg. 4. Tablet PCs are designed in the flip form factor to protect the screen and the keyboard when closed. 5. Despite the size and weight reductions, ultraportables retain the performance of a standard notebook. 6. The battery life of subnotes is typically 10 hours. 7. Subnotebooks run specialized software such as Windows CE, Palm OS or Internet Tablet OS. 8. Low cost and low weight are the main advantages of netbooks over other computers of that kind. 9. Although solid-state storage devices are less power consuming their storage capacity is also little 10. A typical PDA has softkeys, a directional pad, and a numeric keypad rather than a touchscreen for entering data. 11. Unlike a laptop or a palmtop, wearable computer is constantly turned on and interacts with the real-world task. 12. All types of portable computers use standard motherboards or backplanes providing plug-in slots for add-in cards. 16. Read the text again and complete the summary. Portable computers are small and __________ enough to be __________. Laptops, __________, __________, __________ and wearable computers can be classified as portables. A laptop has most of the typical components of a __________ including a __________, a __________, a __________ device, speakers and a __________ which usually __________ enough energy to run the laptop for 2 or 3 hours in its initial state. A subnotebook is a class of laptop computers that are smaller and lighter than typical notebooks. However, subnotebooks retain the performance of a standard notebook. The savings in size and weight are usually achieved partly by __________ ports or having removable media or optical __________. Many can be paired with __________ to compensate. They generally run full desktop __________ such as Windows or Linux. Netbooks are a category of small, lightweight, and __________ laptop computers marketed as __________ and usually used for general computing and accessing __________ applications. They usually English for Special Purposes do not have __________ disk or __________ drive and offer reduced specification and __________. PDAs or __________ computers are small enough to fit into the palm of a hand and used to __________ a person's life. PDAs feature __________ screens, __________ capabilities and are used as __________ (smartphones), __________ or __________ media players. They can access the Internet, intranets or extranets via __________ or __________ Networks. Many PDAs employ __________ technology. __________ computers are computers that are worn on the body. They provide the user with the __________ support while his hands, voice, eyes, arms or attention are actively engaged with the __________. The main features of wearable computers are __________ and the ability to __________ providing constant __________ between the computer and __________. The popularity of portable computers has been __________ over the past decade as they do not __________the user in terms of __________. Computer Engineering 35 SPECIALIST READING B: Tablet Computers 17. Scan the text, identify different parts and entitle them. title from… – to… … 18. Read the text and decide whether these points are discussed in it. Yes differences between two types of tablets examples of computers of both types pros and cons of tablet computers development prospects of tablet computers tablet computers in everyday life common form factors of tablets OS used in tablet computers latest versions of tablets No Two distinctly different types of "tablet computers" should be named. A tablet personal computer (tablet PC) is a portable personal computer equipped with a touch-screen as a 1 primary input device. It is x86 based and uses a slightly modified personal computer OS (Windows or Ubuntu Linux) which supports touch-screen, (instead of a traditional display, mouse and keyboard). A typical tablet personal computer needs to be "stylus driven", because operating the typical desktop based OS requires a high precision to select "Widgets", such as the close window button. A "tablet computer", or simply "tablet", is a complete computer contained entirely in a flat touch screen that uses a stylus, digital pen or fingertip as the primary input device instead of a keyboard or mouse which may or may not be included. It is not x86 based and uses a RISC 2 (ARM or MIPS) CPU instead, that earlier was only used in portable equipment like MP3 players and cell phones, but has become powerful enough for most contemporary computing tasks, such as browsing the Internet, light production work and gaming, tasks that historically have been done on x86 based Personal computers. The tablet computer and the associated special operating software is an example of pen computing technology. Tablet computers come in a range of sizes. Tablet personal computers tend to be as large as laptops and often are the largest usable size for mobile tablet computing while the new generation of tablet computers can be much smaller and in size can border on PDAs . Booklet computers are dual screen tablet computers that fold like a book. Typical booklet computers are 3 equipped with multi-touch screens and pen writing recognition capabilities. They are designed to be used as digital day-planners, internet surfing devices, project planners, music players, and displays for video, live TV and e-reading. Slate computers are tablet computers without a dedicated keyboard. For text input, users rely on handwriting recognition via an active digitizer, touching an on-screen keyboard using fingertips or a stylus, or using an external keyboard that can usually be attached via a wireless or USB connection. Convertible tablets have a base body with an attached keyboard. They more closely resemble modern laptops, and are usually English for Special Purposes 36 Computer Engineering heavier and larger than slates. Typically, the base of a convertible attaches to the display at a single joint called a swivel hinge or rotating hinge. The joint allows the screen to rotate through 180° and fold down on top of the keyboard to provide a flat writing surface. This design, although the most common, creates a physical point of weakness on the notebook. Convertibles are by far the most popular form factor of tablet PCs, because they still offer the keyboard and pointing device (usually a trackpad) of older notebooks, for users who do not use the touchscreen display as the primary method of input. The iPad is a tablet computer designed and developed by Apple. It is particularly marketed as a platform for audio and visual media such as books, periodicals, movies, music and games, as well as web content. At about 1.5 pounds (680 grams), its size and weight are between those of most contemporary smartphones and laptop computers. Apple released the iPad in April 2010, and sold 3 million of the devices in 80 days. The iPad runs the same operating system as the earlier iPod Touch and iPhone and is controlled by a multi-touch display – break from most previous tablet computers, which used a pressure-triggered stylus. The iPad's touchscreen display is a 9.7 inch (25 cm) LCD (1024 × 768 pixels) with scratch-resistant glass. Like the iPhone, the iPad is designed to be controlled by bare fingers; normal gloves and styli that prevent electrical conductivity may not be used, although there are special gloves and capacitive styli designed for this use. The display responds to two other sensors: an ambient light sensor to adjust screen brightness and a 3-axis accelerometer to sense iPad orientation and switch between portrait and landscape modes. The iPad built-in applications support screen rotation in all four orientations, meaning that the device has no intrinsic "native" orientation; only the relative position of the home button changes. The iPad uses a Wi-Fi data connection to browse the Internet, load and stream media, and install software. Some models also have a 3G wireless data connection. The device uses an internal rechargeable lithium-ion polymer battery that can provide up to 10 hours of video, 140 hours of audio playback, or one month on standby. iPad's not a perfect tablet computer, but the very implementation of the iPhone OS and its clever dataentry scheme – virtual keyboard, multi-touch gestures and all – turns the iPad into an immeasurably more usable device than any other tablet PC. English for Special Purposes Comments: 1 The term x86 refers to a family of instruction set architecture based on the Intel 8086 CPU. 2 ARM – Acorn RISC Machines - семейство процессоров ARM для встраиваемых и мобильных систем. Представляет собой некоторый конструктор, с помощью которого заказчик набирает себе те возможности, которые ему нужны. Линейка продуктов фирмы ARM состоит из базовых процессорных ядер и их "дочек", в которых реализованы различные дополнительные возможности. 3 multi-touch — технология, которая способна одновременно обнаруживать и определять координаты минимум 3 точек касания. 19. Answer the questions: 1. What are the differences between Tablet PC and Tablet Computer? 2. Where was RISC CPU most exclusively used before the advent of tablet computers? 3. How big can tablet computers be? 4. What are booklet computers used for? 5. What input devices do the users of slates rely on? 6. What form factor of Tablet PC is the most popular? Why is it so popular? 7. What is the weakest point of convertible tablets? 8. What common features do the iPad and iPhone have? What makes them different? 9. The iPad has no intrinsic "native" orientation, doesn’t it? Explain what opportunities this property gives to the user. 10. What special features does the iPad have in comparison to other tablet PCs? Computer Engineering WRITING: Tablet computers vs. typical laptops 20. Write two paragraphs on a) or b). Paragraph 1: compare the advantages and disadvantages of a) tablet computers versus conventional laptops; b) portable computers versus desktop computers. Paragraph 2: describe which of the two is more usable in this or that field. While writing try to apply different comparing techniques. If you need help consult GRAMMAR FILES 2 (p….). SPEAKING: Predictions for the Future 21. Role play. Work in pairs. Play the parts of an IT expert and an interviewer. Make up a conversation predicting the further developments of portable computers. You can use the Supplementary reading section text “Predictions for the Future”. The following discourse markers may help you: Contrasting But; Although/ though; however Study the following examples: The tablet PC is clearly coming but it is more an evolution of the user interface right now than a true replacement for the existing laptop computer. The tablet PC is clearly coming. However, it is more an evolution of the user interface right now than a true replacement for the existing laptop computer. Although (Though) the tablet PC is clearly coming, it is more an evolution of the user interface right now than a true replacement for the existing laptop computer. Although is more typical of formal speech or writing. The clause with although can come at the beginning. Though is used like although in informal speech or writing. English for Special Purposes 37 38 Computer Engineering Unit 4 Programming Languages Up- & -up verbs Past tenses Programming Language History of Programming Languages Good presentation LEAD-IN 1. Study the following words, think what unites them and continue this list. Russian symbolic body spoken written C# mnemonic FORTRAN dot-and-dash finger PRONUNCIATION 2. Make sure you pronounce the following words properly: algorithm [’ælgərið(ə)m] error [’erə] artificial [ɑːti’fiʃ(ə)l] machine [mə’ʃiːn] ambiguous [æm’bigjuəs] precision [pri’siʒ(ə)n] automatically [ɔːtə’mætik(ə)li] programming ['prəugræmɪŋ] completeness [kəm’pliːtnəs] execute ['eksɪkjuːt] diversity [daɪ'vɜːsɪtɪ] dominant [’dɒminənt] WORD STUDY 3. Translate the following definitions and memorize the terms: artificial language (n) - an invented language, especially one intended as an international medium of communication or for use with computers; specification (n) - a detailed description of the criteria for the constituents, construction, performance, etc., of a material, apparatus or of the standard of workmanship required in its manufacture; abstraction (n) - the process of formulating generalized ideas or concepts by extracting common qualities from specific examples; modification (n) - a small change or adjustment; programming language (n) - a simple language system designed to facilitate the writing of computer programs; syntax (n) - a systematic statement of the rules governing the grammatical arrangement of words and morphemes in a language; semantics (n) - the study of the relationships between signs and symbols and what English for Special Purposes Computer Engineering they represent; concept (n) - a general idea or notion that corresponds to some class of entities and that consists of the characteristic or essential features of the class; context (n) - the conditions and circumstances that are relevant to an event, fact, etc.; novice (n) - a person who is new to or inexperienced in a certain task, situation, etc.; convergence (n) - the combining of different forms of electronic technology, such as data processing and word processing converging into information processing; predictability (n) - the state of knowing what something is like, when something will happen, etc. 4. Match the following words with their synonyms (A, B) and the Russian equivalents (C, D): A artificial perform specify mode predate field intent alter meet context B precede satisfy sphere simulated modify detail setting execute purpose style C automated looms batch process figuratively speaking machine-readable precisely defined scripting language dominant implementation external behavior fall into disuse human intervention D машинно-считываемый, точно определённый, автоматический ткацкий станок, образно выражаясь, язык сценариев, процесс пакетной обработки внешнее поведение выйти из употребления вмешательство человека основное применение 5. Jumbled words. Rearrange the letters in A to make words and match them with definition in B. A eanualgg _______________ iiiaarfclt _______________ nstcrtnuiio itcompexly mrrrmpogae sestmy topucerm B a part of a program consisting of a coded command to the computer to perform a specified function; a group or combination of interrelated, interdependent, or interacting elements forming a collective entity; a person who writes a program so that data may be processed by a computer; a system for the expression of thoughts, feelings, etc., by the use of spoken sounds or conventional symbols; a device, usually electronic, that processes data according to a set of instructions; _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ the state or quality of being intricate or complex; _______________ non-natural. English for Special Purposes 39 40 Computer Engineering WORD BUILDING: UP- and -up verbs 6. Complete these sentences with the appropriate form of the verbs from the list: back up build up catch up keep up set up start up free up update upgrade upload 1. To avoid losing data, you should __________ your files regularly. 2. You can __________ your PC by adding a new motherboard. 3. Delete some files to __________ space on your hard disk. 4. A Data is __________ from regional PCs to the company's mainframe each night. 5. The operating system boots when you __________ your computer. 6. She's taking a course to __________ her knowledge of computing. 7. He __________ a website to advertise his travel company. 8. You can __________ with developments by reading PC magazines. 9. If you miss a class, you can study the hand-outs to __________ 10.The image in a digital camera is __________ from a red, green and blue image. GRAMMAR FOCUS : Past Tenses (Active & Passive) 7. Put the verbs in brackets into correct past tense form active or passive. If you need help use GRAMMAR FILES 1 (p. 107). 1. While the experiment with a new computer _______________ (carry out) nobody left the laboratory. 2. A new type of computing equipment _______________ (produce) at our University last year. 3. At that time scientific work _______________ (do) mostly by large groups of researchers. 4. The business letter _______________ (receive) before you came. 5. An interesting research in the field of communication _______________ (do) at our University two years ago. 6. We _______________ (look) for a more simple method of solution but could not find it. 7. Prospects of using smiles _______________ (understand) already by everybody by the end of previous millennium. 8. Our engineers _______________ (develop) a new type of electronic devices. 9. Before starting the project the students _______________ (discuss) the advantages of net communications. 10.Programming languages _______________ (can use) to create programs that specify the behavior of a machine. English for Special Purposes Computer Engineering 41 SPECIALIST READING A: Programming Language 8. Read the heading and determine what this text is about. 9. Scan the text and make up the plan of the main content. 1. … 2. … Programming language theory (commonly known as PLT) is a branch of computer science that deals with the design, implementation, analysis, characterization, and classification of programming languages and their individual features. It is a multi-disciplinary field, both depending on and, in some cases, affecting mathematics, software engineering, linguistics, and even the cognitive sciences. It is a well-recognized branch of computer science, and as of 2009, an active research area, with results published in numerous journals dedicated to PLT, as well as in general computer science and engineering publications. A programming language is a machine-readable artificial language designed to express computations that can be performed by a machine, particularly a computer. Programming languages can be used to create programs that specify the behavior of a machine, to express algorithms precisely, or as a mode of human communication. Many programming languages have some form of written specification of their syntax and semantics, since computers require precisely defined instructions. Some are defined by a specification document (for example, an ISO1 Standard), while others have a dominant implementation (such as Perl2). A programming language provides a structured mechanism for defining pieces of data, and the operations or transformations that may be carried out automatically on that data. A programmer uses the abstractions presented in the language to represent the concepts involved in a computation. These concepts are represented as a collection of the simplest elements available (called primitives). Programming languages differ from most other forms of human expression in that they require a greater degree of precision and completeness. When using a natural language to communicate with other people, human authors and speakers can be ambiguous and make small errors, and still expect their intent to be understood. However, English for Special Purposes 42 Computer Engineering figuratively speaking, computers "do exactly what they are told to do", and cannot "understand" what code the programmer intended to write. The combination of the language definition, a program, and the program's inputs must fully specify the external behavior that occurs when the program is executed, within the domain of control of that program. Programs for a computer might be executed in a batch process (the input data are collected into batches of files and are processed in batches by the program) without human intervention, so all input data is preselected through scripts or command-line parameters, or a user might type commands in an interactive session of an interpreter. In this case the "commands" are simply programs, whose execution is chained together. When a language is used to give commands to a software application (such as a shell) it is called a scripting language. Many languages have been designed from scratch, altered to meet new needs, combined with other languages, and eventually fallen into disuse. Although there have been attempts to design one "universal" computer language that serves all purposes, all of them have failed to be generally accepted as filling this role. The need for diverse computer languages arises from the diversity of contexts in which languages are used. Programs range from tiny scripts written by individual hobbyists to huge systems written by hundreds of programmers. Programmers range in expertise from novices who need simplicity above all else, to experts who may be comfortable with considerable complexity. Programs must balance speed, size, and simplicity on systems ranging from microcontrollers to supercomputers. Programs may be written once and not change for generations, or they may undergo nearly constant modification. Finally, programmers may simply differ in their tastes: they may be accustomed to discussing problems and expressing them in a particular language. English for Special Purposes Comments: 1 International Standards Organization – Международная организация по стандартизации. 2 Practical Extraction and Report Language – язык для практического извлечения данных и составления отчётов, свободно распространяемый интерпретируемый язык, текущая версия - Perl 5. VOCABULARY IN USE 10. Complete the following text using suitable words and word combinations: algorithm ; to communicate instructions; created; computer; the theory of computation; interaction; external devices; execution; data structures; programming language A ________ is a language used to write _______ programs, which involve a computer performing some kind of computation or _______ and possibly control ______ such as printers, robots, and so on. Programming languages differ from natural languages in that natural languages are only used for ______ between people, while programming languages also allow humans _______ to machines. Some programming languages are used by one device to control another. For example PostScript programs are frequently ______ by another program to control a computer printer or display. Programming languages may contain constructs for defining and manipulating _______ or controlling the flow of ______. ______ classifies languages by the computations they are capable of expressing. All Turing complete languages can implement the same set of algorithms. ANSI/ISO SQL and Charity are examples of languages that are not Turing complete, yet often called programming languages. Computer Engineering COMPREHENSION CHECK 11. Read the text again and decide whether these statements are true (T) or false (F), correct the false ones: True False 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. PLT is a branch of mathematics. A programming language is a man-made language designed to express computations. Programming languages can’t be used as a kind of human communication. Programming language is like other forms of human expressions. A programmer provides the abstractions presented in the language to represent the concepts involved in a computation. 6. Computers "do exactly what they are told to do", and cannot "understand" what code the programmer planned to write. 7. Programs for a computer might be performed in a batch process with no human interaction. 8. The need for diverse computer languages arises from the range of contexts in which languages are used. 9. It is impossible to operate a program without human intervention. 10.“Universal” computer language isn’t a dream any more. 12. Write the summary of the text using the following words and expressions: programming languages ………… multi- disciplinary field cognitive sciences machine-readable artificial express computations written specification precisely defined structured mechanism a batch process human interaction the diversity of contexts The following words and phrases may help you to make a summary: The paper attempts to provide… … are discussed briefly. The author considers… Details are given… The consequence of development … … briefly surveys … … is wide ... In conclusion… To sum up... English for Special Purposes 43 44 Computer Engineering SPECIALIST READING B: History of Programming languages 13. Scan the text and match the headings (a-c) with the paragraphs (1-3) a. Consolidation and growth b. Early developments c. Refinement 14. Read the text and answer the questions. 1. What was the first a programming language or a modern computer? 2. When and where were the first electrically powered digital computers created? 3. What generation are Assembly languages referred to? 4. What was the format and use of the early programming languages heavily influenced by? 5. When were the major language paradigms, which are now in use, developed? 6. What problem was widely discussed in 1960s and 1970s? 7. What were the 1980s marked by? 8. What trend in language design was an important one during the 1980s? 9. What are the current directions of the programming language evolution? 1._______________________ The first programming languages predate the modern th computer. The 19 century had "programmable" looms and player piano scrolls which implemented what are today recognized as examples of domain-specific programming languages. By the beginning of the twentieth century, punch cards encoded data and directed mechanical processing. In the 1930s and 1940s, the formalisms of Alonzo Church's lambda calculus and Alan Turing's Turing machines provided mathematical abstractions for expressing algorithms; the lambda calculus remains influential in language design. In the 1940s, the first electrically powered digital computers were created. The first high-level programming language to be designed for a computer was Plankalkül, developed for the German Z3 by Konrad Zuse between 1943 and 1945. Programmers of early 1950s computers, notably UNIVAC I and IBM 701, used machine language programs, that is, the first generation language (1GL). 1GL programming was quickly superseded by similarly machine-specific, but mnemonic, second generation languages (2GL) known as Assembly languages or 1 Assembler . Later in the 1950s, assembly language programming, which had evolved to include the use of macro instructions, was followed by the development of "third generation" programming languages (3GL), such as FORTRAN, LISP, and COBOL. 3GLs are more abstract and are "portable", or at least implemented similar on computers that do not support the same native machine code. Updated versions of all of these 3GLs are still in gen e ral u s e , an d ea ch h a s s tro n g ly influenced the development of later languages. At the end of the 1950s, 2 the language formalized as Algol 60 was introduced, and later programming languages are, in many respects, descendants of Algol. The format and use of the early programming languages was heavily influenced by the constraints of the interface. 2._______________________ The period from the 1960s to the late 1970s brought the development of the major language paradigms now in use, though many aspects were refinements of ideas in the very first Third-generation programming languages. 3 APL introduced array programming and influenced functional programming. PL/I (NPL) was designed in the early 1960s to incorporate the best ideas from FORTRAN and COBOL. English for Special Purposes Computer Engineering 4 In the 1960s, Simula was the first language designed to support object-oriented programming; in the mid1970s, Smalltalk followed with the first "purely" objectoriented language. C was developed between 1969 and 1973 as a systems programming language. Prolog, designed in 1972, was the first logic programming language. In 1978, ML built a polymorphic type system on top of Lisp, pioneering statically typed functional programming languages. Each of these languages spawned an entire family of descendants, and most modern languages count at least one of them in their ancestry. The 1960s and 1970s also saw considerable debate over the merits of structured programming, and whether programming languages should be designed to support it. New techniques reduced the footprint of a program as well as improved productivity of the programmer and user. The card deck for an early 4GL was a lot smaller for the same functionality expressed in a 3GL deck. 3._______________________ The 1980s were years of relative consolidation. C++ combined object-oriented and systems programming. The United States government standardized Ada, a systems programming language intended for use by defense contractors. In Japan and elsewhere, vast sums were spent investigating so-called "fifth generation" languages that incorporated logic programming constructs. The functional languages community moved to standardize ML and Lisp. Rather than inventing new paradigms, all of these movements elaborated upon the ideas invented in the previous decade. One important trend in language design during the 1980s was an increased focus on programming for largescale systems through the use of modules, or large-scale organizational units of code. Modula-2, Ada, and ML all developed notable module systems in the 1980s, although other languages, such as PL/I, already had extensive support for modular programming. The rapid growth of the Internet in the 1990s created opportunities for new languages. Perl, originally a Unix scripting tool first released in 1987, became common in dynamic Web sites. Java came to be used for server-side programming. These developments were rather refinements to existing languages and paradigms, and largely based on the C family of programming languages. Programming language evolution continues, in both industry and research. Current directions include security and reliability verification, new kinds of modularity (mixings, delegates, aspects), and database integration. 45 Comments: 1 Assembler – Ассемблер, машинно-ориентированный язык программирования низкого уровня. Так как каждый тип процессоров имеет собственный набор машинных команд, то под него создаётся и уникальный, платформно-зависимый ассемблер. 2 Algorithmic Language – Алгол, примитивный процедурный язык высокого уровня, оказал большое влияние на развитие процедурных языков (блочная структура, рекурсия, БНФ). В 1960-70-х годах был общепризнанным языком научных публикаций. Дальнейшее развитие Алгола-60 - Алгол-68, из-за своей сложности не получил широкого распространения. 3 A Programming Language – созданный К. Айверсоном процедурный язык сверхвысокого уровня. Требует специальной клавиатуры. Дальнейшее развитие языка - APL2. 4 Simula – язык моделирования сложных систем, разработанный Оле Далом и Кристеном Нугардом. Первый объектно-ориентированный язык, основанный на более раннем языке моделирования дискретных событий Simula 1 и языке Algol. Впервые введены понятия класса, наследования и динамического связывания. Развитие - Simula-67 English for Special Purposes 46 Computer Engineering WRITING: Practical application of programming languages 15. Study the information about the following programming languages given below. Write an argumentative essay explaining what language would be the most appropriate to use for each of these situation: 1. A schoolteacher wants his young pupils to learn some basic mathematics by controlling a simple robot. 2. The owner of a small business wants to create a simple database program to keep track of his stock. 3. An engineer wants to develop a program for calculating the stresses in a mechanical device. 4. A student wants to create web pages for a personal website. 5. A systems programmer wants to add some new modules to an operating system. 6. A programmer working for the US army wants to create a program for controlling a new type of weapon. 7. A finance company needs to process data from its branch offices on its mainframe computer. 8. A website designer wants to enable the data on his website to be easily processed by different programs. 9. A student studying artificial intelligence wants to write some programs for a course project. 10. A college lecturer wants his students to learn the principles of programming. 11. A professional programmer wants to create and sell a program for use in language learning. 12. A website designer wants to password-protect a section of a website. PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES BOX Java is developed by Sun Microsystems in 1990s and used for developing interactive applications for the Internet. Ada, named after Countess Ada Lovelace (one of the first programmers), is a superset of Pascal. Ada is a structured language developed and used by the US Department of Defense. Log© is an easy-to-use language that is primarily used to teach children how to program. LISP stands for LISt Processor and is designed to process non-numeric data – that is, symbols such as characters or words. It is used to develop applications in the field of artificial intelligence. FORTRAN stands for FORmula TRANslator; it was designed in 1954 and is oriented toward manipulating formulas for scientific, mathematical, and engineering problem-solving applications. HTML stands for HyperText Markup Language; it is a page-description language used to prepare a text for display in a browser program. Perl (Practical Report and Extraction Language) first appeared in 1987 as a Unix-based tool for producing reports but is now widely used for creating interactive webpages. Prolog stands for PROgramming LOGic; it is used to English for Special Purposes develop applications in the field of artificial intelligence. It is a popular tool for natural-language programming. XML stands for extensible Markup Language; it is a metalanguage for creating webpages with meaningful data that can be used by a variety of programs. C++ is an object-oriented superset of С which combines the best features of a structured high-level language and an assembly language that uses computer resources efficiently and is easy to code. С was originally designed to write systems software but is now considered a general-purpose language. Visual Basic (BASIC) stands for Beginners' All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code; it is a simple-to-use language that has a graphical interface. It makes it particularly easy for an inexperienced programmer to create database programs. Pascal, named after the mathematician Blaise Pascal, was created primarily to fill the need for a teaching vehicle that would encourage structured programming. It is often used in college computing courses. COBOL Stands for COmmon Business-Oriented Language; it has been around for a long number of years but is still an important transaction-processing language used to process the records of large organizations on mainframe computers. Computer Engineering SPEAKING: Universal programming language 16. Get ready to create and present your own “universal” programming language paying attention to its purposes, peculiarities and advantages over other kinds of visual programming and languages for web. The following discourse markers may help you to create a good presentation; you can also visit the site http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HZj70Rv5K8M How do I start? You could introduce your talk or presentation formally. Today I'm going to talk about... In this presentation, I'd like to tell you a little bit about... Alternatively, you could grab your audience's attention by starting with a question or a challenging statement. Use pictures or objects. So, how much do you know about ___________? Have you ever asked yourself why ... ? What I'm going to tell you about today will change the way you think about... Pass around the picture/object. What do you think it is? How do I organize the presentation? Make it short. Write down the points you want to make, edit them down to, say, four, then decide which order you are going to make them in. Introduce each point with an expression from the list below. The first/key thing to say about __________ is... The main point to make about __________ is... What you really need to know about__________ is ... Now let's look at... Let's turn to/move on to ... Another interesting thing to say about__________ is ... Finally, I'd like to say a few words about... What do I say? After introducing the point, add information briefly in two, three, or, at the most, four sentences. Use markers like the ones below to construct long, well-balanced sentences. Anyway,...; Naturally,...; Of course,... Similarly, ... ; Surprisingly, ,.,; Remarkably, ... Despite,...; However, ...; Although,...; Whereas... Consequently, ... ; In addition,..; Moreover,...; Furthermore, ... Incidentally, ... ; By the way, ... ; It's worth noting that... Conclude the presentation by briefly summarizing what you have said, or the points you have made. You could end by asking for comments or questions. In conclusion,...; To sum up,... So, remember that…is all about…,and. So, there are three things to remember about… Does anybody have any questions? How do I finish? English for Special Purposes 47 48 Computer Engineering Unit 5 Computer networking Abbreviations Relative clauses with a participle Computer Networking TCP/IP vs. PPP LEAD-IN 1. Think about the basic components of a typical computer network (a file server, a bridge, a router, a backbone, a LAN, a gateway, a modem…), try to explain their functions. PRONUNCIATION 2. Make sure you pronounce the following words properly: route [ruːt] wireless [’waɪələs] router [’ruːtə] flow [fləu] technology [tek’nɔləʤi] conduct [kən’dʌkt] converge [kən'vɜːʤ] hierarchical [ˌhaɪə'rɑːkɪk(ə)l] authentication [ɔːˌθentɪ'keɪʃ(ə)n] multinational [mʌlti’næʃ(ə)nəl] transceiver [træn’si:və] asynchronous [eɪ'sɪŋkrənəs] WORD STUDY 3. Translate the following definitions and memorize the terms: networking (n) - the interconnection of two or more networks in different places; specification (n) - a detailed description of the criteria for the construction, appearance, performance, etc., of a material, apparatus, standard etc.; peer-to-peer (adj.) - (P2P) designed so that computers can send information directly to one another without passing through a centralized server; Point-to-Point Protocol (n) - (PPP), a data link protocol commonly used to establish a direct connection between two networking nodes. It provides connection authentication and transmission encryption privacy; High-Level Data Link Control (n) - (HDLC) a bit-oriented synchronous data link layer protocol developed by the ISO. HDLC provides both connection-oriented and connectionless service and can be used for point to multipoint connections, but is now used almost exclusively to connect one device to another; English for Special Purposes Computer Engineering frame relay (n) - a standardized wide area network technology that specifies the physical and logical link layers of digital telecommunications channels using a packet switching methodology; Asynchronous Transfer Mode (n) - (ATM) an electronic digital data transmission technology that is implemented as a network protocol and was first developed in the mid 1980s to transport real-time video, audio, image files, text; sensitive information (n) - confidential data; intranet (n) - an internal network that makes use of internet technology; extranet (n) - an intranet that is modified to allow outsiders access to it, esp. one belonging to a business that allows access to customers; precursor (n) - a person or thing that precedes and shows or announces someone or something to come; coaxial cable (n) - a cable consisting of an inner insulated core of stranded or solid wire surrounded by an outer insulated flexible wire braid, used esp. as a transmission line for radio-frequency signals. 4. Match the following words with their synonyms (A, B) and the Russian equivalents (C, D): A specifications conduct hub deploy converge interconnect sensitive precursor drive significant B spread out motivate privileged carry out predecessor considerable detailed description join centre interrelate C routing protocol practical application exchange data peer-to-peer network Point to Point Protocol coaxial cable optical fiber twisted-pair cable content provider packet switched network D обмениваться информацией протокол канала связи с непосредственным соединением поставщик онлайновой информации оптоволокно витая пара (два скрученных изолированных провода) практическое применение сеть с пакетной коммутацией одноранговая сеть (без иерархии и выделенных серверов) протокол маршрутизации коаксиальный кабель English for Special Purposes 49 50 Computer Engineering 5. Jumbled words. Rearrange the letters in A to make words and match them with definition in B. A kiertnnwgo xrnaette essniivet ntrntiea eourrt lipaponcait loechyntog B _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ confidential; a device that allows packets of data to be moved efficiently between two points on a network; the act of applying to a particular purpose; an intranet that is modified to allow outsiders access to it; the application of practical sciences to industry or commerce; the interconnection of two or more networks in different places; an internal network that makes use of internet technology. WORD BUILDING: Abbreviations An abbreviation (from Latin brevis, meaning short) is a shortened form of a word or phrase. Usually it consists of a letter or group of letters taken from the word or phrase. Abbreviations can be pronounced differently: as individual letters, such as TCP/IP [ˌtisi:pi:ˈaɪpi:]; as a word, such as WAN [wæn], LAN [læn]; as a word or names of letters, depending on speaker or context, such as FAQ [fæk ] or [ˌefeɪˈkju:]; as a combination of letter names and words, such as JPEG [ˈdʒeɪpɛɡ] and MSDOS [ˌɛmɛsˈdɒs]; Always check your dictionary or the Internet if you are not sure. 6. Do you know what these well-known abbreviations stand for? OS, GUI, PDA, LAN, WAN, WWAN, BASIC, HTTP, COBOL, IBM, WP, IP, FTP, Wi-Fi, MMS, ADSL, SONET 7. Match the abbreviations with their definitions to know more terms on the theme. Telnet VoIP FTP ARPANET HTTP JPEG SONET FAQ The method by which web pages are transferred from a website to your PC. A standardized multiplexing protocol that transfers multiple digital bit streams over optical fiber using lasers or LEDs. The network developed in the early 70s by the US Department of Defense.This was the precursor to the Internet. A file or web page containing answers to questions asked by internet users or visitors to a website. A standard network protocol used to transfer files from one host to another over a TCP-based network. It is built on a client-server architecture and utilizes separate control and data connections between the client and server. A protocol and a program which is used to log directly into remote computer systems. This enables you to run programs kept on them and edit files directly. An Internet protocol which allows you to make phone calls using the Internet instead of the regular phone lines. A standard for compressing and decompressing image files. English for Special Purposes Computer Engineering GRAMMAR FOCUS : Relative clauses with a participle Preview: Relative clauses with a participle are often used in technical descriptions. They allow you to provide a lot of information about a noun using as few words as possible. Study these examples. 1. The technology needed to set up a home network. 2. PCs equipped with Ethernet adapters. 3. Network modem allowing clients to access the Internet simultaneously. 4. Data line linking client to server. We can use the passive participle as in sentences 1 and 2. 1. The technology needed to set up a home network. = technology which is needed. 2. PCs equipped with Ethernet adapters = PCs which are equipped. We can use an active participle as in sentences 3 and 4. 3. Network modem allowing clients to access the Internet simultaneously = modem which allows clients to access the Internet simultaneously. 4. Data line linking client to server = data line which links client to server. 8. Complete these definitions with the correct participle (active or passive) of the verb given in brackets. If you need help use GRAMMAR FILES 5 (p. 112). 1. A gateway is an interface __________ (enable) dissimilar networks to communicate. 2. A bridge is a hardware and software combination __________ (use) to connect the same type of networks. 3. A backbone is a network transmission path __________ (handle) major data traffic. 4. A router is a special computer __________ (direct) message when several networks are linked. 5. A network is a number of computers and peripherals __________ (link) together. 6. A LAN is a network __________ (connect) computers over a small distance such as within a company. 7. A server is a powerful computer __________ (store) many programs (share) by all the clients in the network. 8. A client is a network computer __________ (use) for accessing a service on a server. 9. A thin client is a simple computer __________ (comprise) a processor and memory, display, keyboard, mouse and hard drives only. 10. A hub is an electronic device __________ (connect) all the data cabling in a network. 9. Link these statements using a relative clause with a participle. 1. The technology is here today. It is needed to set up a home network. 2. You only need one network printer. It is connected to the server. 3. Her house has a network. It allows basic file-sharing and multi-player gaming. 4. There is a line receiver in the living room. It delivers home entertainment audio to speakers. 5. Eve has designed a site. It is dedicated to dance. 6. She has built in links. They connect her site to other dance sites. 7. She created the site using Netscape Composer. It is contained in Netscape Communicator. 8. At the centre of France Telecom's home of tomorrow is a network. It is accessed through a Palm Pilotstyle control pad. 9. The network can simulate the owner's presence. This makes sure vital tasks are carried out in her absence. 10. The house has an electronic door-keeper. It is programmed to recognize you. This gives access to family only. English for Special Purposes 51 52 Computer Engineering SPECIALIST READING A: Computer Networking 10. Scan the text and say which paragraph tells us about: a. types of networks; b. history of network development; c. what computer networking is. 11. Now study the text and decide where the following sentences go in the text. a. …the data is transferred over sets of radio transceivers; b. A peer-to-peer network is where each client shares their resources with other workstations in the network; c. …the switching capabilities they perform; d. …a sub-discipline of telecommunications, computer science, information technology and/or computer engineering; e. …human users by carrying instructions between them; f. …the set of subnets, and aggregates of subnets; g. some form of communications security mechanism; h. …to connect and communicate through and between them. English for Special Purposes Computer networking is the engineering discipline concerned with communication between computer systems or devices. Networking, routers, routing protocols, and networking over the public Internet have their specifications defined in documents called RFCs. Computer networking is sometimes considered 1)_____________________. Computer networks rely heavily upon the theoretical and practical application of these scientific and engineering disciplines. A computer network is any set of computers or devices connected to each other with the ability to exchange data. Local area network (LAN) is a network that spans a relatively small space and provides services to a small number of people. The first LAN was invented by a Law Doctor in 1978. Depending on the number of people that use a Local Area Network, a peer-to-peer or client-server method of networking may be used. 2)_____________________. Examples of peer-topeer networks are small office networks where resource use is minimal and a home network. A client-server network is where every client is connected to the server and each other. Client-server networks use servers in different capacities. These can be classified into two types: single-service servers, where the server performs one task such as file server, print server, etc.; while other servers can not only perform in the capacity of file servers and print servers, but they also conduct calculations and use these to provide information to clients (Web/Intranet Server). Computers linked via Ethernet Cable, can be joined either directly or via a network hub that allows multiple connections. Wide area network (WAN) is a network where a wide variety of resources are deployed across a large domestic area or internationally. An example of this is a multinational business that uses a WAN to interconnect their offices in different countries. The largest and best example of a WAN is the Internet, which is a network comprised of many smaller networks. The Internet is considered the largest network in the world. The PSTN (Public Switched Telephone Network) also is an extremely large network that is converging to use Internet technologies, although not necessarily through the public Internet. A Wide Area Network involves communication through the use of a wide range of different technologies. These technologies include Point-to-Point WANs such as Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) and High-Level Data Link Control (HDLC), Frame Computer Engineering Relay, ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode) and Sonet (Synchronous Optical Network). The difference between the WAN technologies is based on 3)______________________ and the speed at which sending and receiving bits of information (data) occur. Wireless LANs and WANs (WLAN & WWAN) are basically the same as a LAN or a WAN but there are no wires between hosts and servers. 4)_____________________. These types of networks are beneficial when it is too costly or inconvenient to run the necessary cables. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is a network that is too large for even the largest of LAN's but is not on the scale of a WAN. It also integrates two or more LAN networks over a specific geographical area (usually a city) so as to increase the network and the flow of communications. The LAN's in question would usually be connected via "backbone" lines. All networks are interconnected to allow communication with a variety of different kinds of media, including twisted-pair copper wire cable, coaxial cable, optical fiber, and various wireless technologies. The devices can be separated by a few meters (e.g. via Bluetooth) or nearly unlimited distances (e.g. via the interconnections of the Internet). Informally, the Internet is the set of users, enterprises, and content providers that are interconnected by Internet Service Providers (ISP). From an engineering standpoint, the Internet is 5)_____________________, which share the registered IP address space and exchange information about the reachability of those IP addresses using the Border Gateway Protocol. Typically, the human-readable names of servers are translated to IP addresses, transparently to users, via the directory function of the Domain Name System (DNS). Over the Internet, there can be business-to-business (B2B), business-to-consumer (B2C) and consumer-toconsumer (C2C) communications. Especially when money or sensitive information is exchanged, the communications are apt to be secured by 6)_____________________. Intranets and extranets can be securely superimposed onto the Internet, without any access by general Internet users, using secure Virtual Private Network (VPN) technology. Before the advent of computer networks that were based upon some type of telecommunications system, communication between calculation machines and early computers was performed by 7)_____________________. 53 Many of the social behavior seen in today's Internet was demonstrably present in nineteenth-century telegraph networks, and arguably in even earlier networks using visual signals. In September 1940 George Stibitz used a teletype machine to send instructions for a problem set from his Model K at Dartmouth College in New Hampshire to his Complex Number Calculator in New York and received results back by the same means. Linking output systems like teletypes to computers was an interest at the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) when, in 1962, J.C.R. Licklider was hired and developed a working group he called the "Intergalactic Network", a precursor to the ARPANet. In 1964, researchers at Dartmouth developed the Dartmouth Time Sharing System for distributed users of large computer systems. The same year, at MIT, a research group supported by General Electric and Bell Labs used a computer (DEC's PDP-8) to route and manage telephone connections. Throughout the 1960s Leonard Kleinrock, Paul Baran and Donald Davies independently conceptualized and developed network systems which used datagrams or packets that could be used in a packet switched network between computer systems. 1965 Thomas Merrill and Lawrence G. Roberts created the first wide area network (WAN). The first widely used PSTN switch that used true computer control was the Western Electric 1ESS switch, introduced in 1965. In 1969 the University of California at Los Angeles, SRI (in Stanford), University of California at Santa Barbara, and the University of Utah were connected as the beginning of the ARPANet network using 50 kbit/s circuits. Commercial services using X.25, an alternative architecture to the TCP/IP suite, were deployed in 1972. Computer networks and the technologies needed 7)_____________________, continue to drive computer hardware, software, and peripherals industries. This expansion is mirrored by growth in the numbers and types of users of networks from the researcher to the home user. Today, computer networks are the core of modern communication. All aspects of the PSTN are computercontrolled, and telephony increasingly runs over the Internet Protocol. The scope of communication has increased significantly in the past decade and this boom in communications would not have been possible without the progressively advancing computer network. English for Special Purposes 54 Computer Engineering VOCABULARY IN USE 12. Complete the following text using suitable words and word combinations: term computer distinct signifies arrangement network layout characteristics logical hierarchical 1)____________ networks may be classified according to the 2) ____________ topology upon which the network is based, such as bus network, star network, ring network, mesh network, star-bus network, tree or 3) ____________ topology network. Network topology 4) ____________ the way in which devices in the network see their logical relations to one another. The use of the 5) ____________ "logical" here is significant. That is, network topology is independent of the "physical" 6) ____________ of the network. Even if networked computers are physically placed in a linear 7) ____________, if they are connected via a hub, the network has a Star topology, rather than a bus topology. In this regard the visual and operational 8) ____________ of a network are 9) ____________; the 10) ____________ network topology is not necessarily the same as the physical layout. COMPREHENSION CHECK 13. Read the text again and decide whether these statements are true (T) or false (F), correct the false ones: True 1. Computer networking is the engineering discipline concerned with communication between computer systems or people. 2. A computer network is a number of computers or devices connected to each other. 3. Methods of networking depend on programming language. 4. Computers are linked via Ethernet Cable, can be joined either directly (one computer to another), or via a network centre that allows multiple connections. 5. The largest and best example of a LAN is the Internet. 6. All networks are interrelated to allow communication. 7. The main function of the Domain Name System (DNS) is to send messages. 8. The Dartmouth Time Sharing System distributes users of large computer systems. 9. Commercial services using X.25, an alternative architecture to the TCP/IP suite, were spread out in 1972. 10. The communication has grown tremendously in the past decade thanks to the progressively advancing computer network. 14. Define the following abbreviations: LAN; WAN; PSTN; PPT; IP; DNS; WWAN; HDLC; B2B; ISP; B2C; C2C; ARPA. English for Special Purposes False Computer Engineering 55 SPECIALIST READING B: TCP/IP vs. PPP 15. Skim through the text and find explanations to the abbreviations given in the titles. Then read the text thoroughly and do the tasks below. 16. Read the text and mark the equivalents for the following Russian words and phrases: несовместимый; проверка целостности данных; перемешивать; приводить в действие; подпрограмма; подключаться; узел; назначение; поиск данных; последовательное подсоединение; нуль-модемный кабель; система соединения типа точка-точка; пропускная способность; входящее соединение; одновременно; последовательный порт; авторизация. TCP/IP By the mid-1970s, many government agencies were on the ARPA net, but each was running or network developed for their specific project. All were capable networks, but all spoke different languages. What was clearly needed to make things work smoothly was a set of networking protocols that would tie together disparate networks and enable them to communicate with each other. The solution was found in 1982. TCP stands for Transmission Control Protocol; IP is the abbreviation for Internet Protocol. With the advent of TCP/IP, the word Internet - which is a portmanteau word for interconnected networks entered the language. The TCP portion of the TCP/IP provides data transmission verification between client and server. If data is lost or scrambled, TCP triggers retransmission until the errors are corrected. Package of subroutines that provide access to TCP/IP protocols is called a socket. The IP portion of TCP/IP moves data packets from node to node. It decodes addresses and rout data to designated destinations. The Internet Protocol (IP) is what creates the network networks, or Internet, by linking systems at different levels. It can be used by small computers communicate across a LAN (Local Area Network) in the same room or with computers networks around the world. Individual computers connected via a LAN (either Ethernet or token ring) share the LAN setup with both TCP/IP and other network protocols, such as Novell or Windows for Workgroups. One computer on the LAN then provides the TCP/IP connection to the outside world. TCP/IP has been ported to most computer system including personal computers, and has become the new standard in internetworking. It is 1 protocol set that provides the infrastructure for the Internet today. TCP/IP comprises over 100 different protocols. It includes services for remote logon, file transfers, and data indexing and retrieval, among others. English for Special Purposes 56 Computer Engineering PPP One of the most widely used protocols is the Point to Point Protocol. PPP is a mechanism for creating and running IP and other network protocols over a serial link – be that a direct serial connection (using a null-modem cable), over a telnet established link, or a link made using modems and telephone lines (and of course ISDN). Using PPP, you can connect your PC to a PPP server and access the resources of the network to which the server is connected as if you were directly connected to that network. You can also set up your PC as a PPP server, so that other computers can dial into your computer and access the resources on your local PC and/or network. You can also use PPP on two PCs to link together two networks (or a local network to the Internet), creating a Wide Area Network (WAN). One major difference between serial based PPP and an Ethernet connection is of course speed – a standard Ethernet connection operates at 10 Mbs or 100 Mbs maximum theoretical throughput, whereas an analogue modem operates at speeds up to 56 kbps. Also, depending on the type of PPP connection, there may be some limitations in usage of some applications and services. PPP is strictly a peer to peer protocol; there is (technically) no difference between the machine that dials in and the machine that is dialed into. However, for clarity's sake, it is useful to think in terms of servers and clients. When you dial into a site to establish a PPP connection, you are a client. The machine to which you connect is the server. When you are setting up a box to receive and handle dial-in PPP connections, you are setting up a PPP server. Any PC can be both a PPP server and client - even simultaneously if you have more than one serial port (and modem if necessary). The machine that initiates the call as the CLIENT, whilst the machine that answers the telephone, checks the authentication of the dial in request is referred to as the SERVER. The use of PPP as a client to link one or more machines at a location into the Internet is, probably, the one in which most people are interested. English for Special Purposes 17. Reread the text and answer the following questions 1. What determined the necessity of creating a set of networking protocols? 2. What is the role of the TCP portion of the TCP/IP protocol? 3. What is a socket? 4. What does the IP portion do? 5. What is a function of a LAN? 6. How many protocols does TCP/IP comprise? 7. What is the PPP used for? 8. In what way does it differ from the Ethernet connection? 9. How can you apply client server relations in the PPP? 10. Explain the term “peer-to-peer system”. Computer Engineering WRITING: LAN (WLAN) description 18. Write a description of a LAN or WLAN (wireless local area network). Don’t forget to mention these points: general information, specifications, performance parameters, special features. Visit http://www.buzzle.com/articles/computer-networking to get some useful information. ………… SPEAKING: Computer Networking 19. Report. Find some information about these scientists who influenced greatly computer networking development and get ready to report back to the group. Don’t forget to mention these points: background, achievements, contributions etc. George Robert Stibitz Joseph Carl Robnett Licklider Leonard Kleinrock Paul Baran Donald Watts Davies English for Special Purposes 57 58 Computer Engineering Unit 6 Computer Graphics Noun suffixes -ing forms Computer Graphics Computer animation Details & examples LEAD-IN: Computer graphics application 1. Study the list of CG applications and comment on how they can be used: Computational biology Computational physics Computer-aided design Computer simulation Digital art Education Graphic design Infographics Information visualization Rational drug design Scientific visualization Video Games Virtual reality Web design PRONUNCIATION 2. Make sure you pronounce the following words properly: synthesize ['sɪnθəsaɪz] exterior [ɪk'stɪərɪə] aesthetic [i:s'θetɪk] spatial ['speɪʃl] visualization [vɪzυǝlaɪ'zeɪʃn] procedurally [prəυ 'si:dʒrǝli] although [ɔ:l'ðəυ] finite ['faɪnaɪt] differentiate [dɪfə'renʃɪeɪt] representation [reprɪzen'teɪʃn] WORD STUDY 3. Translate the following definitions and memorize the terms: content (n) - information resources (entry) or filling of web servers; dimension (n) - a measurement of the size of something in a particular direction, such as the length, width, height, or diameter Syn. measurement; encompass (v) - to enclose within a circle; surround Syn. include; manipulate (v) - to handle or use, esp with some skill, in a process or action; differentiate (v) - 1) to serve to distinguish between ; 2) to perceive, show, or make a difference (in or between); discriminate; application (n) - 1) a computer program that is written and designed for a specific English for Special Purposes Computer Engineering discrete (adj) setting (n) - approximation(n) sample (n) manifold (adj) - conjunction (n) mesh (n) via (prep) standalone (adj) - need or purpose; 2) applying to a particular purpose or use; separate or distinct in form or concept; 1) the surroundings in which something is set; scene; 2) the scenery, properties, or background, used to create the location for a stage play, film, etc; the process or result of making a rough calculation, estimate, or guess; a small part of anything, intended as representative of the whole; specimen; 1) of several different kinds; multiple: manifold reasons; 2) having many different forms, features, or elements: manifold breeds of dog; 1) the act of joining together; combination; union; 2) simultaneous occurrence of events; coincidence; a network; net; by way of; by means of; through; (of a device or system) capable of operating independently of any other device or system. 4. Match the following words with their synonyms (A, B) and the Russian equivalents (C, D): A mesh foundation standalone define finite shape conjunction encompass differentiate similar B C content issue boundary polygonal spatial temporal fluid capture data-driven keyframing single limited combination distinguish basis include determine alike net form D жидкость захват изображения временной проблема; дело; тема; пункт пограничный определение ключевых кадров содержание многоугольный местный компьютерно управляемый 5. Guess the jumbled words by their definition: tnilioluamin sgcrpahi rrxietoe ecsruaf lmeod _______________ a source of light; the process or art of drawing _______________ with mathematical principles; _______________ _______________ _______________ in accordance a part, surface, or region that is on the outside; the boundary of a solid figure; a representation of a structure. English for Special Purposes 59 60 Computer Engineering WORD BUILDING: Noun suffixes Suffixes change the class of the root word. Suffixes can help you tell if a word is a noun, an adjective or a verb. Common noun suffixes are: -er, -or, -ion, -tion, -ation, -ment, -ness, -ity, -ant, - logy, -ing, -y, -ure, -sion ! When using suffixes, always check in your dictionary to see if you need to change any other letters. scan – scanner (double n) 6. Complete these sentences with the word in brackets and one of the noun suffixes. Use a dictionary to help you. 1. Kodak is a (manufacture) ____________ of photographic and imaging equipment. 2. To avoid red eyes, use the camera's red eye (reduce) ____________ feature. 3. (Crop) ____________ a photograph means cutting out the parts of an image you don't need. 4. The (sharp) ____________ of a photograph is a combination of resolution and acutance - the ability to represent clear edges. 5. Digital (techno) ____________ is evolving so rapidly that some cameras have a resolution of 12 megapixels – that's 12 million pixels. 6. Computer graphics are pictures and (draw) ____________ produced by computer. 7. The (sharp) ____________ of an image depends on the (dense) ____________ of pixels, or (resolute) ____________. 8. Paint and photo−editing programs like Adobe Photoshop focus on the (manipulate) ____________ of bitmaps. 9. (Composite) ____________ is combining parts of different images to create a single image. 10. Graphic artists and (design) ____________ use drawing programs to create freehand drawings and (illustrate) ____________ for books or for the Web. 11. Business people use (present) ____________ graphics to make information more interesting visually. 12. CAD is used in aerospace, (architect) ____________ and industrial sectors. 13. Designers fill the surfaces to give the (appear) ____________ of a 3−d solid object with volume. 14. The process of adding paint, colour and filters is called (texture) ____________. 15. (Govern) ____________ agencies use GIS to understand geographic data and then plan the use of land or predict natural disasters. GRAMMAR FOCUS : -ing forms 7. Say to what part of speech these -ing forms belong. Translate the sentences. If you need help use GRAMMAR FILES 6 (p. 113). 1. Our aim is solving this complex problem. 2. They succeeded in obtaining good results working with this computer. 3. In testing the devices they found some serious faults. 4. The growing importance of satellite services in telecommunications attracts worldwide attention. 5. Russian scientists played a great role in the spreading of the satellite television in Russia. 6. The scientist published his experiments proving the existence of radio waves in space. 7. Using the new method it is possible to increase accuracy and speed of computational results. 8. Thousands of scientists, using the most modern equipment, are studying this phenomenon. 9. These new devices are replacing their older equivalents. English for Special Purposes Computer Engineering 10. Computers occupy one of the leading places among the greatest achievements of modern engineering. 11. Developing the new method they achieved good results. 12. Our space exploration develops much faster than that of the other developed countries, including the USA. 8. Write out the numbers of the sentences with a participle, a gerund or a noun to complete the following chart. participle gerund noun … 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. By adding memory to a computer we increase its performance. It is necessary to complete the experiment without destroying the substance. Showing the technical difficulties of the scheme is the object of the paper. We have heard of his starting a very important experiment in your laboratory. No changes can be made in that branch of industry without introducing the most up-to-date technology. 6. The possibility of chemical energy being transformed into electric energy is evident. 7. Proper measurement is of great importance for getting the necessary data. 8. There is no hope of our getting a complete analysis within 10 days. 9. Having used all the information available, the scientist suggested a new interesting method of analysis. 10. Each scanning from top to bottom transmits one complete picture. 11. Having been adjusted the equipment operated properly. 12. Having carried on many experiments and tests a scientist published many articles on computer science. 13. These principles are exactly the same as in the case of ships, each control having its code signal. 14. Several points of disagreement are evident when comparing the results obtained. 15. There is almost no limit to the speed at which the counting can be carried. 16. The program downloading from the Internet should be installed. 17. Scanning is the only practical method of converting a picture with its hundreds of thousands of tiny details into a form suitable for transmission. 18. PCs generate graphics by performing mathematical calculations on data. 19. Businesspeople use graphics to make information more interesting visually. 20. Graphs and diagrams can be more effective ways of communicating with clients than lists of figures. 9. Correct the mistakes in these sentences. There are seven mistakes in total. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Computer animation is the process of create objects which move across the screen. Texturing involves add paint, colour and filters to drawings and designs. You can open the colour palette by click on the corresponding icon. CAD programs are very fast at to perform drawing functions. A lot of time and money is saved by test a car design before to make the product. To render refers to the techniques used to make realistic images. 10. Find the examples of the -ing forms in the following text and define their part of speech. English for Special Purposes 61 62 Computer Engineering SPECIALIST READING A: Computer graphics 11. Scan the text and name: a) the applications of CG mentioned in the text; b) four subfields of CG. 12. Match the following word combinations: 1. computer a) processing 2. light b) review 3. visual c) science 4. image d) provider 5. physical e) developer 6. modeling f) transport 7. software g) simulation 8. content h) content 9. product i) tool The Lagrangian, L, of a dynamical system is a function that summarizes the dynamics of the system. It is named after Joseph Louis Lagrange. The concept of a Lagrangian was originally introduced in a reformulation of classical mechanics known as Lagrangian mechanics. In classical mechanics, the Lagrangian is defined as the kinetic energy, T, of the system minus its potential energy, V. In symbols, L=T−V. The Euler angles were developed by Leonhard Euler to describe the orientation of a rigid body (a body in which the relative position of all its points is constant) in 3-dimensional Euclidean space. To give an object a specific orientation it may be subjected to a sequence of three rotations described by the Euler angles. This is equivalent to saying that a rotation matrix can be decomposed as a product of three elemental rotations. English for Special Purposes Computer graphics is a subfield of computer science which studies methods for digitally synthesizing and manipulating visual content. Although the term often refers to the study of three-dimensional computer graphics, it also encompasses two-dimensional graphics and image processing. Computer graphics studies the manipulation of visual and geometric information using computational techniques. It focuses on the mathematical and computational foundations of image generation and processing rather than purely aesthetic issues. Computer graphics is often differentiated from the field of visualization, although the two fields have many similarities. Applications of computer graphics include: Special effects Video games Visual effects Digital art There are four major subfields in computer graphics. The subfield of geometry studies the representation of three-dimensional objects in a discrete digital setting. Because the appearance of an object depends largely on its exterior, boundary representations are most commonly used. Two dimensional surfaces are a good representation for most objects, though they may be non-manifold. Since surfaces are not finite, discrete digital approximations are used. Polygonal meshes are by far the most common representation, although point-based representations have become more popular recently. These representations are Lagrangian, meaning the spatial locations of the samples are independent. Recently, Eulerian surface descriptions (i.e., where spatial samples are fixed) such as level sets have been developed into a useful representation for deforming surfaces which undergo many topological changes (with fluids being the most notable example). The subfield of animation studies temporal descriptions for surfaces (and other phenomena), i.e., how they move and deform over time. Computer Engineering Historically, most work in this field has focused on parametric and data-driven models, but recently physical simulation has become more popular as computers have become more powerful computationally. Rendering generates images from a model. Rendering may simulate light transport to create realistic images or it may create images that have a particular artistic style in non-photorealistic rendering. The two basic operations in realistic rendering are transport (how much light passes from one place to another) and scattering (how surfaces interact with light). Transport describes how illumination in a scene gets from one place to another. Visibility is a major component of light transport. Models of scattering and shading are used to describe the appearance of a surface. Descriptions of this kind are typically expressed with a program called a shader. 3D computer graphics are often referred to as 3D models. The model describes the process of forming the shape of an object. The two most common sources of 3D models are those originated on the computer by an artist or engineer using some kind of 3D modeling tool, and those scanned into a computer from real-world objects. Models can also be produced procedurally or via physical simulation. Before objects are rendered, they must be placed (laid out) within a scene. This is what defines the spatial relationships between objects in a scene including location and size. Popular methods include keyframing, inverse kinematics, and motion capture, though many of these techniques are used in conjunction with each other. As with modeling, physical simulation is another way of specifying motion. There are a multitude of websites designed to help educate and support 3D graphic artists. Some are managed by software developers and content providers, but there are standalone sites as well. These communities allow for members to seek advice, post tutorials, provide product reviews or post examples of their own work. VOCABULARY IN USE 13. Replace the italicized words with the equivalents from the box. foundations conjunction meshes differentiated encompasses 1. The term Computer Graphics includes 3D CG, 2D CG and image processing. 2. Computer Graphics is distinguished from visualization. 3. Polygonal nets are the most common representation of surfaces. 4. CG focuses on the mathematical and computational basis of image generation and processing. 5. Popular methods include keyframing, inverse kinematics, and motion capture, though many of these techniques are used in combination with each other. 14. Complete the sentences as in the text using the words from the box. simulation setting visibility samples content approximations 1. Computer graphics studies methods of digitally synthesizing visual _____. 2. The subfield of geometry studies the representation of three-dimensional objects in a discrete digital _____. 3. Since surfaces are not finite, discrete digital _____ are used. 4. The Lagrangian representations mean that the spatial locations of the _____are independent. 5. Recently _____ has become more popular. 6. _____ is a major component of light transport. English for Special Purposes 63 64 Computer Engineering COMPREHENSION CHECK 15. Mark the following statements as “true” or “false”, correct the false ones. Find information in the text if necessary. True False 1. Computer Graphics focuses on purely aesthetic issues. 2. Computer Graphics differs completely from visualization. 3. Animation describes the changes of an object over the time. 4. Fluids are the most notable examples of Lagrangian representation. 5. Physical simulation has become more popular than data-driven models nowadays. 6. Visibility is a major component of light transport. 7. The model describes the shape of an object. 8. 3D graphics artist can find help in the Internet. 9. Rendering generates images from the real world. 10. Keyframing, inverse kinematics, and motion capture can’t be used together. 16. Answer the questions: 1. What does Computer Graphics study? 2. How many subfields does it include? 3. What techniques does the subfield of geometry use? 4. What does the appearance of an object depend on? 5. What is the drawback of two dimensional surfaces? 6. Why are discrete digital approximations used? 7. What are the most common representations? 8. What subfield studies the movement or deformation of surfaces? 9. What are the two basic operations in rendering? 10. What are the most common sources of 3D modeling? English for Special Purposes Computer Engineering 65 SPECIALIST READING B: COMPUTER ANIMATION 17. Look through the text and find the sentences describing: the target of the animation; how the illusion of movement is created; the rates perceivable by eyes and brain; skeletal animation; methods for generating the Avar values; an open challenge in computer animation. 18. Read the text and make a list of the key words that would help you summarize the text. _______________________________________ _______________________________________ _______________________________________ ___________________________________________ ________________________________________ ________________________________________ ________________________________________ ________________________________________ ________________________________________ ________________________________________ Computer animation is the art of creating moving images with the use of computers. It is a subfield of computer graphics and animation. Increasingly it is created by means of 3D computer graphics, though 2D computer graphics are still widely used for stylistic, low bandwidth, and faster real-time rendering needs. Sometimes the target of the animation is the computer itself, but sometimes the target is another medium, such as film. It is also referred to as CGI (computer-generated imaging). To create the illusion of movement, an image is displayed on the computer screen and repeatedly replaced by a new image that is similar to the previous image, but advanced slightly in the time domain (usually at a rate of 24 or 30 frames/second). This technique is identical to how the illusion of movement is achieved with television and motion pictures. Computer animation is essentially a digital successor to the art of stop motion animation of 3D models and frame-by-frame animation of 2D illustrations. For 3D animations, objects (models) are built on the computer monitor (modeled) and 3D figures are rigged with a virtual skeleton. For 2D figure animations, separate objects (illustrations) and separate transparent layers are used, with or without a virtual skeleton. Then the limbs, eyes, mouth, clothes, etc. of the figure are moved by the animator on key frames. The differences in appearance between key frames are automatically calculated by the computer in a process known as tweening or morphing. Finally, the animation is rendered. To trick the eye and brain into thinking they are seeing a smoothly moving object, the pictures should be drawn at around 12 frames per second (frame/s) or faster. With rates above 70 frames/s no improvement in realism is perceivable. At rates below 12 frame/s most people can detect jerkiness which detracts from the illusion of English for Special Purposes 66 Computer Engineering realistic movement. Conventional hand-drawn cartoon animation often uses 15 frames/s, but this is usually accepted because of the stylized nature of cartoons. Computer animation demands higher frame rates to reinforce the realism. In most 3D computer animation systems, an animator creates a simplified representation of a character's anatomy, analogous to a skeleton. The position of each segment of the skeletal model is defined by animation variables, or Avars. In human and animal characters, many parts of the skeletal model correspond to actual bones, but skeletal animation is also used to animate other things, such as facial features(though other methods for facial animation exist). There are several methods for generating the Avar values to obtain realistic motion. Traditionally, animators manipulate the Avars directly. Rather than set Avars for every frame, they usually set Avars at strategic points (frames) in time and let the computer interpolate or 'tween' between them, a process called keyframing. One open challenge in computer animation is a photorealistic animation of humans. Currently, most computer-animated movies show animal characters (A Bug's Life, Finding Nemo, Ratatouille, Ice Age), fantasy characters (Monsters Inc., Shrek), anthropomorphic machines (Cars, Robots) or cartoon-like humans (The Incredibles, Up). The movie Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within is often cited as the first computer-generated movie to attempt to show realistic-looking humans. However, due to the enormous complexity of the human body, human motion, and human biomechanics, realistic simulation of humans remains largely an open problem. 19. Summarize the text using the key words from the previous exercise. English for Special Purposes Inbetweening (tweening) is the process of generating intermediate frames between two images to give the appearance that the first image evolves smoothly into the second image. Avar (animation variable) is a variable controlling the position of part of an animated object, such as a character. Successive sets of avars control all movement of the character from frame to frame. In development, they are used to define the junctions of a stick model. Later, they are incorporated into a full wire frame model or a model built of polygons. Finally, surfaces are added, requiring a lengthy process of rendering to produce the final scene. Computer Engineering 67 WRITING: Computer Graphics technologies 20. Write a description of one of Computer Graphics technologies. Don’t forget to mention these points: general information; specifications; field of use; special features; examples of its application. Use links from Get Real to help you. ● Get Real Check these websites for the latest news in Computer Graphics: http://www.nvidia.com/ http://www.3dnews.ru/ SPEAKING: The branches of computer graphics 21. Choosing graphics software. Work in pairs. Student A chooses a task from the list and describes it. Student В chooses the most appropriate graphics software for the task and gives reasons for his or her choice. Swap roles. Student A - to edit and retouch photos - to create illustrations and drawings for a magazine - to prepare slideshows for training sessions or conferences - to make mechanical designs and architectural plans - to create dynamic simulations and special effects for - films, TV, advertisements and games - to analyse geographic data and make maps Student B Computer animation software, for example 3-D Studio Max GIS software, for example ArcView Presentation software, for example PowerPoint A CAD package, for example AutoCAD Vector graphics software, for example Freehand A paint and image-editing program, for example Photoshop 22. Make a report on one of the following topics and discuss them in your group: 3D computer graphics; Cloth modeling; Computer facial animation; Geometry processing; Graphics processing unit (GPU); Digital geometry; Digital image editing; Painter's algorithm; SIGGRAPH; Stanford Bunny; Utah Teapot. Use Supplementary reading section text: The concept of computer graphics. The following discourse markers may help you: As well as that; another thing is; besides; furthermore; in addition; moreover; in particular Giving details Giving examples For example; for instance; as an example English for Special Purposes 68 Computer Engineering Unit 7 Multimedia Useful prefixes 3 Participle II Multimedia Multimedia Web Design Adding LEAD-IN 1. Identify these examples of content forms combined in multimedia and comment on how they can be used: PRONUNCIATION 2. Make sure you pronounce the following words properly: multimedia [,mʌltɪ'mi:dɪə] appropriate [ə'prəυprɪət] modifiable ['mɒdɪfaɪəbl] determine [dɪ'tɜ:mɪn] blurring [blɜ:rɪŋ] advertisement [əd'vɜ:tɪsmənt] recipient [rɪ'sɪpɪənt] content ['kɒntent] survivability [sə,vaɪvə'bɪlətɪ] convergence [kən'vɜ:dʒǝns] WORD STUDY 3. Translate the following definitions and memorize the terms: content (n) - information resources (entry) or filling of web servers; deliver (v) - to carry (transfer) and distribute (goods, mail, etc.) to several places; linear (adj) - relating to a line or to length, resembling, represented by, or consisting of a line or lines, having one dimension; interactivity (n) - a state allowing or relating to continuous two-way transfer of information between a user and the central point of a communication system (computer or television); enhance (v) - to intensify or increase in quality, value, power, etc.; convey (v) - to carry, or transport from one place to another, to communicate (a message, information, etc.); haptic (adj) - relating to or based on the sense of touch; feature (n) - a typical quality or an important part of something; blend (v) - to mix or mingle components together thoroughly; English for Special Purposes Computer Engineering volatile (adj) - inconstant, unsteady, lasting only a short time; (of a memory) not retaining stored information when the power supply is cut off; convergence (n) - the combining of different forms of electronic technology, such as data processing and word processing converging into information processing; predictability (n) - the state of knowing what something is like, when something will happen, etc. 4. Match the following words with their synonyms: deliver demonstration enhance improve convey entry display tactile feature characteristic haptic supply content communicate simulation enable access incorporate delay volatile convergence admission combination activate hold-up include modeling unsteady 5. Match the following words with their equivalents in Russian: predictability delay content blend bitmap volatile self-paced convergence survivability download plug-in upload загружать из удаленного компьютера предсказуемость подключаемая (вспомогательная) программа растровое отображение графического объекта позволяющий самостоятельно выбирать скорость обучения совмещение живучесть загружать в удалённый компьютер непостоянный, временный информационное наполнение задержка, время пересылки пакета от отправителя к получателю смешивать 6. Match a verb in A with a noun in B: A divide into convey develop blend reduce require A combine enhance require install determine find B special effects information categories additional time techniques the download time B visual experience multiple forms of content a new approach application the image size a plug-in English for Special Purposes 69 70 Computer Engineering WORD BUILDING: Useful prefixes 3 A lot of prefixes are used in English for special purposes. Here is a list of prefixes which are useful in helping you to understand unfamiliar words and terms. Some of them are used with a hyphen. Check in a dictionary if you're not sure. prefix enemdisnonmacromicrointerhyperselfdownupecobireultracodemisoverpost- meaning a) put in or on b) cause to be in a certain condition a variant of en- before b, m, and p indicating reversal indicating negation, exclusion from a specified class of persons or things a) large or great in size or duration b) producing larger than life images very small between or among together, mutually, or reciprocally above, over, or in excess of oneself or itself, automatic towards the end or the lower part up, upper, higher or upwards electronic, indicating the involvement of the internet mutual, indicating partnership two, having two, occurring twice again/back extremely/beyond with/together remove/reduce wrongly, badly or incorrectly excessive; beyond a desirable limit after or later than example enclose, enqueue enable, encode, enhance embed, empower connect – disconnect nonexistent, nonfiction macroscopic macrophotography microprocessor international interdependent, interchange hypertext self-defence, self-recording download upload, upgrade, uplink, upstream e-business, e-money, e-book, e-money, e-learning, e-mail co-author, co-design bifocal, binary code, bi-directional bus, retransmit, replace, reboot ultra-slim, ultraspeed, ulrastable co-authoring system, co-developer decode, deactivate, discharge misconnection, misprint overvoltage, overdamping, overload postbyte, postprocessor 7. Use a prefix from the box to form the right word. hyper- down- e- self- inter- dis- non - up- en-(2) em-(2) 1. An electronic whiteboard is an excellent presentational device with the potential to do much more - to go beyond display, providing a tool for _____active teaching and learning. 2. A _____linear editing system is a video or audio editing system which can perform random access on the source material. 3. Most of the courses are _____paced, which means you can enroll any time and finish in less than a semester or take up to a year. 4. The World Wide Web is a classic example of _____media, whereas a non-interactive cinema presentation is an example of standard multimedia due to the absence of hyperlinks. English for Special Purposes Computer Engineering 5. This application offer both internet and gaming acceleration. It can quickly _____hance your computing experience with a single click of a button. 6. You should know that too many little icons can easily _____tract your website visitors. 7. _____loading usually refers to transfer from a larger "host" system to a smaller "client" system, and "_____load" usually means to transfer data or files from a peripheral or subordinate system to a larger or more central one. 8. Is it possible to create a simple image map with _____bedded hyperlinks that I can use online? 9. _____learning is pedagogy _____powered by digital technology. 10. Their aim is to make sure that every home becomes Internet _____abled in the next 10 years. GRAMMAR FOCUS: Participle II 8. Translate the sentences into Russian and define the functions of Participles. If you need help use GRAMMAR FILES 7 (p. 114). 1. Multimedia technologies, whether delivered online or offline, offer significant advantages over alternative communications mediums. 2. Interested users may sign up to receive future information concerning electronically delivered products via e-mail. 3. A new web based program for MP3 files runs silently in the background and can be accessed by any machine on your local network. 4. The word “play” suggests different notions to a child, an actor or a footballer, and has in their speech different meaning. The same applies to the word “track” as used by a pilot, a sportsman, DJ or the word “keyboard” as understood by a programmer, a musician or a telephone operator. 5. In the 24-bit mode, the digital data is recorded onto the internal hard drive as 32-bit data, ensuring even higher recording and playback quality. 6. If used in a computer based training environment, the students’ computer can be connected to the A input, whilst the teacher computer can be connected to the B input. 7. Computer graphic designs are picture images created and manipulated digitally on computers. 8. Certain videos are empty when downloaded. Why does it happen? SPECIALIST READING A: Multimedia 1._______________________ In common usage, the termfor multimedia refers English Special Purposes to an electronically delivered combination of media including video, still images, audio, text in such a way that can be accessed interactively. 71 72 Computer Engineering 9. Scan the text and match the headings (a – e) with the paragraphs (1 – 5). a) Entertainment and fine arts; b) Structuring information in a multimedia form; c) Major characteristics; d) Terminology; e) Education. 10. Read the text and answer the questions. 1. What does the term “multimedia” refer to? 2. What is the difference between linear and nonlinear multimedia? 3. Where does multimedia find its application? 4. What applications are called interactive multimedia? 5. Is multimedia entertainment used in Education? 6. How can you characterize the “on-line writing style”? 11. Read the text and mark the information about online multimedia features. English for Special Purposes Computer Engineering a popular pastime and are software programs available either as CD/DVD-ROMs or online. Some video games also use multimedia features. Multimedia applications that allow users to actively participate instead of just sitting by as passive recipients of information are called Interactive Multimedia. In the Arts there are multimedia artists, whose minds are able to blend techniques using different media that in some way incorporates interaction with the viewer. Although multimedia material may be volatile, the survivability of the content is as strong as any traditional media. 4._______________________ In Education, multimedia is used to produce computer-based training courses (CBTs) and reference books. A CBT lets the user go through a series of presentations, text about a particular topic, and associated illustrations in various information formats. Edutainment is an informal term used to describe combining education with entertainment, especially multimedia entertainment. Learning theory in the past decade has expanded dramatically because of the introduction of multimedia. The possibilities for learning and instruction are nearly endless. The idea of media convergence is also becoming a major factor in education, particularly higher education. 5._______________________ Multimedia and the Internet require a completely new approach to writing. The style of writing that is appropriate for the “on-line world” is highly optimized and designed to be quickly scanned by readers. A good site must be attractive for visitors. When users view a page, they can only view one page at a time. As a result, multimedia users have to create a “mental model of information structure”. That’s why users need predictability and structure, with clear functional and graphical continuity between the various components and subsections of the multimedia production. VOCABULARY IN USE 12. Complete the sentences with suitable words and word combinations. 1. Modern Interactivity is made possible by combining multiple forms of media ________. 2. Haptic technology, illusions of taste and smell ________ the multimedia experience. 3. Some multimedia artists often ________ techniques using different media applications. 4. Multimedia content is not ________, it is as strong as any traditional media. 5. In the ________ multimedia applications are used to develop special effects in movies and animations. 6. Multimedia games are ________ as CD/DVDROMs or online. 7. The edutainment possibilities are ________. 8. Nowadays media ________ is an important characteristic of higher education. 9. Education potential has expanded a lot on account of ________. 10. Attractiveness, ________ and structure are the zzzmain features of a good site. English for Special Purposes 73 74 Computer Engineering COMPREHENSION CHECK 13. Reread the text, tick the “false” sentences and correct them. Multimedia represents a combination of media including video, coded representation, audio, printed text in such a way that can be accessed interactively. Linear multimedia is characterized by the absence of navigational control for the viewer. Online multimedia contains not only photo galleries with both images and title user-updated, but also displayonly illustrations, animations and videos. A computer-based training course is a set of texts, illustrations and multimedia presentations. When users browse through an Internet page they have to create a “predictable structure of mental model of information”. The style of writing in the Web is highly refined and designed to greatly impress readers. Haptic technology enhances the multimedia experience. Being an example of linear content hypermedia offers users certain interactivity. In Education, reference books are still produced without any multimedia content. Several multimedia formats are intended to make it easier and faster to convey information. Any website should be characterized by distinct continuity between the elements and subsections of the multimedia production. English for Special Purposes Computer Engineering SPECIALIST READING B: Multimedia Web Design 14. Scan the text, identify different parts and entitle them. title from… – to… 15. Read the text and decide whether these points are discussed in it. Yes No good multimedia web design characteristics the main goal of Web advertising Web content variants vector graphics features multimedia web design software products computer design specifications streaming multimedia bitmap images A good multimedia web design is one that adds to the overall value of your site. It depends on the web site design as well as the kind of services you want to convey. The very last thing you need is to distract your viewer from the key message on your web page through multimedia web design. Multimedia web design products will allow you to publish two versions of your content. One version is published strictly with HTML and doesn't include the rich features of the multimedia project, but it allows most users to get to the content they want. The multimedia version will require additional download time or a plug-in, but the viewer will be able to see, hear, and interact with the content exactly as it was intended. Much of multimedia web design software utilizes compression technology to create the smallest possible files, thereby reducing the download time and wait time for the viewer. You can publish texts, audio, images and animation to the web as streaming multimedia. Streaming multimedia means that the user does not have to wait for the files to download completely before he can see them. Usually a portion of the content is downloaded, and the remainder is downloaded while the content is being viewed. Adding multimedia design to web site greatly enhances the visual experience of the visitor. Multimedia for web design requires the viewer to install a plug-in or player to view the content. However, some products employ technology that Yes No is already included with the latest Web browsers. Computer graphic designs are picture images created and manipulated digitally on computers. There are basically two forms in computer graphic design: bitmaps and vector graphics. Bitmap images are widely used. The number of pixels in the image determines the size of these images. They must be printed or displayed at the same size. Any other size distorts the image. Vector graphics are a set of graphical objects stored as coordinates, and mathematical formulas that determine their shape and position. These graphical objects are called primitives. Lines, curves, rectangles, ellipses etc. are all primitives. These are widely used in computeraided design. Computer graphic design entails editing and polishing graphics. 2D or 3D computer graphic design programs can be used to create animations. One of the issues in computer graphic design is choosing the image that will convey the meaning best. The graphic must complement the text on the website. The graphic designer must produce a visual communication product for a specific audience. Technology gives the tools to create finished products quickly with a high level of professionalism. An effective advertising or education campaign does much more than deliver a message; it also influences the audience response. There is no point in telling people how good a product is if we can't make them start using it. English for Special Purposes 75 76 Computer Engineering WRITING: Summary 16. Summarize the general ideas of text B: Multimedia Web Design. Follow these steps: 1. Read the text again. 2. Underline the relevant information in each paragraph. 3. Make notes about the main points. Leave out details such as examples. 4. Make sentences from the notes and link the sentences with connectors (and, but, because, therefore, etc.). 5. Write your first draft. 6. Improve your first draft by reducing sentences. For example: cut out unnecessary phrases; omit qualifying words (adjectives or modifying adverbs); transform relative clauses into -ing participle clauses 7. Write the final version of your summary. 8. Don't forget to check the spelling and grammar. This text goes under the headline... SPEAKING: Multimedia applications 17. Prepare a report and take part in a round table discussion on the topic “Multimedia applications”. Pay attention to the following points: 1. Online multimedia. 2. Edutainment applications and CBT courses. 3. Engineering multimedia applications. 4. Multimedia web design software. 5. Rich media components. Use Supplementary reading section text “Rich media features” to express your opinion. The following discourse markers may help you: adding These expressions are much more elegant than the conjunction 'and'. We use them to add information to what has been said. moreover (very formal); furthermore (formal); in addition; as well as that; on top of that (informal); another thing is; what is more; besides; in any case logical consequence These expressions show that the second statement follows logically from the first one. therefore (formal); as a result (formal); consequently (formal); so; then English for Special Purposes Computer Engineering 77 Unit 8 Telecommunication Suffixes -able, -ize Passive infinitives Telecommunication Satellite services Viewpoint adverbs LEAD-IN: Telecommunication devices 1. Match the telecommunication devices with their implementations: Cell Phone provides information to the viewer Laptop with internet access provides communication as well as access of information and contribution of information via the internet Television provides information to the listener Radio allows sending and receiving e-mails and SMS with a high level of security through on-device message encription BlackBerry provides communication between individuals Two-Way Radio provides access of information and contribution of information on the internet Dial-up modem allows wired communication devices to connect to a wireless network using Wi-Fi Wireless access point is a device used to connect a computer or ... termination broad band adapter A (DSL) modem uses the facilities of the public switched telephone network to establish a dialled connection to an Internet service provider via telephone lines PRONUNCIATION 2. Make sure you pronounce the following words properly: transmission [trænz'mɪʃn] medium ['mi:dɪəm] purpose ['pɜ:pəs] multiple ['mʌltɪpl] advantage [əd'vɑ:ntɪdʒ] allocate ['æləkeɪt] router ['ru:tə] recurring [rɪkɜ:rɪŋ] standardize ['stændədaɪz] layer ['leɪə] WORD STUDY 3. Translate the following definitions and memorize the terms: access (v) - a) to obtain or retrieve (information) from a storage device; b) to place (information) in a storage device: direct access, sequential access; English for Special Purposes 78 Computer Engineering allocate (v) chunk (n) customize (v) destine (v) encode (v) eventually (adv) handle (v) medium (n) merge (v) regardless (adv) restrict (v) router (n) - stack (n) - stream(n) - to assign or allot for a particular purpose; a considerable amount: chunk of data; to modify (something) according to a customer's individual requirements; to appoint for something, intend, design; to convert (characters and symbols) into a digital form as a series of impulses; a) at the very end, finally; b) (as sentence modifier) after a long time or long delay: Eventually, he arrived. to deal with or treat in a specified way; an intervening substance for transmitting data: automated data medium, data input medium, data medium, interactive medium, transmission medium; to blend or cause to blend, fuse; in spite of everything; to confine or keep within certain often specified limits or selected bounds; a device that allows packets of data to be moved efficiently between two points on a network: communications router, router ID, router identifier; a) an area in a computer memory for temporary storage; b) a set; c)data structure: hardware stack, hidden stack, instruction stack; continuous moving: bit stream, data stream, input stream, output stream; 4. Match the following words with their synonyms (A, B): A run restrict recurring allocate merge destine B limit periodic assign appoint operate unite A involve convert familiar correct investigate purpose B change known examine aim include proper 5. Match the following words with their equivalents in Russian: A packet switching file sharing discrete value layered approach instant messaging time division multiplexing noise resistance transmission medium B многоуровневый подход временное уплотнение каналов шумовое сопротивление передающая среда пакетная коммутация дискретное значение совместное использование файлов мгновенные сообщения 6. Complete the puzzle using the clues. a device that allows packets of data to be moved efficiently between two points on a network English for Special Purposes r Computer Engineering the form in which data is presented for handling by a particular computer configuration (information transmission) a software package that enables a user to find and read hypertext files, esp on the World Wide Web p o a system of interconnected computer systems, terminals, and other equipment allowing information to be exchanged a path along which data can be transmitted between a central processing unit and peripheral devices r a 7. Match a verb in A with a noun in B: A transmit encode allocate place block transfer restrict route B a segment in order a signal information information access the traffic data WORD BUILDING: Suffixes -able, -ize SUFFIX –ABLE is used to form the adjectives having the necessary power, resources, skill, time, opportunity, etc., to do something. SUFFIX –IZE is used to form the verbs with the following meanings 1) to cause to become, resemble, or agree with 2) to become; change into 3) to affect in a specified way; 4) to act according to some practice, principle, policy 8. Form the adjectives from the following verb roots with suffix -able and translate them: Example: drink – drinkable (пригодный для питья). Wash, eat, suit, use, note, detect, operate, consume, count, enjoy, read, separate, love. What do these words mean? Use it can ... or it can't... . Use a dictionary if necessary. Example: If something is 1) washable, it can be washed. If something is 2) unbreakable, it … If something is 3) edible, it … If something is 4) unusable, … If something is 5) invisible, … If something is 6) portable, … English for Special Purposes 79 80 Computer Engineering 9. Form the verbs with the help of the suffix −ize and translate them: Customer – customize – изготовлять по техническим условиям заказчика (делать на заказ) economy minimum maximum optimum standard _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ crystal hypnosis legal American oxide _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ _______________ GRAMMAR FOCUS : Infinitive 10. Read and translate the following sentences paying attention to the Passive Infinitives. If you need help use GRAMMAR FILES 8 (p. 115). 1. The word "communication" has been used in a very broad sense, it includes all of the procedures by which one mind may affect another. 2. All kinds of distortions of sound to be conveyed by telephone communication are called noise. 3. In the mathematical theory of communication the word "information" to be used in a special sense must not be confused with its ordinary usage. 4. The conference to be held in Moscow will discuss questions dealing with communication problems. 5. There are Markoff processes to be widely involved in the theory of communication. 6. The effectiveness problem must have been concerned with the demands of the design. 7. Only one information must have been given at the moment. 8. Zero and one may have been taken symbolically to represent any two choices. 9. This subject will be dealt with in the next chapter. 10. A new type of computing equipment is being produced at our plant. 11. Rewrite these sentences. Instead of using 'somebody' or 'they', write a passive sentence. 1. Somebody has locked the computer. − The computer has been locked. 2. They have postponed the conference. The conference __________________________. 3. Somebody is using the computer at the moment. The computer __________________________. 4. I didn't realize that somebody was recording our conversation. I didn't realize that __________________. 5. When we got to the stadium we found that they had cancelled the game. When we got to the stadium, we found that __________________________. 6. They are building a new ring road round the city. __________________________. 7. They have built a new hospital near the airport. __________________________. 12. Complete these sentences with one of the following verbs in the correct form: carry cause do make repair send spend wake up. Sometimes you need have (''might have', 'could have' etc.). 1. The situation is serious. Something must be done before it's too late. 2. I haven't received the e-mail. It might _____________________ to the wrong address. 3. A decision will not _____________________ until the next meeting. 4. I told the hotel receptionist that I wanted to _____________________ at 6.30 the next morning. 5. Do you think that less money should _____________________ on equipment? 6. This net is in very bad condition. It should _____________________ a long time ago. 7. The injured man couldn't walk and had to _____________________. 8. It's not certain how the fire started but it might _____________________ by an electrical fault. English for Special Purposes Computer Engineering 81 SPECIALIST READING A: Telecommunication Media layers Host layers 13. Scan the text and write out the names of the OSI layers. data a_________n data p__________n data s_____n segments t_______t packets n_____k frames d__a l—k bits p______l Telecommunication – the word was adapted from French. It is a compound of the Greek prefix tele- (τηλε-), meaning 'far off', and the Latin communicare, meaning 'to share'. The word was coined in 1904 by French engineer and novelist Édouard Estaunié. Heliograph – an instrument with mirrors and a shutter used for sending messages in Morse code by reflecting the sun's rays. APRANET – Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (USA). VOCABULARY IN USE 14. Match the following word combinations: port web network file Internet layered instant packet transmission discrete medium switching number value messaging administrator browsing sharing approach chat Telecommunication is the assisted transmission of signals over a distance for the purpose of communication. In earlier times, this may have involved the use of smoke signals, drums, semaphore, flags or heliograph. In modern times, telecommunication typically involves the use of electronic devices such as the telephone, television, radio or computer. A basic telecommunication system consists of three elements: • a transmitter that takes information and converts it to a signal; • a transmission medium that carries the signal; • a receiver that receives the signal and converts it back into usable information. Often telecommunication systems are two-way with a single device acting as both a transmitter and receiver or transceiver. Signals can be either analogue or digital. In an analogue signal, the signal is varied continuously with respect to the information. In a digital signal, the information is encoded as a set of discrete values (ones and zeros). Noise resistance represents a key advantage of digital signals over analogue signals. A network is a collection of transmitters, receivers and transceivers that communicate with each other. Digital networks consist of one or more routers that work together to transmit information to the correct user. A channel is a division in a transmission medium so that it can be used to send multiple streams of information. One could allocate each channel a recurring segment of time over which to broadcast – this is known as time-division multiplexing and is sometimes used in digital communication. In 1960s the researchers started to investigate packet switching – a technology that would allow chunks of data to be sent to different computers. This network would become ARPANET which would eventually merge with other networks to form the Internet. English for Special Purposes 82 Computer Engineering The Internet is a worldwide network of computers and computer networks that can communicate with each other using the Internet Protocol. Any computer on the Internet has a unique IP address that can be used by other computers to route information to it. In this way, the Internet can be seen as an exchange of messages between computers. The nature of computer network communication lends itself to a layered approach where individual protocols in the protocol stack run more-or-less independently of other protocols. This allows lowerlevel protocols to be customized for the network situation while not changing the way higher-level protocols operate. At the network layer, things become standardized with the Internet Protocol (IP) being adopted for logical addressing. For the world wide web, these “IP addresses” are derived from the human readable form using the Domain Name System (e.g. 72.14.207.99 is derived from www.google.com). At the transport layer, most communication adopts the Transmission Control Protocol. With TCP, packets are retransmitted if they are lost and placed in order before they are presented to higher layers. The packets carry port numbers with them to specify what application or process the packet should be handled by. Because certain applicationlevel protocols use certain ports, network administrators can restrict Internet access by blocking the traffic destined for a particular port. Above the transport layer, there are certain protocols that are sometimes used and loosely fit in the session and presentation layers, most notably the Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) and Transport Layer Security (TLS) protocols. These protocols ensure that the data transferred between two parties remains completely confidential and one or the other is in use when a padlock appears at the bottom of your web browser. Finally, at the application layer, there are many protocols Internet users would be familiar with such as HTTP (web browsing), POP3 (e-mail), FTP (file transfer), IRC (Internet chat), BitTorrent (file sharing) and OSCAR (instant messaging). English for Special Purposes 15. Complete the sentences with the following words: route port number devices encoded router as in the text. 1. Telecommunication involves the use of electronic __________. 2. In a digital signal information is __________ as a set of discrete values. 3. Digital networks consist of one or more __________ that work together. 4. An IP address can be used by other computers to __________ information to it. 5. The packets carry __________ with them to specify what application the packet should be handled by. 16. Complete the sentences with the prepositions from the box. Consult the APPENDIX (p. 120): of (in)to with for from to for 1. The traffic is destined _____ a particular port. 2. A basic telecommunication system consists _____ three elements. 3. Receivers and transceivers communicate _____ each other. 4. The Internet Protocol is adopted _____ logical addressing. 5. The “IP addresses” are derived _____ the human readable form. 6. A transmitter takes information and converts it _____ a signal. 7. The packets are retransmitted and presented _____ higher layers. Computer Engineering COMPREHENSION CHECK 17. Give definitions to the following notions: 1. Telecommunication – 2. Network – 3. Channel – 4. Internet – 5. Layered approach – 6. Telecommunication system – 7. Transmitter – 8. Receiver – 9. Packet switching – 10. Time-division multiplexing – 18. Mark the following statements as “true” or “false”, correct the false ones. True False 1. Mobile phone is an example of two-way communication system. 2. Any computer on the Internet has its unique IP address. 3. Low-level protocols change the operation of higher-level protocols. 4. The Domain Name System is used for the WWW. 5. SSL and TLS don’t provide confidentiality. 6. In an analogue signal the information is encoded as a set of discrete values. 7. Internet access can be restricted by blocking the traffic destined for a particular port. 19. Answer the questions: 1. What means of communication were used in earlier times? 2. What does a basic communication system consist of? 3. What is the main advantage of digital signals? 4. What does a digital network consist of? 5. What kind of investigation was started in 1960’s. 6. What was the forerunner of the Internet called? 7. Why is the layered approach so convenient? 8. What are the port numbers used for? 9. What protocols ensure confidentiality? 10. What protocol is used for Web browsing? English for Special Purposes 83 84 Computer Engineering SPECIALIST READING B: Satellite services 20. Read the text quickly and tick the points that correspond to the context: New technologies have made us independent from other people or any events. It is difficult to withstand dangers, but humanity has created a system of defensive or offensive actions. Thanks to worldwide system of satellites, it is possible to transmit signals into any place on earth. There is a convergence between telecommunication and computing technologies. We are certain that new communication technologies won’t concern our economic and social life. Technical standards of today’s mobile phones allow business travelers use them on international trips. Satellite systems will provide us with the information from any part of the globe. Our world has become an increasingly complex place in which, as individuals, we are very dependent on other people and on organizations. An event in some distant part of the globe can rapidly and significantly affect the quality of life in our home country. This increasing dependence on both a national and international scale, has led us to create systems that can respond immediately to dangers, enabling appropriate defensive or offensive actions to be taken. These systems are operating all around us in military, civil, commercial and industrial fields. A worldwide system of satellites has been created, and it is possible to transmit signals around the globe by bouncing them from one satellite to an earth station and thence to another satellite. Originally designed to carry voice traffic, they are able to carry hundreds of thousands of separate simultaneous calls. These systems are being increasingly adopted to provide for business communications, including the transmission of traffic for voice, facsimile, data and vision. It is probable that future satellite services will enable a great variety of information services to transmit directly into the home, possibly including personalized electronic mail. The electronic computer is at the heart of many such systems, but the role of telecommunications is not less important. There will be a further convergence between the technologies of computing and telecommunications. The change will be dramatic: the database culture, the cashless society, the office at home, the gigabit-per-second data network. We cannot doubt that the economic and social impact of these concepts will be very significant. English for Special Purposes Already, advanced systems of communication are affecting both the layman and the technician. Complex functions are being performed by people using advanced terminals which are intended to be as easy to use as the conventional telephone. The new global satellite-communications systems offer four kinds of service, which may overlap in many different kinds of receivers: voice, short messaging service, low-bandwidth internet access and tracking. Voice. Satellite telephones provide similar functionality to terrestrial mobile telephones. Depending on the architecture of a particular system, coverage may include the entire Earth, or only specific regions. That makes them especially useful to remote, third-world village, explorers and disaster-relief teams. Internet service satellite phones have notoriously poor reception indoors, though it may be possible to get a consistent signal near a window or in the top floor of a building if the roof is sufficiently thin. The phones have connectors for external antennas that are often installed in vehicles and buildings. The systems also allow for the use of repeaters, much like terrestrial mobile phone systems. Messaging. Satellite messagers have the same global coverage as satellite telephones, but carry text alone, which could be useful for those with laptop computers. Equipped with a small screen satellite messagers also receive short messages. Tracking. Voice and messaging systems also tell their users where they are to within a few hundred meters. Combined with the messaging service, the location service could help rescue teams to find stranded adventurers, the police to find stolen cars, exporters to follow the progress of cargoes, and haulage companies to check that drivers are not detouring to the pub. Satellite systems provide better positioning information to anyone who has a receiver for their signals. Computer Engineering 21 . 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Make 10 questions to the text using the following constructions: What is the nature, difference, process, role, importance, etc. of………………………………………? What is referred to as………………………………………………………………………………………………………...? What is used as………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……….? Where do we use………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..? What function do the …… play…………………………………………………………………………………………….? WRITING: Summary 22. Summarize the main ideas of the text using the following phrases: 1. The text deals with… 2. The development of satellite services has solved… 3. There exist… 4. Of prime interest to the reader will be… 5. In conclusion … is given. SPEAKING: The Role of Telecommunication 23. Discuss the role of telecommunication in our life using viewpoint adverbs from the box. Supplementary reading section may help you. of course no doubt without doubt to be sure to be certain true in fact in effect say suppose The It is true that… It is certain that… It is beyond doubt that… to tell the truth by no means It is likely that… It appears likely that… It is assumed that… We assume that as a matter of fact English for Special Purposes 85 86 Computer Engineering Unit 9 Virtual Reality Adj -ed/-ing Noun attributes Virtual Reality HMD technology structuring/summing up LEAD-IN: VR components 1. Study this list of Virtual reality components. Enumerate the fields they might be applied. a helmet mounted display data gloves a stereoscopic display a haptic system an omnidirectional treadmill a Virtual reality visor and eye glasses Try to name more Virtual reality components and their possible application areas. PRONUNCIATION 2. Make sure you pronounce the following words properly: breadth [bredθ] simultaneously [sɪm,əl'teɪnɪəslɪ] miniaturized ['mɪnətʃ(ə)raɪzd] superimposing [,su:pǝrɪm'pəυzɪŋ] immersion [ɪ'mɜ:ʃn] schematic [ski:'mætɪk] multithreading [,mʌltɪ'θredɪŋ] awareness [ə'weənɪs] innovative ['ɪnəʋveɪtɪv] telemetry [tə'lemɪtrɪ] WORD STUDY 3. Translate the following definitions and memorize the terms: simulation (n) - the construction of a mathematical model for some process or situation (esp. using a computer) in order to estimate its characteristics or solve problems about it in terms of the model; (компьютерное моделирование) force feedback (n) - the simulation of physical attributes such as weight in virtual reality, allowing the user to interact directly with virtual objects using touch; surroundings (n, pl) - the conditions around a person, place, or thing; environment; hamper (v) - to prevent the progress or movement of smth.; response (v) - a verbal or written answer, the act of reply or reaction; involve (v) - to include or contain as a necessary part, to have an effect on smth.; demand (n) - an urgent or peremptory requirement or request; multithreading (n) - a technique by which a single set of code can be used by several processors at different stages of execution; English for Special Purposes Computer Engineering awareness (n) - the state or ability to perceive, to feel, or to be conscious of events, objects or sensory patterns; extensive (adj) - covering or affecting a large area, large in amount or scale, widespread; reflective (adj) - capable of sending back (reflecting) heat, light or other radiation, providing a reflection; resolution (n) - the degree of detail visible in a photographic, television or display image wirelessly (adv) - without a wire connection, using a wireless technology: FM technology broadcasts music wirelessly; immersion (n) - complete and deep (mental) involvement, the act of immersing or state of being immersed; 4. Match the following words with their synonyms: immersion simulation surroundings display demand simultaneously hamper modeling show hinder at the same time environment absorption request response screen wireless extensive couple (v) involve mounted established over-the-air answer connect vast implicate monitor 5. Match the following words with their equivalents in Russian: force feedback multithreading awareness reflective imaginary superimpose dimension mapping helmet schematic измерение отражательный накладывать (одно на другое) шлем схематическое изображение воображаемый (нереальный) обратная связь по усилию информированность (осознание) многопотоковость отображение 6. Complete the puzzle using the clues. a movable part of a helmet that can be pulled down to cover the face to place or lay one thing over another, typically so that both are still evident the ability of a television or film image to reproduce fine detail to show information on a screen i p e m o e t l English for Special Purposes 87 88 Computer Engineering information in response to an inquiry the data fed into a computer from a peripheral device d a n WORD BUILDING: Participial Adjectives -ed/-ing PRESENT PARTICIPIAL ADJECTIVE -ING PAST PARTICIPIAL ADJECTIVE -ED serves as an adjective formed from an active serves as an adjective formed from the verb. passive form of the verb. This rod connects one moving part of the This wire is insulated with a nonconductor. machine to another. (active verb) (passive verb) This is a connecting rod. (present participial This is an insulated wire. (past participial adjective ) adjective ) Present participial adjectives can be used to Past Participial Adjectives can be used to describe: an ongoing quality, a process or describe a quality or process completed by someone (state) as well as natural quality or activity as well as the function of a noun. state (no agent). 7. Circle the letter of the answer that best completes each of these sentences: 1. A device that has been adjusted for errors is a __________________. a) calibrating instrument b) calibrated instrument 2. A device that adjusts other instruments is a __________________. a) calibrating instrument b) calibrated instrument 3. You may choose any __________________ you like. a) viewing device b) viewed device 4. You can modify the _______________ to add or remove support for a particular operating system. a) existing platform b) existed platform 5. This _______________ is capable of measuring specific movements of the body with respect to the data of acceleration. a) sensing device b) sensed device 6. A great number of HMDs display only a computer _______________. a) generated image b) generating image 7. A new cooling system for laptop computers has no _______________. a) moving parts b) moved parts 8. A _______________ is a display device worn on the head. a) head mounted display b) head mounting display English for Special Purposes Computer Engineering GRAMMAR FOCUS: Noun attributes 8. Read and translate the following word combinations paying attention to nouns as attributes. If you need help use GRAMMAR FILES 9 (p. 117). computer aided manufacturing автоматизированное производство computer simulated environment … real time virtual environment sensory information discrete sampling system entertainment application solid-state devices resolution measurement health care professionals training three-dimensional virtual reality simulation night vision device high speed photography industry thermal imaging data human hand available signal sampling system medium sized objects English for Special Purposes 89 90 Computer Engineering SPECIALIST READING A: Virtual Reality 9. Scan the text and match the headings (a – f) with the paragraphs (1 – 5). There is one heading you will not need to use. a) Interactivity; b) Implementation & Manufacturing; c) Applications; d) Motion tracking; e) Immersion; f) Virtual Reality fundamentals. 10. Now study the text to find this information. Virtual Reality devices Immersion components VR computer graphics languages VR simulation field of use Interaction characteristics VOCABULARY IN USE 11. Complete the following text using suitable words and word combinations. immersion design telepresence simulation three-dimensional military environment data gloves haptic VR is the use of computer modeling and _______ that enables a person to interact with an artificial 3-D visual _______. VR applications immerse the user in a computer-generated reality through the use of headsets, _______ or body suits. The illusion of “being there” or _______ is effected by motion sensors that pick up the user’s movements and adjust the view on the screen in real time. _______ distinguishes VR from other forms of human-computer interaction. _______ computer graphics allow the shape and form of objects to be perceived. Some virtual worlds provide audio and _______ information. VR is used to create an illusion of reality for entertainment as well as _______ training. It also enables medical personnel to practice surgery simulations and provides a way to experiment with new product _______. English for Special Purposes Computer Engineering 1._______________________ Virtual reality is a computer simulated environment, whether it is a simulation of the real or imaginary world. Most current virtual reality environments are primarily visual experiences, displayed either on a computer screen or through special stereoscopic displays, but some simulations include additional sensory information, such as sound or tactile information (haptic systems), and are generally known as force feedback. Users can interact with a virtual environment either through the use of standard input devices or through multimodal devices (data gloves, omnidirectional treadmill). 2._______________________ Immersion is basically a unique experience that is connected with the world of virtual reality. Exploring a three dimensional world of virtual reality the user simply immerses in it as the real world. This phenomenon is known as telepresence1. Thus the user gets focused about his newly created identity inside the Virtual Reality world. Immersion is made up of two main components: depth and breadth2 of information. Depth of information includes the resolution of the display unit, the graphics quality, the effectiveness of the audio and video etc. Breadth of information is a number of sensory dimensions presented simultaneously. 3._______________________ To develop a real time virtual environment a computer graphics library can be used as embedded resource coupled with a common programming language, such as C++, Java etc. Some of the most popular computer graphics library/API3/language are OpenGL, Direct3D, Java3D and VRML4, and their use is directly influenced by the system demands in terms of performance, program purpose, and hardware platform. The use of multithreading can also accelerate 3D performance and enable cluster computing with multi-user interactivity. Virtual reality can serve to new product design, helping as an ancillary tool for engineering in manufacturing processes. Among other examples, we may also quote Electronic Design Automation, CAD5, FEA6, and Computer Aided Manufacturing. 4._______________________ Beyond modeling assembly parts, 3D computer graphics and VR techniques are currently used in the research and development of medical devices for innovative therapies, treatments, patient monitoring. VR also finds application into health care professionals training from anatomy instruction to surgery simulation. 3D Virtual reality simulation is becoming widely used for urban planning and transport projects. Architects use this technology to create virtual designs of buildings. Dramatic improvements in the field of virtual reality are taken place due to the extensive research and usage of VR in the military applications where they are applied almost for flight simulations or combat training. 5._______________________ The element of interaction is the most important to make the user really feel free to get involved with the virtual environment. Interaction is characterized by speed (the rate of the user’s actions recorded by computer and the way they are reflected to be realized), range (the number of results or reactions that can come out of any user action), mapping (the ability of a computer system to produce results as good as the natural world in response to the user actions). The possibility to move from place to place inside a virtual environment is a kind of interactivity. A poorly designed interaction can hamper immersion to a great extent and the user may simply stop getting involved in the virtual environment. The virtual environment is considered to be well designed and developed if it responds to the user action in a way it makes sense. English for Special Purposes 91 92 Computer Engineering Comments: An omnidirectional treadmill is a device that allows a person to perform locomotive motion in any direction. The ability to move in any direction is how these treadmills differ from their basic counterparts that permit only unidirectional locomotion. Omnidirectional treadmills are employed in immersive virtual environment implementations to allow unencumbered movement within the virtual space through user self-motion. 1 виртуальное присутствие, иллюзия нахождения в виртуальном пространстве; 2 ширина; 3 (Application Programming Interface) интерфейс прикладного программирования; 4 (Virtual Reality Modeling Language) язык моделирования виртуальной реальности, позволяющий описывать трёхмерные сцены, использовать анимацию и путешествия по Web для различных проектов в Internet; 5 (Computer-Aided Design) система автоматизированного проектирования, САПР; 6 (Finite Element Analysis) анализ методом конечных элементов: широко применяемый в САПР метод моделирования поведения сложных систем путём разбиения их на множество элементов. COMPREHENSION CHECK 12. Reread the text and choose the best option to complete the following statements. 1. Almost any modern virtual reality environment is primarily... □ force feedback system □ sound or tactile information □ visual experience 5. Three-dimensional VR simulations are widely used by architects for …. □ building design □ flight simulations □ Innovative treatments 2. Exploring a 3D VR environment the user can immerse in it as the real world that is known as... □ Interaction □ Telepresence □ force feedback 6. Development of virtual reality is caused by its wide usage… □ for engineering in manufacturing processes □ in medical research □ in military applications 3. Information breadth includes… 7. Interaction mapping is the ability of a computer system to … □ □ □ the resolution of the display and the graphics quality a number of sensory dimensions presented simultaneously the effectiveness of the audio and video 4. The use of VR computer graphics library, API and language is influenced by… □ □ □ system performance requirements, program purpose, hardware platform embedded resources multithreading and multi-user interactivity English for Special Purposes □ □ □ record the rate of the user’s actions and reflect them produce results as good as the natural world in response to the user actions produce the number of results or reactions that can come out of any user action 8. Well designed VR applications must... □ hamper immersion to a great extent □ move the user from place to place □ respond to the user action to make sense Computer Engineering 93 SPECIALIST READING B: Head-mounted display technology 13. Five sentences have been removed from the tex t. 1. Low cost HMD devices are available for use with 3D games and entertainment applications. 2. An embedded Ethernet interface option permits direct access to data and configuration. 3. This can be used to show stereoscopic images. 4. Some HMDs allow superimposing a CGI upon a real-world view. 5. However, the pixel density (pixels per degree or arcminutes per pixel) is also used to determine visual acuity. 6. Recent applications have included the use of HMD for paratroopers. Read the text quickly and put the correct sentence in each space to form a logical, coherent and correct text. There is one extra sentence you are not going to need. General A head-mounted display (helmet mounted display), is a display device, worn on the head or as part of a helmet, that has a small display optic in front of one (monocular HMD) or each eye (binocular HMD). A typical HMD has either one or two small displays with lenses and semi-transparent mirrors embedded in a helmet, eye-glasses or visor. The display units are miniaturized and may include CRT, LCDs, Liquid crystal on silicon (LCos), or OLED. Some vendors employ multiple micro-displays to increase total resolution and field of view. Most HMDs display only a computer generated image (CGI), sometimes referred to as a virtual image. ____________________________________ __________. This is sometimes referred to as augmented reality or mixed reality. Combining realworld view with CGI is done by projecting the CGI through a partially reflective mirror and viewing the real world directly (Optical See-Through method). The same combination can also be done electronically by accepting video from a camera and mixing it electronically with CGI (Video See-Through method). Performance parameters A binocular HMD has the potential to display a different image to each eye. __________________ ______________. Humans have around 180° FOV (field of view), but most HMDs offer considerably less than this. Typically, greater field of view results in greater sense of immersion and better situational awareness. As for resolution HMDs usually mention either the total number of pixels or the number of pixels per degree. Listing the total number of pixels (1600×1200 pixels per eye) is borrowed from how the specifications of computer monitors are presented. __________________________________________ __________________________________________ used to determine visual acuity. 60 pixels/° (1 arcmin/pixel) is usually referred to an eye limiting resolution, above which increased resolution is not English for Special Purposes 94 Computer Engineering noticed by people with normal vision. HMDs typically offer 10 to 20 pixels/°, though advances in micro-displays help increase this number. Applications Major HMDs are increasingly being integrated into the cockpits of modern helicopters and fighter aircraft. These are usually fully integrated with the pilot's flying helmet and may include protective visors and night vision devices. Military, police and firefighters use HMDs to display tactical information such as maps or thermal imaging data while viewing the real scene. _________________________________________ _________________________________________. Engineers and scientists use HMDs to provide stereoscopic views of CAD schematics. These systems are also used in the maintenance of complex systems, as they can give a technician a combination of computer graphics (system diagrams and imagery) with the technician's natural vision. There are also applications in surgery, where radiographic data is combined with the surgeon's natural view of the operation. ________________________________________ _________________________________________. One of the pioneers in this field was Sony that released the Glasstron in 1997, which had a positional sensor permitting the user to view the surroundings, with the perspective moving as the head moved, providing a deep sense of immersion. A HMD system has been developed for Formula One as a part of an advanced telemetry system to communicate to the driver wirelessly from the heart of the race pit. English for Special Purposes 14. Read the text and put the following points in order to form a summary of the article. Certain HMDs are embedded into the pilot's flying helmet and include night vision devices. HMDs offer a resolution from 10 to 20 pixels/°. Sony was one of the pioneers in the field of HMDs production. Binocular HMDs are able to display stereoscopic images. HMDs are often used in engineering and science to provide stereoscopic images of CAD and to maintain complex systems. A typical HMD is worn on the head and has displays embedded in the visor. HMD systems are used by F1 pilots and managers as a part of wireless communication system. Medium-priced HMDs are used with 3D games and entertainment applications. Some HMDs provide mixed reality that allows superimposing a computer mage upon a real-world view. 1. _______________________________ 2. _______________________________ 3. _______________________________ 4. _______________________________ 5. _______________________________ 6. _______________________________ 7. _______________________________ 8. _______________________________ 9. _______________________________ Computer Engineering WRITING: Virtual reality devices & applications 15. Write a description of a virtual reality device or application. Don’t forget to mention these points: general information; specifications; field of use; performance parameters; special features. Use links from Get Real to help you. ………… ● Get Real Check these websites for the latest VR devices and apps: http://www.vrealities.com/ http://vrlab.epfl.ch/ SPEAKING: Virtual reality products 16. Role play. Work in pairs. Play the parts of a VR company sales manager and an interviewer. Make up a conversation presenting the latest VR products. Discuss the following issues: fields of application; the developer; the product advantages/disadvantages; specifications and special features. You can use the description of the virtual reality device or application from ex. 13, the Supplementary reading section text “Shadow Dexterous Hand” and the links from Get Real. The following discourse markers may help you: Structuring first(ly), first of all, second(ly), third(ly) etc; lastly, finally; to begin with; to start with; in the first/ second/ third place; for one thing; for another thing Summing up in conclusion; to sum up; briefly; in short Note that firstly/ secondly etc are more formal than first, second etc, and are more common in British than American English. English for Special Purposes 95 96 Computer Engineering Unit 10 Computer Security WB revision Infinitive Constructions Malicious software Network security management Focusing… LEAD-IN: Quiz on computer and network security 1. Read the questions of the quiz and think of the answers to them. Work in pairs to discuss the answers. 1. Which three email characteristics can help you to identify hoax virus warnings? □ The message is from a trusted source. □ The message warns of a virus that will infect your computer by simply reading the message. □ The message requests that you forward the message to others. □ The message was forwarded many times. 2. Which two strategies will help to protect hardcopy information? □ Shred printouts before disposal. □ Encrypt all files. □ Sign all documents. □ Adopt a "clean desk" policy. 3. Which three types of information should you avoid adding to your instant messaging account details? □ Addresses. □ Organization names. □ Nicknames. □ Phone numbers. 4. Which three steps are important to perform when you receive instant messages? □ Verify the source of the message. □ Verify the size of any attachment sent to you. □ Verify the purpose of the attachment sent to you. □ Verify that your security and antivirus updates have been applied before you download or open any attachment. 5. Which PDA security best practice will help protect the information on your PDA? □ Clearly identify your PDA with company stickers or logos. □ Never remove your PDA from your bag for airport security. □ Store your PDA passwords in a safe location. □ Synchronize your PDA data regularly. 6. Which two methods will reduce the chances that your password will be compromised? □ Make your password lower case. □ Change your password regularly. □ Use Default passwords. English for Special Purposes Computer Engineering □ Use a passphrase. 7. Which negative outcome can result from hoax virus warnings and malicious spam? □ Denial of service. □ Data loss. □ Reduced account privileges. □ Credit card fraud. 8. Which three actions can you take to increase the security of your Web browsing? (Choose three.) □ Learn to recognize common scams. □ Manage user names and passwords. □ Only browse secure Web sites. □ Use caution when downloading. PRONUNCIATION 2. Make sure you pronounce the following words properly: virus ['vaɪ(ə)rəs] legitimate [lɪ'ʤɪtəmət] worm [wɜːm] nefarious [nɪ'fɛərɪəs] piracy ['paɪərəsɪ] disseminate [dɪ'semɪneɪt] hoax [həuks] innocuous [ɪ'nɔkjuəs] propagate ['prɔpəgeɪt] piggyback ['pɪgɪbæk] header ['hedə] adjust [ə'ʤʌst] anomaly [ə'nɔməlɪ] subtle ['sʌtl] WORD STUDY 3. Translate the following definitions and memorize the terms: computer security (n) - the collective processes and mechanisms by which sensitive and valuable information and services are protected from publication, tampering or collapse by unauthorized activities or untrustworthy individuals and unplanned events respectively; back up (v) - to store a copy of files on a storage device to keep them safe; firewall (n) - a combination of hardware and software used to control the data going into and out of a network; antivirus program (n) - a computer program or sets of programs used to detect, identify and remove viruses from a computer system; infect (v) - affect with a virus; detect (v) - discover or identify the presence or existence of payload (n) - the part of the virus that causes the damage; fraud (n) - wrongful or criminal deception intended to result in financial or personal gain; spreading viruses (n) - distributing programs that can reproduce themselves and are written with the purpose of causing damage or causing a computer to behave in an unusual way; salami shaving (n) - manipulating programs or data so that small amounts of money are deducted from a large number of transactions or accounts and English for Special Purposes 97 98 Computer Engineering denial of service attack (n) mail bombing (n) software piracy (n) shareware (n) - accumulated elsewhere. The victims are often unaware of the crime because the amount taken from any individual is so small; swamping a server with large number of requests; inundating an email address with thousands of messages, slowing or even crashing the server; unauthorized copying of a program for sale or distributing to other users; software that is available free of charge and often distributed informally for evaluation, after which a fee may be requested for continued use. 4. Match the following words with their synonyms (A, B) and opposites (C, D): A damage replicate legitimate backdoor relay predetermined fraud conceal B particular covert reproduce hide mischief deception transmit authorized C legitimate backdoor download malicious conceal innocuous protect permit D destruct harmless unauthorized harmful ban public reveal remove 5. Match A with B to make a word combination and then find its Russian equivalent in C: A executable compromise backdoor informed malicious nefarious host JUMP predetermined copy key access control B C модель управления доступом незаконная деятельность заранее заданное событие команда перехода информированное согласие основная программа файл с расширением ".ехе" скрытая угроза вредоносные программы управление ключом защита от копирования нарушить безопасность threat activity file model protection management software the security consent event program command 6. There are a variety of different crimes that can be committed in computing, spreading viruses or software piracy are among them. Complete the puzzle using the clues to know some more examples of them. gaining unauthorized access to a network system using another person’s identification code or using that person’s files before logging off English for Special Purposes h p c g g b k g Computer Engineering tricking a user into revealing confidential information such as access code or a credit card number changing the information shown on another person’s website redirecting anyone trying to visit a certain site elsewhere h s o d j f g c g k g WORD BUILDING: Revision 7. Choose the correct word to complete each sentence. Use a dictionary to help you. 1. An electronic / electronics pen is one example of an input device. 2. The computer is the greatest technological / technologically invention of the twentieth century. 3. In twenty years’ time some people will live in space, perhaps inside a computerizing / computerized colony. 4. This computer is considerably / considerable faster than the old one. 5. If you are new to this system, almost everything will have to be explaining / explained. 6. Connectivity / Connection is an important concept in global communications. 7. Those files are not accessive / accessible unless you know the password. 8. If an error occurs, it is important to take correction / corrective action immediately. 9. A computer program / programming is a set of instructions that tell the computer how to do a specific task. 10. An error or malfunction of a computer program is known as a debug / bug. 11. Programs written in a high-level language require compiler / compilation – that is, translation into machine code, the language by the processor. 12. Digital TV is a way of transmitting / transmitted pictures by means of digital signals, in contrast to the analogue signals used by traditional TV. 8. Fill in the gaps with the correct prefix from the following list. rehyper- deauto- emicro- monomulti- unin- imsub- 1. Most people prefer a colour screen to a _____chrome screen. 2. _____script is a character or symbol written below and to the right of a number or letter, often used in science. 3. By the year 2030 cash will be _____placed by electronic money. 4. Tablet computers typically _____corporate small (8.4–14.1 inches/21–36 centimeters) LCD screens. 5. Microchips _____planted into our arms will serve as ID cards and contain our medical records. 6. Futurists predict that smart technology will be incorporated into fabrics so you’ll be able to _____mail from your coat. 7. _____media is a form of enriched multimedia which allows an interactive and dynamic linking of visual and audio elements. English for Special Purposes 99 100 Computer Engineering 8. This program displays a message when it detects spyware and other _____wanted software that may compromise your privacy or damage your computer. 9. Digital Terrestrial TV is received via a set-top box, a device that _____codes the signal received through the aerial. 10. Optical discs are ideal for _____media applications, where images, animation and sound occupy a lot of disc space. GRAMMAR FOCUS: Infinitive Constructions 9. Read and translate the following sentences paying attention to the Infinitive Constructions. If you need help use GRAMMAR FILES 10 (p. 118). 1. Asymmetric ciphers permit the encryption key to be public. 2. A change is so subtle that someone not specifically looking for it is unlikely to notice it. 3. Steganography can be said to protect both messages and communicating parties. 4. Everybody knows a plaintext to be the source of information to be secured. 5. This sequence causes digitized images to be stored in core memory. 6. This process was not expected to be effective. 7. Hackers have been known to do a variety of things to computer systems, including downloading files and leaking confidential information, hijacking websites, defacing websites by changing the text and graphics on the webpages etc. 8. A virus may cause a computer to behave in an unusual way. 9. We proved this suggestion to be wrong. 10. Such a threat often turns out to be nothing more than a hoax. 11. This general term is known to be used by computer professionals to mean a variety of forms of hostile, intrusive or annoying software or program code. 12. There happened to exist some ideas about the system break-in. 13. This problem is not considered to be a major one. 14. People make systems work. English for Special Purposes Computer Engineering 101 SPECIALIST READING A: Malicious software 10. Read the text quickly and arrange the paragraphs (a-h) according to the plan. There is one extra paragraph. What type of malware does it describe? 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) Malware ___ A computer virus ___ Worms ___ Trojan horses ___ Spyware ___ Adware ___ Backdoor ___ 11. These phrases and sentences have been removed from the text. Read the text quickly and fill in the gaps with the suitable phrases or sentences to form a logically correct text. There is one extra sentence you don’t have to use. a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. j. A backdoor may take the form of an installed program or an … When the virus has been executed, the host program is executed in the normal way… This general term is known to be used by computer professionals to mean a variety of forms… …actively or passively gathered and disseminated by spyware may… …computer worms may have a "payload" that can delete… Spyware is a type of malicious software… …or by simply not making its presence on a system known to the user. When the virus is trigged by a predetermined event… Rootkits are popular with hackers… …and are sometimes referred to as “network viruses”. a) This software appears to bypass normal authentication methods, such as a username and password, and allows unauthorized users to access and control your computer without your knowledge. (1) _____ illegitimate modification to a legitimate program. Trojan horses are a common kind of such threat. b) They are programs that scan systems or monitor activity and relay information to other computers. The information that may be (2) _____ include passwords, log-in details, account numbers, personal information or other personal documents. They may also gather and distribute information related to your computer, applications running on your computer, Internet browsing usage or other computing habits. This kind of malicious software frequently attempts to remain unnoticed, either by actively hiding (3) _____. It is likely to be downloaded from web sites (typically in a shareware or freeware), email messages, and instant messengers. c) It is a self-replicating program often written to cause damage or mischief by inserting itself into a software application without leaving any obvious sign of its presence. This type of malware operates by replacing the first instruction in the host program with a JUMP command. This command changes the normal instruction sequence in a program, causing the virus instructions to be executed (processed by the processor) before the host program instructions. (4) _____. A virus is loaded into memory when a program it has attached itself to is run or executed. It then becomes memory resident i.e. it stays in the memory until the computer is switched off. (5) _____, it operates the payload. It is possible for viruses to have the following parts: a misdirection routine that enables it to hide itself; a reproduction routine that allows it to copy itself to other programs; English for Special Purposes 102 Computer Engineering a trigger that causes the payload to be activated at a particular time or when a particular event takes place; a payload that may be a fairly harmless joke or may be very destructive. d) This malicious program seems to be innocuous or even beneficial (such as a program that you may have downloaded to remove viruses or spyware), but conceals other malware that compromise the security, data, and proper functioning of your computer. Like a virus it has a payload but doesn’t have a reproduction routine. Trojan horses spread via the network (6) _____. e) Malicious software is designed to secretly access a computer system without the owner's informed consent. (7) _____ of hostile, intrusive or annoying software or program code. Malware comes in many forms: viruses, worms, Trojan horses, rootkits, adware, spyware. f) This type of malware enables delivery of advertising content to you through its own or another program’s interface. It can be downloaded from web sites (typically in a shareware or freeware), email messages and instant messengers. g) They hide files or processes running on a computer, rendering them difficult to detect and remove. Other forms of malware, like worms, which gain entry to your computer without your knowledge or permission are likely to install this type of malware. (8) _____, who want to hide their nefarious activities on your computer. h) Like a virus, it is a self-replicating program, often written to cause damage or mischief but in contrast to a virus, it is self-contained and does not need to become part of another program to propagate itself. Instead this type of malware infects the operating system, acts like a program in its own right, and spreads via the network causing increased bandwidth. However, (9) _____, encrypt or email files on the host computer. A very common payload for a worm is to install a backdoor in the infected computer to allow the creation of a "zombie" computer under control of the worm author. English for Special Purposes VOCABULARY IN USE 12. Complete the sentences with the right words given below. infected to protect innocuous malicious spyware anti-virus worm adware replicates 1. Malware (________ software) are programs designed to infiltrate or damage your computer, for example, viruses, worms, Trojans and spyware. 2. A virus can enter a PC via disc drive – if you insert an ________ disc – or via the Internet. 3. A ________ is self-copying program that spreads through email attachments; it ________ itself and sends a copy to everyone in an address book. 4. A Trojan horse seems to be ________ or even beneficial program but it may affect data security. 5. ________ collects information from your computer without your consent. 6. Most spyware and ________ (software that allows pop-ups, advertisements that suddenly appear on your screen) is included with ‘free’ downloads. 7. If you want ________ your PC, don’t open email attachments from strangers and take care when downloading files from the Web. 8. Remember to update your ________ software as often as possible, since new viruses are being created all the time. Computer Engineering COMPREHENSION CHECK 13. Read the text again and decide which type of the malware stands the following descriptions for: _______________ take control of your computer without your knowledge or permission; _______________ send your data to an unauthorized recipient; _______________ cause your computer to attack other computers; _______________ delete your data; _______________ a program that has a payload but does not have a reproduction routine; _______________ delivers advertising content without your knowledge or permission; _______________ self-contained program which acts like a program in its own right; 14. Decide whether these statements are true (T) or false (F), correct the false ones: True False 1. The term “malware” stands for a variety of forms of software which is hostile, intrusive or annoying. 2. It is usually easy to detect the presence of a computer virus because it has some main parts: a misdirection routine, a reproduction routine, a trigger and a payload. 3. The payload of a virus is activated by some predetermined event. 4. Worms can be compared with a computer virus as it exploits computers for personal gain but it differs from a virus though, because it does not replicate to other computers and usually is not designed to destroy data. 5. Trojan horse is a technique that involves adding concealed instructions to a computer programs so that it will still work but will also perform prohibited duties. 6. The purpose of spyware is to take partial control of your computer or to intercept data from your computer. 7. Neither spyware nor adware can be downloaded to your computer without your personal concern. 8. Backdoor allows unauthorized users to access computer bypassing general authentication methods. 9. Rootkits make other forms of malware hide files or processes running on a computer and render them difficult to be detected and removed. 10. Though all types of malware access a computer system without the owner's informed consent, only viruses have a payload. 15. Use the chart given below to speak about malicious software. WORMS VIRUSES TROJANS MALWARE ROOTKITS SPYWARE ADWARE English for Special Purposes 103 104 Computer Engineering SPECIALIST READING B: Network security management 16. Scan the text, identify different parts and entitle them. title from… – to… … 17. Read the text and decide whether these points are discussed in it. Yes 1) some rules to protect hardware and software protection against viruses 2) data encryption 3) software copy protection techniques 4) control of the physical access 5) the ways to hide the message 6) the ways to conceal the fact of communication 7) the advantages of steganography over cryptography English for Special Purposes No The terms network security and information security are often used interchangeably. Network security is generally taken as providing protection at the boundaries of an organization by keeping out intruders. Information security, however, explicitly focuses on protecting data resources from malware attack or simple mistakes by people within an organization by use of data loss prevention (DLP) techniques. One of these techniques is to compartmentalize large networks with internal boundaries. Network security starts from authenticating the user, commonly with a username and a password. Since this requires just one thing besides the user name, i.e. the password which is something you 'know', this is sometimes termed one factor authentication. With twofactor authentication something you 'have' is also used (e.g. a security token, an ATM card), or with three factor authentication something you 'are' is also used (e.g. a fingerprint or retinal scan). Once authenticated, a firewall enforces access policies such as what services are allowed to be accessed by the network users. Though effective to prevent unauthorized access, this component may fail to check potentially harmful content such as computer worms or Trojans being transmitted over the network. Anti-virus software or an intrusion prevention system (IPS) help detect and inhibit the action of such malware. An anomaly-based intrusion detection system may also monitor the network and traffic for unexpected (i.e. suspicious) content or behavior and other anomalies to protect resources, e.g. from denial of service attacks or an employee accessing files at strange times. Individual events occurring on the network may be logged for audit purposes and for later high level analysis. Communication between two hosts using a network could be encrypted to maintain privacy. Information security uses cryptography to transform usable information into a form that renders it unusable by anyone other than an authorized user; this process is called encryption. Information that has been encrypted (rendered unusable) can be transformed back into its original usable form by an authorized user, who possesses the cryptographic key, through the process of decryption. A method of encryption and decryption is called a cipher. Some cryptographic methods rely on the secrecy of the algorithms. There are two classes of key-based algorithms, Computer Engineering symmetric (or secret-key) and asymmetric (or public-key) algorithms. The difference is that symmetric algorithms use the same key for encryption and decryption (or the decryption key is easily derived from the encryption key), whereas asymmetric algorithms use a different key for encryption and decryption, and the decryption key cannot be derived from the encryption key. Symmetric algorithms can be divided into stream ciphers and block ciphers. Stream ciphers can encrypt a single bit of plaintext at a time, whereas block ciphers take a number of bits and encrypt them as a single unit. Asymmetric ciphers (also called public-key algorithms or public-key cryptography) permit the encryption key to be public, allowing anyone to encrypt with the key but only a proper recipient (who knows the decryption key) can decrypt the message. The encryption key is also called the public key and the decryption key the private key or secret key. Cryptography is used in information security to protect information by hiding it from unauthorized or accidental disclosure while the information is in transit (either electronically or physically) and while information is in storage. Steganography is the art and science of writing hidden messages and no one, apart from the sender and intended recipient, suspects the existence of the message. It is a form of security through obscurity. The advantage of steganography over cryptography alone is that messages do not attract attention to themselves. Plainly visible encrypted messages – no matter how unbreakable – will arouse suspicion, and may be incriminating in countries where encryption is illegal. Therefore, whereas cryptography protects the contents of a message, steganography can be said to protect both messages and communicating parties. It includes the concealment of information within computer files. In digital steganography, electronic communications may include steganographic coding inside of a transport layer, such as a document file, image file, program or protocol. Media files are ideal for steganographic transmission because of their large size. As a simple example, a sender might start with an innocuous image file and adjust the color of every 100th pixel to correspond to a letter in the alphabet, a change is so subtle that someone not specifically looking for it is unlikely to notice it. Digital steganography techniques include concealing messages within the lowest bits of noisy images or sound 105 files. The data to be concealed within encrypted or random data is first encrypted before being used to overwrite part of a much larger block of encrypted data or a block of random data. Messages can also be concealed in tampered executable files; pictures are embedded in video material (optionally played at slower or faster speed). Content-Aware Steganography hides information in the semantics a human user assigns to a datagram. These systems offer security against a non-human adversary/warden. In Blog-Steganography messages are fractionalized and the (encrypted) pieces are added as comments of orphaned web-logs (or pin boards on social network platforms). In this case the selection of blogs is the symmetric key that sender and recipient are using; the carrier of the hidden message is the whole blogosphere. In Voice-over-IP conversations messages can be concealed in delayed or corrupted packets normally ignored by the receiver, or in unused header fields. 18. Read the text again and find the definitions of the following terms: network security ____________________________ __________________________________________ information security _________________________ __________________________________________ one factor authentication _____________________ __________________________________________ two factor authentication_____________________ __________________________________________ three factor authentication ___________________ __________________________________________ cryptography _______________________________ encryption _________________________________ decryption _________________________________ cipher ____________________________________ symmetric algorithm _________________________ __________________________________________ asymmetric algorithm ________________________ __________________________________________ stream cipher ______________________________ block cipher ________________________________ steganography _____________________________ 19. Summarize the general ideas of text. English for Special Purposes 106 Computer Engineering WRITING: Computer crimes prevention 20. There is a variety of security measures that can be used to protect hardware and software, including controlling physical access to hardware and software, backing up data and programs, using passwords, installing firewall, encrypting data, etc. Many of them have been mentioned in this unit. Cover the material of Unit 10, choose a computer crime and work out a list of measures to prevent this crime. It can be done in the form of an article with the title “Ten tips to prevent…”. Afterwards you can discuss your articles in class. Use the material from Supplementary reading section and the following discourse markers to help you. Focusing on the main problem / issue Asking for input Making recommendations What is the main problem? What is the real issue (here)? (I think) the major problem is . . . Our primary concern is . . . (As I see it), the most important thing is . . . The main problem we need to solve is . . . We really need to take care of . . . It all comes down to this: … What should we do about it? What needs to be done? What do you think we should do? What are we going to do about it? I recommend that . . . I suggest that . . . I would pke to propose that . . . Why don't we . . . SPEAKING: Computer security 21. Prepare a report and take part in a round table discussion on the topic “Computer security”. The Supplementary reading section may help you. Topics for discussion: History of computer security and cryptography, information theory, number theory; Data Encryption Standard, Ciphers; Encryption on a network, key management; Access control models, mechanisms; malicious logic, denial of service, covert channels; Security architecture; Hardware mechanisms that protect computers and data; Secure operating systems; Secure coding; Computer crimes. English for Special Purposes Computer Engineering Grammar files 1. ACTIVE/PASSIVE VOICE Active tenses Present simple Present continuous Present perfect simple Past simple Past continuous Past perfect Future simple Future continuous Future perfect Future perfect continuous Passive tenses Present simple Present continuous Present perfect simple Past simple Past continuous Past perfect Future simple Affirmative sentence I (you, we, they) load the computer every day. She (he, it) loads the computer every day. I am loading the computer. You (we, they) are loading the computer. He (he, it) is loading the computer. I (you, we, they) have loaded the computer. She (he, it) has loaded the computer. I loaded the computer I will be loading the computer. I will have loaded the computer I will have been loading the computer. Negative sentence I don’t load the computer every day. She doesn’t load the computer every day. I am not loading the computer. You are not loading the computer. He is not loading the computer. I have not loaded the computer. She has not loaded the computer. I did not load the computer. I was not loading the computer. They were not loading the computer. They had not loaded the computer. We will not load the computer. She will not be loading the computer. We will not have loaded the computer. They will not have been loading the computer. Interrogative sentence Do you load the computer every day? Does she load the computer every day? Am I loading the computer? Are they loading the computer? Is she loading the computer? Have you loaded the computer? Has he loaded the computer? Did you load the computer? Was she loading the computer? Were you loading the computer? Had you loaded the computer? Will you load the computer? Will they be loading the computer? Will she have loaded the computer? Will you have been loading the computer? Simple sentence The computer is loaded by me. The computer is being loaded by me. The computer has been loaded by me. The computer was loaded by me. The computer was being loaded by me. The computer had been loaded by me. The computer will be loaded by me. Negative sentence The computer is not loaded by me. The computer is not being loaded by me. The computer has not been loaded by me. The computer was not loaded by me. The computer was not being loaded by me. The computer hadn’t been loaded by me. The computer won’t be loaded by me. Interrogative sentence Is the computer loaded by me? Is the computer being loaded by me? Has the computer been loaded by me? Was the computer loaded by me? Was the computer being loaded by me? Had the computer been loaded by me? Will the computer be loaded by me? I (she, he, it) was loading the computer. You (we, they) were loading the computer. I had loaded the computer. I will load the computer. English for Special Purposes 107 108 Computer Engineering 2. CONDITIONALS Условные предложения используются для выражения действия, которое может произойти только при выполнении определенного условия. Части данных предложений могут быть соединены при помощи союзов if, unless (= if not) и as long as (= provided/ providing (that). FIRST CONDITIONAL SENTENCES (реальное условие, может быть выполнено в будующем) If A happens В will happen (present simple) (will in positive or negative form + verb) I f you like entertainment, you will love the latest multimedia video games. Иногда в главном предложении используются модальные глаголы can, must или повелительное наклонение. I f you want to create your own MP3 files from your CDs, you must have a CD ripper. You won't be able to play audio and video on the Web unless you have a plug-in like RealPlayer or QuickTime. (= if you don't have a plug-in ...) Вопросительные и отрицательные формы предложения образуются с помощью вспомогательного глагола will (won’t): Will the data be saved, if you unload the computer? If you reset the computer system, perhaps, all data won’t be saved. Данное правило применяется и к придаточным предложениям времени, которые вводятся следующими союзами: when while as soon as after before until. SECOND CONDITIONAL SENTENCES (нереальные или проблематичные условия) If A happened В would happen (past simple) (would in positive or negative form+ verb) I f you wanted to make a movie on your computer, first you would/you'd need to . . . Глагол to be имеет форму were для всех лиц и чисел. I f I were you, I'd get a new MP3 player. Would (wound’t) употребляется со всеми лицами и числами существительных и местоимений в роли подлежащего. Вопросительные и отрицательные формы предложения образуются с помощью вспомогательного глагола would (wound’t): If different kinds of applications software weren’t loaded, the computer wouldn’t perform specific tasks for the user. THIRD CONDITIONAL SENTENCES (нереальное условие в прошлом) If A had happened B would have happened (past perfect) (would in positive or negative + perfect infinitive) Would (wound’t) употребляется со всеми лицами и числами существительных и местоимений в роли подлежащего. Вопросительные и отрицательные формы предложения образуются с помощью вспомогательного глагола would (wound’t): If we had upgraded our computer we wouldn’t have got this problem Type If Clause Conditional Clause Conditional 1 If we upgrade our computer… It will work better. Conditional 2 If we bought new software now… Our computer would work better. Conditional 3 If we had upgraded our computer earlier… We would not have got that problem. English for Special Purposes Computer Engineering 109 3. COMPARING В научных текстах часто возникает необходимость сравнивать различные устройства, программы, языки и т.д. Основная роль при сравнении, безусловно, принадлежит прилагательным и наречиям. ПРАВИЛА ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ СТЕПЕНЕЙ СРАВНЕНИЯ ПРИЛАГАТЕЛЬНЫХ И НАРЕЧИЙ 1. Односложные прилагательные и наречия добавляют суффиксы -er и -est. Adjectives (прилагательные) Absolute (положительная) low large Comparative (сравнительная) lower larger Superlative (превосходная) lowest largest big bigger biggest soon sooner soonest late later latest Adverbs (наречия) 2. Степени сравнения многосложных прилагательных и наречий образуются при помощи слов more, most; less, least. Absolute Comparative Superlative (положительная) (сравнительная) (превосходная) powerful more powerful most powerful Adjectives (прилагательные) specific more specific most specific Adverbs (наречия) easily more easily most easily highly more highly most highly 3. Двусложные прилагательные, оканчивающиеся на -er, -y, -ly, -ow образуют степени сравнения с помощью суффиксов -er и -est. Наречия, оканчивающиеся на -ly образуют степени сравнения только при помощи слов more (less) и most (least) (пример см. выше). -y Absolute (положительная) tiny speedy Comparative (сравнительная) tinier speedier Superlative (превосходная) tiniest speediest -ly early earlier earliest -er clever cleverer cleverest -ow narrow narrower narrowest 4. Степени сравнения некоторых прилагательных и наречий образуются не по правилам: Absolute (положительная) good well Comparative (сравнительная) better better Superlative (превосходная) best best English for Special Purposes 110 Computer Engineering bad badly worse worse worst worst much many more more most most little far late less farther, further later, latter least farthest, furthest latest, last УПОТРЕБЛЕНИЕ СТЕПЕНЕЙ СРАВНЕНИЯ Положительная степень (Absolute) – это базовая форма, которая чаще всего констатирует данное количество или качество, например: The iPad's design is simple, with a minimum number of buttons, ports, etc. Дизайн компьютера iPad прост, с минимальным количеством кнопок, портов и т.д. Положительная степень прилагательных и наречий также используются: 1) при сравнении одинаковых качеств. В этом случае используется конструкция as … as, например: Portable computers are as versatile and reliable as any computer on your desk. Портативные компьютеры так же многофункциональны и надежны, как любой другой компьютер на вашем столе. 2) при указании на неравные качества. В этом случае используется конструкция not as … as, например: Desktop computers are not as portable as laptops. Настольные компьютеры не такие мобильные как лэптопы. Сравнительная степень (Comparative) прилагательных и наречий используется: 1) для сравнения двух качеств (состояний). В этом случае после прилагательного или наречия в сравнительной степени следует слово than: Subnotebooks are smaller than laptops. Субблокнотные компьютеры меньше, чем лэптопы. A laptop is more compact than a desktop computer. Лэптоп – компактнее, чем настольный компьютер. 2) для передачи зависимости одного качества от другого (в русском языке – чем …тем). В этом случае перед прилагательными или наречиями в сравнительной степени стоят слова the… the, например: The smaller the computer the faster it operates. Чем меньше компьютер, тем быстрее он функционирует. Превосходная степень (Superlative) употребляется тогда, когда при сопоставлении вещей подчеркивается их уникальность. !!! Кроме степеней сравнения прилагательных и наречий для сравнения используются следующие слова и выражения: эквивалентность неэквивалентность as many … as as much … as alike the same … as the same similar to are similar equal to is like similar/ly equal/ly English for Special Purposes compared to/with in comparison with each either both not as …as …-er than more…than fewer…than less…than greater …than not as many not as much not equal to unequally as unlike as not the same as not all Computer Engineering 111 !!! Слова-усилители (Intensifiers). Для усиления степеней сравнения употребляются следующие слова: very очень too слишком rather довольно quite вполне somewhat до некоторой степени a little немного fairly явно, совершенно a bit немного, слегка extremely чрезвычайно much гораздо, намного by far гораздо, намного This large-capacity main battery should not be confused with the much smaller battery nearly all computers use to run the real-time clock and to store the BIOS configuration in the CMOS memory when the computer is off. Этот аккумулятор большой емкости нельзя путать с гораздо меньшей по объему батарейкой, расположенной на материнской плате почти всех компьютеров, которая используется для поддержки работы часов реального времени и сохранения конфигурации БИОС когда компьютер выключен. 4. PREDICTION Прогнозируя, мы предполагаем, что произойдет в будущем. Предположения, как правило, выражают разную степень уверенности. Certainty Verbs Adverbs Adjectives will, will not; be going to certainly, definitely certain, sure likely, unlikely, most/highly likely probably, mostprobably expected, probable most/highly probable possibly, perhaps possible improbable, doubtful, questionable most/highly improbable/unlikely not possible, impossibility unlikely, probably not most/highly doubtful/questionable Probability MORE Possibility can, could, may(not), might (not) Improbability LESS Impossible cannot, could not Notebook computers will definitely be cheaper next year. It is (highly) probable/likely that notebook computers will be cheaper next year. Notebook computers may/might be cheaper next year. Ноутбуки определенно будут дешевле в следующем году. Вполне вероятно, что ноутбуки будут дешевле в следующем году. Ноутбуки может быть будут дешевле в следующем году. English for Special Purposes 112 Computer Engineering It is unlikely /doubtful that notebook computers will be cheaper next year. It is impossible that notebook computers will be cheaper next year. Маловероятно, что ноутбуки будут дешевле в следующем году. Этого не может быть, чтобы ноутбуки стали дешевле в следующем году. Иногда прогнозирование (предположение) становится предметом определенных условий. В этом случае используются сложноподчиненные предложения с придаточными условия, которые состоят соответственно из двух частей: главного предложения (will/won’t; can+ V) и придаточного (if + Present Simple основного глагола). I will buy a notebook if the price of notebooks falls next year. If the price of notebooks falls next year, I will buy one. Я куплю ноутбук, если цена на них упадет в следующем году. Если говорящий не достаточно уверен в том, что какое-либо действие произойдет и стремиться выразить предполагаемое, возможное, желаемое действие, то в речи используется сослагательное наклонение, которое также может состоять из двух частей: главного предложения (would/wouldn’t; might; could + V) придаточного (if + Past Simple основного глагола). I would buy a notebook if the price of notebooks fell next year. If the price of notebooks fell next year, I would buy one. Я бы купил ноутбук, если бы цена на них упала в следующем году. 5. ATTRIBUTIVE CLAUSES Придаточные определительные предложения отвечают на вопросы which? what? и присоединяются к главному предложению бессоюзным способом или при помощи союзных слов – относительных местоимений и наречий: who; whom; whose,; which, that; when; where; why. Относительные местоимения whom, whose и which, вводящие придаточное определительное предложение, могут употребляться с предлогами. Придаточное определительное предложение относится к какому-либо члену главного предложения, выраженному именем существительным или местоимением (в основном неопределенным somebody, anything), а также словами-заместителями: that, those, one. Придаточное определительное предложение занимает место после того слова, которое оно определяет в главном предложении. Придаточные определительные предложения делятся на два типа: описательные определительные предложения (Descriptive Clauses) и ограничительные определительные предложения (Limiting Clauses). Описательные определительные предложения могут быть выделены в отдельное предложение или вовсе опущены без ущерба для смысла главного предложения. Такое определительное предложение обычно отделяется от главного запятой: Programming language theory, which is known as PLT, is a branch of computer science that … Теория языков программирования, или PLT, это раздел информатики, который… Описательное определительное предложение which is known as PLT может быть выделено в отдельное предложение или вовсе опущено. При этом главное предложение не теряет своего English for Special Purposes Computer Engineering 113 смысла. !!! В описательных определительных предложениях относительное местоимение that не употребляется и относительные местоимения не могут быть опущены. Ограничительное определительное предложение тесно связано с тем членом предложения, к которому оно относится, и не может быть опущено без нарушения смысла главного предложения. Ограничительное определительное предложение не отделяется запятой от главного предложения: A programming language provides a structured mechanism for defining pieces of data, and the operations or transformations that may be carried out automatically on that data… … действий и изменений, которые могут быть выполнены автоматически … 6 -ING FORMS КАК РАЗЛИЧАТЬ -ING ФОРМЫ? Сравните: 1. noun – morning 2. adjective – interesting 3. pronoun – something 4. verbal noun – building 5. gerund – by travelling 6. participle – fading flower 7. Continuous –I am standing Формы герундия совпадают с формами причастия, но герундий имеет ряд отличительных признаков. Герундий по своим функциям ближе к существительному (noun forms), тогда как причастие ближе к прилагательному (adjectival forms). Герундий обозначает деятельность или процесс: Rendering includes lighting and shading. Compositing is combining parts o f different images to create a single image. This course involves painting and drawing in various media. Отличия герундия от других частей речи: Наличие перед формой с окончанием -ing какого-либо предлога (of, after, before, by, for, from, in, on, without): Designers start a project by making a wireframe. Наличие перед -ing формой притяжательного местоимения (my, her, etc): The professor approved of my solving problem. Наличие существительных в притяжательном или общем падежах. We know of Newton’s having developed the principles of mechanics. Некоторые глаголы традиционно употребляются только с герундием, а не с инфинитивом: avoid, fancy, finish, give up, hate, imagine, involve, keep, look forward to, mind, suggest, enjoy. I enjoy editing pictures. Причастие используется для образования длительных форм (continuous tenses) и в причастных оборотах: We are designing a new car on computer. . . . a representation showing the outlines o f all edges. ( = which shows the outlines. . . ) English for Special Purposes 114 Computer Engineering Герундий и причастие могут выполнять функцию левого определения. Различать их в этой функции можно только на основе смыслового содержания, учитывая, что причастие выражает действие определяемого существительного, например: a writing man – пишущий человек, тогда как герундий указывает на назначение предмета и на русский язык передается существительным, например: a writing table – письменный стол, т.е. стол для письма. Сравните: a smoking man – курящий человек (причастие) a smoking room – комната для курения (герундий) Отглагольное существительное тоже имеет окончание -ing (verbal noun). Чаще всего такие существительные обозначают физические объекты: building. Признаками такого существительного являются: - наличие перед -ing формой артикля; - наличие предлога of перед идущим за ней существительным; - возможность употребления в форме множественного числа. The readings of the voltmeter were correct. Прилагательные употребляются после глагола-связки и перед существительным: They use special applets to create amazing fractals. It is interesting to know. 7. PARTICIPLE II Причастие 2 (Participle II, Past Pariciple) правильных глаголов образуется путем добавления суффикса ed к основе глагола: to finish – finished Неправильные глаголы: to write – written Таким образом: Past Participle – V+ed (V3). !!! Причастие 2 не имеет отдельных категорий времени и залога, так как может выражать действия, относящиеся к любому времени в зависимости от времени сказуемого. Причастие 2 от переходных глаголов соответствует русским причастиям: настоящего времени с окончаниями - мый, - щийся; прошедшего времени с окончаниями - нный, - тый, - вшийся. asked – спрашиваемый, спрошенный taken – берущийся, взятый Функции причастия 2 в предложении: определение; определительный причастный оборот; обстоятельство. 1) Определение: The described method is widely used in electroplating. Описанный метод широко применяется в гальванопластике. We used all the methods recommended. Мы применили все методы, которые были рекомендованы. English for Special Purposes Computer Engineering 115 2) Определительный причастный оборот: A substance is composed of tiny particles called molecules. Вещество состоит из мельчайших частиц, называемых молекулами. Вещество состоит из мельчайших частиц, которые называются молекулами. 3) Обстоятельство (времени или причины): Placed in a vessel, a gas fills it completely. (A gas placed in a vessel fills it completely.) При помещении в сосуд газ заполняет его полностью. !!! when или if: When heated solids expand little as compared with liquids. a) деепричастие: Нагреваясь, твердые вещества расширяются незначительно по сравнению с жидкими. b) придаточное предложение: Когда твердые вещества нагреваются, они расширяются незначительно по сравнению с жидкими. c) существительное с предлогом: При нагревании твердые тела расширяются незначительно по сравнению с жидкими. 8. INFINITIVE Инфинитив - это неличная глагольная форма, которая только называет действие и выполняет функции как глагола, так и существительного. Инфинитив отвечает на вопрос что делать?, что сделать? Чаще всего инфинитив встречается после глаголов: afford happen prefer appear start offer wish want decide forget prepare arrange help pretend ask hope promise (can’t) bear intend refuse begin learn remember dare seem fail mean manage try expect Часто инфинитив используется после модальных глаголов. Модальные глаголы (can, could, must, should, ought to, had better, may, might, will, would, shall) – это вспомогательные глаголы, которые добавляют идею способности, необходимости, просьбы, разрешения, совета, желания, вероятности и т.д. к действию, выраженному основным глаголом. Другими словами, модальные глаголы описывают отношение говорящего к действию, выраженному основным глаголом. Все модальные глаголы принимают после себя инфинитив без частицы "to" (кроме OUGHT TO!) Инфинитив переходных глаголов имеет формы пассивного залога. Пассивный залог используют если деятель не известен или не важен. active: (to) do/clean/see etc. Somebody will upgrade the computer. passive: (to) be done/cleaned/seen etc. The computer will be upgraded. В английском языке есть несколько видов/форм инфинитива. Present simple passive Пассивный инфинитив образуется при помощи инфинитива to be и третьей формы смыслового глагола. На русский язык может переводиться неопределенно-личным предложением или придаточным дополнительным. English for Special Purposes 116 Computer Engineering Конструкция can be / could be + past participle используется для выражения способности или возможности в настоящем или прошлом в пассивном залоге. My professor has told me that I may be invited to я give the keynote speech at the conference this year. Information can be transmitted by devices such as the telephone, radio or TV. It has been predicted that about one-third o f all work could eventually be performed outside the workplace. Конструкции must be / ought to be / should be + past participle необходимость или желательность в пассивном залоге. используются чтобы выразить You can't expect it to work if it's broken. It must be repaired. You're not supposed to use this application. It shouldn't be allowed. He ought to be rewarded for restoring the information. Обратите внимание на инфинитив в роли определения, которое стоит после определяемого слова и переводится придаточным определительным предложением, вводимым словом который. При этом сказуемое в русском придаточном предложении приобретает форму будущего времени или используется со словами должен, нужно, можно, независимо от времени сказуемого, например: There are many considerations be taken into account. – Существует много соображений, которые следует принять во внимание. This is not a process to be oversimplified. – Это не тот процесс, который можно упрощать. Perfect infinitive Перфектный инфинитив употребляется, чтобы выразить действие, которое предшествует действию, выраженному глаголом−сказуемым. There were some problems at first but they seem to have been solved. Перфектный инфинитив после глаголов to expect, to intend, to mean, to hope, стоящих в прошедшем времени, а также после модальных глаголов ought to, should означает, что действие, которое ожидалось, не произошло. active: have done/cleaned/seen etc. Somebody should have upgraded the computer. passive: have been done/cleaned/seen etc. The computer should have been upgraded. I intended (meant, hoped) to have come on time. – Я намеревался прийти вовремя (но не пришел). Past perfect active: had(done) The computer worked faster. Somebody had upgraded it. passive: had been (done) It had been upgraded. Continuous infinitive Длительный инфинитив употребляется, чтобы выразить действие, длящееся в то время, когда происходит действие глагола−сказуемого. active: am/is/are (do)ing Somebody is upgrading the computer at the moment. passive: am/is/are being (done) The computer is being upgraded at the moment. Past continuous active: was/were (do)ing Somebody was upgrading the computer when I arrived. passive: was/were being (done) The computer was being upgraded when I arrived. There was somebody walking behind us. We were being followed. English for Special Purposes Computer Engineering 117 Future forms Для выражения действий в будущем используются конструкции will be / is going to be / is being / is to be + past participle. 9. NOUN ATTRIBUTES Многие терминологические словосочетания строятся из сочетания имени существительного с другими частями речи (другими существительными, причастиями и герундием – ing-forms, наречиями и придаточными определительными предложениями), которые могут стоять до или после него (левое и правое определение). При переводе терминологических словосочетаний необходимо четко уяснить, в каком порядке следует раскрывать значение данного словосочетания. Особую трудность при переводе представляют беспредложные терминологические словосочетания, состоящие из цепочки слов, не связанных между собой какими-либо служебными словами. В беспредложном словосочетании главным словом является последнее, все слова, стоящие слева от него, играют второстепенную роль – роль определения. Перевод таких словосочетаний надо начинать с конца. Рассмотрим основные типовые формы их образования. Определяющее и определяемое существительное иногда соединяются дефисом, хотя твердых правил здесь нет, это зависит от традиции. Словосочетания, состоящие из существительных. N+N Словосочетания, состоящие из существительного и формы на –ing V-ing +N; N+ V-ing Словосочетания, состоящие из существительного и наречия Adv + N; N+Adv Словосочетания, состоящие из существительного и прилагательного Adj +N Словосочетания, состоящие из существительного и прошедшего причастия V-ed+N; N+V-ed Словосочетания, состоящие из существительного и инфинитива N+Vto Словосочетания, состоящие из прилагательного (наречия), причастия прошедшего времени и существительного. Adj(Adv)+Ved+N entertainment industry – индустрия развлечений web design software – программное обеспечение для оформления Web-сайтов learning theory – теория обучения an operating device – действующий прибор a module holding 40 components – модуль, содержащий 40 компонентов the above statement – вышеупомянутое утверждение the instrument available can provide – доступный инструмент может обеспечить a small device – маленький прибор a small electronic device - маленький электронный прибор the smallest possible electronic device – наименьший из возможных электронный прибор achieved results – достигнутые результаты The results achieved showed many advantages. – Достигнутые результаты показали большие преимущества. the information to be stored – информация, которая должна быть сохранена the designs to be implemented – проект, который должен быть внедрен directly coupled (multiprocessor) system – система с непосредственной связью (между процессорами) isotropically radiated power – изотропно излучаемая мощность English for Special Purposes 118 Computer Engineering 10. INFINITIVE CONSTRUCTIONS ИНФИНИТИВ КАК ЧАСТЬ СЛОЖНОГО ДОПОЛНЕНИЯ (COMPLEX OBJECT) verb + noun / pronoun + (to)-infinitive Сложное дополнение – это сочетание имени существительного в общем падеже или местоимения в объектном падеже (me, him, her, it, us, you, them) с инфинитивом глагола, выступающее как единый член предложения. Сказуемое в предложении со сложным дополнением может быть выражено следующими глаголами: to want, to find, to think, to report, to state, to suppose, to expect, to consider, to see, to hear, to feel, to cause и т.д. Сложное дополнение переводится на русский язык дополнительным придаточным предложением, вводимым союзами что, чтобы, как. Malware can cause your computer to attack other computers. Инфинитив в таком обороте обычно употребляется с частицей to, но если сказуемое выражено глаголами, передающими физическое восприятие, например: to watch, to see, to hear, to feel, to observe, to notice, а также глаголами to make «заставлять» to let «разрешать», то частица to опускается. People make systems work. !!! Если глаголы to see, to hear, to make стоят в страдательном залоге, за ними следует инфинитив с частицей to: The students were made to do all the calculations again. СУБЪЕКТНЫЙ ИНФИНИТИВНЫЙ ОБОРОТ (СЛОЖНОЕ ПОДЛЕЖАЩЕЕ – COMPLEX SUBJECT) Сказуемое английского предложения с оборотом «сложное подлежащее» всегда выражено глаголом – характеристикой, то есть между существительным и инфинитивом стоит сказуемое предложения, выражающее мнение, суждение и предположение. Мнение, суждение, предположение в таком предложении может быть выражено следующими глаголами: A. noun / pronoun + active verb + to-infinitive seem appear happen prove (to be) turn out (to be) кажется (казалось), по-видимому, похоже случайно; случилось так, что… оказывается Initially this result may seem to be rather unexpected. – Первоначально такой результат может показаться довольно неожиданным. He appeared not to have virus checked the attachments. По-видимому, он не проверил приложения на вирусы. The fact happened to become known to everybody. – Случилось так, что этот факт стал известен всем. He proved to be a good coder. – Он оказался хорошим кодировщиком. B. noun / pronoun + link verb + certain / sure; likely / unlikely + to-infinitive The real situation is likely to be very complex. – Вероятно, реальная ситуация является (будет) очень English for Special Purposes Computer Engineering 119 сложной. Unfortunately this approach is unlikely to be successful. – К сожалению, маловероятно, что этот метод будет успешным. C. noun / pronoun + passive verb + to-infinitive is believed is considered is expected is known is reported is said is supposed is thought полагают, думают, считают считают, полагают; считается предполагается, ожидается известно сообщают; сообщается говорят полагают считают, полагают He is considered to be an expert on computers. – Считается, что он хорошо разбирается в компьютерах. The computer system was reported to be hacked. – Сообщалось, что компьютерная система была «взломана». Предложения такого типа переводятся сложноподчиненными предложениями. Перевод следует начинать со сказуемого и переводить неопределенно-личным предложением (Примеры см. выше). ПРЕДЛОЖНЫЙ ИНФИНИТИВНЫЙ ОБОРОТ (FOR-PHRASE) Предложный инфинитивный оборот представляет собой сочетание предлога for и существительного в общем падеже или местоимения в объектном падеже и инфинитива. Он может выполнять роль любого члена предложения – подлежащего, части сказуемого, дополнения, обстоятельства, определения. For the program to be written in time, we must begin to work immediately. – Для того, чтобы программа была написана вовремя, мы должны начать работать немедленно. For a designer to know the construction of PC is quite necessary. – Проектировщику совершенно необходимо знать конфигурацию ПК. Here is a program for you to correct. – Вот программа, которую вам нужно откорректировать. English for Special Purposes 120 Computer Engineering Appendix 1. PREPOSITIONAL CONSTRUCTIONS according to in accordance (conformity) with as against as compared with/to in comparison with on the contrary/opposite to due to because of owing to on account of thanks to by means of with the help (aid) of instead of/ in place of in spite of/ despite/ regardless to as to / as for as regards/regarding with regard to concerning respecting/in respect of согласно чему-либо в соответствии с чем-либо в противоположность по сравнению с в сравнении с напротив благодаря из-за вследствие по-причине благодаря посредством с помощью вместо несмотря на что касается рассмотрение в отношении по поводу касательно 2. VERBS + PREPOSITIONS agree with apply to adapt to benefit by comment on conform to consist in contribute to correspond to depend on differ from end in smth. lead to participate in prevent from refer to rely on result in specialize in succeed in suffer from English for Special Purposes согласовываться c, совпадать с использовать, применять адаптировать, настраивать, приспосабливать к получать выгоду от чего-либо комментировать согласовываться, соответствовать, приспособиться состоять в чем-либо способствовать, вносить вклад в соответствовать, представлять собой зависеть от, полагаться на отличаться от закончиться чем-либо приводить к тому, что; вызывать принимать участие в чем-либо не позволять, предотвращать ссылаться на полагаться на, основываться приводить к, повлечь за собой специализировать на чем-либо преуспеть в чем-л., добиться чего-либо страдать от, испытывать, претерпевать Computer Engineering 3. NOUNS + PREPOSITIONS an alternative to in agreement with in comparison with in connection with in relation to in use intention of need for probability of reason for use of быть альтернативой чему-либо в согласии с, по соглашению по сравнению с в связи с, применительно к относительно, касательно в употреблении намерение, стремление, цель необходимость, потребность вероятность из мотив применение 3. ADJECTIVES + PREPOSITIONS capable of engaged in essential to in general in particular similar to full of способный на что-либо занятый чем-либо необходимый для в целом в частности, в особенности подобно, подобным образом полон English for Special Purposes 121 122 Computer Engineering Supplementary reading UNIT 1 COMPUTER & COMPUTING: Famous people in computer technology development Entrepreneur Steven Jobs and Stephen Wozniak, his engineer partner, founded a small company named Apple Computer, Inc. They introduced the Apple II computer in 1977. Its monitor supported relatively high-quality color graphics, and it had a floppy-disk drive. The machine initially was popular for running video games. In 1979 Daniel Bricking wrote an electronic spreadsheet program called VisiCalc that ran on the Apple II. IBM introduced its Personal Computer (PC) in 1981. As a result of competition from the makers of clones (computers that worked exactly like an IBM PC); the price of personal computers fell drastically. By the 1990s personal computers were far more powerful than the multimillion-dollar machines from the 1950s. In rapid succession computers shrank from tabletop to laptop and finally to palm-size. The English mathematician Charles Babbage conceived the first set of operating instructions for a digital computer in the design of his “analytical engine” (1834), which was never built. The first operational stored-program computer was completed in 1949 at the University of Cambridge. The operating systems that came into wide use between 1950 and 1980 were developed mostly by private companies to operate proprietary mainframe computers and applications. The most popular of these systems were built by IBM Corporation) – include MVS, DOS/VSE, and VM. English for Special Purposes In addition to proprietary systems, open, or portable, operating systems have been developed to run computers built by other manufacturers. Open operating systems rose to prominence during the 1980s and are now widely used to run personal computers (PCs) and workstations, which use extremely powerful PCs. The dominant operating system is the disk operating system (DOS) developed by Microsoft Corporation. Also popular is Microsoft's Windows NT, an adjunct to DOS that provides enhanced computer graphics. Following the launch of the Altair 8800, William Henry Gates III, (known as Bill Gates) called the creators of the new microcomputer, Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systems (MITS), offering to demonstrate an implementation of the BASIC programming language for the system. After the demonstration, MITS agreed to distribute Altair BASIC Gates left Harvard University, moved to Albuquerque, New Mexico where MITS was located, and founded Microsoft there on September 5, 1975. The company's first international office was founded on November 1, 1978, in Japan, titled "ASCII Microsoft" (now called "Microsoft Japan"). On January 1, 1979, the company moved from Albuquerque to a new home in Bellevue, Washington. Computer Engineering 123 UNIT 1 COMPUTER & COMPUTING: CPU The heart of a computer is the central processing unit (CPU). In addition to performing arithmetic and logic operations on data, it times and controls the rest of the system. Mainframe and supercomputer CPUs sometimes consist of several linked microchips, called microprocessors1, each of which performs a separate task, but most other computers require only a single microprocessor as a CPU. Components known as input devices let users enter commands, data, or programs for processing by the CPU. Computer keyboards, which are much like typewriter keyboards, are the most common input devices. Information typed at the keyboard is translated into a series of binary numbers2 that the CPU can manipulate. Most digital computers store data both internally, in what is called main memory3, and externally, on auxiliary storage units4. As a computer processes data and instructions, it temporarily stores information in main memory, which consists of random-access memory (RAM). Random access means that each byte can be stored and retrieved directly, as opposed to sequentially as on magnetic tape. Components that let the user see or hear the results of the computer's data processing are known as output devices. The most common one is the video display terminal (VDT), or monitor, which used a cathode-ray tube (CRT) 5, which is nowadays out of date, or liquid-crystal display (LCD)6 to show characters and graphics on a television-like screen. Comments: 1 microprocessor - an integrated circuit that contains all the functions of a central processing unit of a computer. 2 binary number – The binary numeral system, or base-2 number system represents numeric values using two symbols, usually 0 and 1. More specifically, the usual base-2 system is a positional notation with a radix of 2. Owing to its straightforward implementation in digital electronic circuitry using logic gates, the binary system is used internally by all modern computers. 3 main memory – the only one directly accessible to the CPU. The CPU continuously reads instructions stored there and executes them as required. Any data actively operated on is also stored there in uniform manner. 4 auxiliary storage unit – a device that store data for a long time without extern power, external memory device. 5 cathode-ray tube (CRT) – a high-vacuum tube, in which cathode rays produce a luminous image on a fluorescent screen, used chiefly in televisions and computer terminals. 6 liquid-crystal display (LCD) – a form of visual display used in electronic devices, in which a layer of a liquid crystal is sandwiched between two transparent electrodes. English for Special Purposes 124 Computer Engineering UNIT 2 SOFTWARE: UNIX Unix (officially trademarked as UNIX, sometimes also written as Unix with small caps) is a computer operating system originally developed in 1969 by a group of AT&T employees at Bell Labs, including Ken Thompson, Dennis Ritchie, Brian Kernighan, and Douglas McIlroy. Today the term Unix is used to describe any operating system that conforms to Unix standards, meaning the core operating system operates the same as the original Unix operating system. Today's Unix systems are split into various branches, developed over time by AT&T as well as various commercial vendors and non-profit organizations. As of 2007, the owner of the trademark is The Open Group, an industry standards consortium. Only systems fully compliant with and certified according to the Single UNIX Specification are qualified to use the trademark; others are called "Unix system-like" or "Unix-like". During the late 1970s and early 1980s, the influence of Unix in academic circles led to largescale adoption of Unix (particularly of the BSD variant, originating from the University of California, Berkeley) by commercial startups, the most notable of which are Solaris, HP-UX and AIX. Today, in addition to certified Unix systems such as those already mentioned, Unix-like operating systems such as Linux and BSD are commonly encountered. The term "traditional Unix" may be used to describe a Unix or an operating system that has the characteristics of either Version 7 Unix or UNIX System V. Unix operating systems are widely used in both servers and workstations. The Unix environment and the client-server program model were essential elements in the development of the Internet and the reshaping of computing as centered in networks rather than in individual computers. Both Unix and the C programming language were developed by AT&T and distributed to government and academic institutions, which led to both being ported to a wider variety of machine families than any other operating system. English for Special Purposes As a result, Unix became synonymous with "open systems". Unix was designed to be portable, multi-tasking and multi-user in a time-sharing configuration. Unix systems are characterized by various concepts: the use of plain text for storing data; a hierarchical file system; treating devices and certain types of interprocess communication (IPC) as files; and the use of a large number of software tools, small programs that can be strung together through a command line interpreter using pipes, as opposed to using a single monolithic program that includes all of the same functionality. These concepts are known as the Unix philosophy. Under Unix, the "operating system" consists of many of these utilities along with the master control program, the kernel. The kernel provides services to start and stop programs, handles the file system and other common "low level" tasks that most programs share, and, perhaps most importantly, schedules access to hardware to avoid conflicts if two programs try to access the same resource or device simultaneously. To mediate such access, the kernel was given special rights on the system, leading to the division between user-space and kernel-space. The microkernel concept was introduced in an effort to reverse the trend towards larger kernels and return to a system in which most tasks were completed by smaller utilities. In an era when a "normal" computer consisted of a hard disk for storage and a data terminal for input and output (I/O), the Unix file model worked quite well as most I/O was "linear". However, modern systems include networking and other new devices. As graphical user interfaces developed, the file model proved inadequate to the task of handling asynchronous events such as those generated by a mouse, and in the 1980s non-blocking I/O and the set of interprocess communication mechanisms was augmented (sockets, shared memory, message queues, semaphores), and functionalities such as network protocols were moved out of the kernel. Computer Engineering 125 UNIT 3 PORTABLE COMPUTERS: The future of Portable Computers Jef Raskin, a user interface and system design consultant. Future portable computers will look like tiny keyboards or writing tablets with a cable or a wireless link to your eyeglasses. Though it would seem inevitable, not all versions of the glasses will connect to the computer or car or whatever by a wireless link. Unfortunately, batteries are still big and heavy, and will be for a while yet, so we'll have to have some wires leading to battery packs, and once you've got a wire to the battery on your belt, you might as well have a nice, reliable, and cheap wire link to your eyeballs. Head-mounted displays will ultimately become cheaper than LCD panels. If it's done right, the eyeglass display will plug into whatever gadget you have, giving at least 600 * 800 pixels of screen resolution to the smallest cell phone (displays with built-in cell phones will be common). Because the illumination can come from a single white light-emitting diode that takes a fraction of a watt to operate, lithium-ion or lithium-polymer batteries on your belt or in the keyboard unit will allow you to work for many more hours on a single charge than today's big screens permit. The laptop will probably last through this decade, but we are exploring different alternatives and as such it is likely that conclusions on this subject will be different in the nearest future. The market desperately needs to move to a more appliance-like device that is much more portable and much less power-hungry. With increasing wireless bandwidth and availability our options are going to increase. Micro-displays are advancing, thanks to rear projection TVs, at an incredible rate, making head-mounted displays more capable and more likely long term. While we have a number of choices, for most, the laptop, with some enhancements, is likely to keep its place for at least the next five years. Rob Enderle, a TechNewsWorld columnist, is the Principal Analyst for the Enderle Group. In the near future, most mobile devices will offer video conferencing, as they incorporate user-facing cameras. And many will also include pin projectors so their contents can be projected for easier viewing. But innovation will truly take off when battery size and capacity cease to be major hurdles for industrial designers. Today, wireless and soon over-the-air charging could explode similar to how wireless networking did in the past. Imagine not having to plug in your laptop, iPad, or iPhone simply walking into your home or office will start the device charging - wirelessly. Faster chips and faster wireless networks will also eventually allow voice recognition to finally become a reality. Someday soon we will truly be able to ask questions to our mobile devices and they'll reply and perhaps discuss the answer. What's considered portable today will most likely be considered doorstops ten years from now. As flexible and transparent displays enter the mainstream devices will become lighter and wearable. Early attempts to intertwine computers and clothing have failed to date because you need batteries - and no one wants to plug in their pants. But as wireless power takes hold and computers shrink and their hard-case form disappears - the options become limitless. And of course, don't overlook the potential for the merging of humankind and computers. Scientists continually push the envelope. Even today early steps towards powering devices with the body itself have leapt forward, and they'll continue to do so at an exponential rate. So in the future, perhaps we won't carry our portable devices, maybe we'll be the device. And then the question will be, not what's the next advance in computers, but what's the next advance in humans? English for Special Purposes 126 Computer Engineering UNIT 4 PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES: Java Java is a programming language originally developed by James Gosling at Sun Microsystems and released in 1995 as a core component of Sun Microsystems' Java platform. The language derives much of its syntax from C and C++ but has a simpler object model and fewer low-level facilities. Java applications are typically compiled to byte code that can run on any Java Virtual Machine (JVM) regardless of computer architecture. Java is a general-purpose, concurrent, class-based, object-oriented language that is specifically designed to have as few implementation dependencies as possible. It is intended to let application developers "write once, run anywhere". Java is currently one of the most popular programming languages in use, and is widely used from application software to web applications. One characteristic of Java is portability, which means that computer programs written in the Java language must run similarly on any supported hardware/operating-system platform. This is achieved by compiling the Java language code to an intermediate representation called Java byte code, instead of directly to platform-specific machine code. Java byte code instructions are analogous to machine code, but are intended to be interpreted by a virtual machine (VM) written specifically for the host hardware. End-users commonly use a Java Runtime Environment (JRE) installed on their own machine for standalone Java applications, or in a Web browser for Java applets. Standardized libraries provide a generic way to access host-specific features such as graphics, threading, and networking. Programs written in Java have a reputation for being slower and requiring more memory than those written in C. However, Java programs' execution speed improved significantly with the introduction of Just-intime compilation in 1997/1998 for Java 1.1, the addition of language features supporting better code analysis, and optimizations in the Java Virtual Machine itself, such as HotSpot becoming the default for Sun's JVM in 2000. Currently, Java code has approximately half the performance of C code. Some platforms offer direct hardware support for Java; there are microcontrollers that can run java in hardware instead of a software JVM, and ARM based processors can have English for Special Purposes hardware support for executing Java byte code through its Jazelle option. Java uses an automatic garbage collector to manage memory in the object lifecycle. The programmer determines when objects are created, and the Java runtime is responsible for recovering the memory once objects are no longer in use. Once no references to an object remain, the unreachable memory becomes eligible to be freed automatically by the garbage collector. One of the ideas behind Java's automatic memory management model is that programmers can be spared the burden of having to perform manual memory management. In some languages, memory for the creation of objects is implicitly allocated on the stack, or explicitly allocated and deallocated from the heap. In the latter case the responsibility of managing memory resides with the programmer. If the program does not deallocate an object, a memory leak occurs. If the program attempts to access or deallocate memory that has already been deallocated, the result is undefined and difficult to predict, and the program is likely to become unstable and/or crash. This can be partially remedied by the use of smart pointers, but these add overhead and complexity. Note that garbage collection does not prevent "logical" memory leaks, i.e. those where the memory is still referenced but never used. Garbage collection may happen at any time. Ideally, it will occur when a program is idle. It is guaranteed to be triggered if there is insufficient free memory on the heap to allocate a new object; this can cause a program to stall momentarily. Explicit memory management is not possible in Java. Java does not support C/C++ style pointer arithmetic, where object addresses and unsigned integers can be used interchangeably. This allows the garbage collector to relocate referenced objects and ensures type safety and security. As in C++, variables of Java's primitive data types are not objects. Values of primitive types are either stored directly in fields or on the stack rather than on the heap, as commonly true for objects. This was a conscious decision by Java's designers for performance reasons. Because of this, Java was not considered to be a pure object-oriented programming language. Computer Engineering UNIT 5 COMPUTER NETWORKING: Global Networking Infrastructure for the 21st century The Internet Phenomenon The Internet has gone from near-invisibility to near-ubiquity in little more than a year. In fact, though, today's multi-billion dollar industry in Internet hardware and software is the direct descendant of strategically-motivated fundamental research begun in the 1960s with federal sponsorship. A fertile mixture of high-risk ideas, stable research funding, visionary leadership, extraordinary grass-roots cooperation, and vigorous entrepreneurship has led to an emerging Global Information Infrastructure unlike anything that has ever existed. Although not easy to estimate with accuracy, the 1994 data communications market approached roughly $15 billion/year if one includes private line data services ($9 billion/year), local area network and bridge/router equipment ($3 billion/year), wide area network services ($1 billion/year), electronic messaging and online services ($1 billion/year), and proprietary networking software and hardware ($1 billion/year). Some of these markets show annual growth rates in the 35-50% range, and the Internet itself has doubled in size each year since 1988. As this article is written in 1995, the Internet encompasses an estimated 50,000 networks worldwide, about half of which are in the United States. There are over 5 million computers permanently attached to the Internet [as of mid1996 the number is between 10 and 15 million!], plus at least that many portable and desktop systems which are only intermittently online. (There were only 4 computers on the ARPANET in 1969, and only 200 on the Internet in 1983!) Traffic rates measured in the recently "retired" NSFNET backbone approached 20 trillion bytes per month and were growing at a 100% annual rate. What triggered this phenomenon? What sustains it? How is its evolution managed? The answers to these questions have their roots in DARPA-sponsored research in the 1960s into a then-risky new approach to data communication: packet switching. The U.S. government has played a critical role in the evolution and application of advanced computer networking technology and deserves credit for stimulating wide-ranging exploration and experimentation over the course of several decades. Evolutionary Stages: Packet Switching Today's computer communication networks are based on a technology called packet switching. This technology, which arose from DARPA-sponsored research in the 1960s, is fundamentally different from the technology that was then employed by the telephone system or by the military messaging system (which was based on "message switching"). In a packet switching system, data to be communicated is broken into small chunks that are labeled to show where they come from and where they are to go, rather like postcards in the postal system. Like postcards, packets have a maximum length and are not necessarily reliable. Packets are forwarded from one computer to another until they arrive at their destination. If any are lost, they are re-sent by the originator. The recipient acknowledges receipt of packets to eliminate unnecessary re-transmissions. The earliest packet switching research was sponsored by the Information Processing Techniques Office of the Department of Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, which acted as a visionary force shaping the evolution of computer networking as a tool for coherent harnessing of far-flung computing resources. The first experiments were conducted around 1966. Shortly thereafter, similar work began at the National Physical Laboratory in the UK. In 1968 DARPA developed and released a Request for Quotation for a communication system based on a set of small, interconnected computers it called "Interface Message Processors" or "IMPs." English for Special Purposes 127 128 Computer Engineering The competition was won by Bolt Beranek and Newman (BBN), a research firm in Cambridge, MA, and by September 1969 BBN had developed and delivered the first IMP to the Network Measurement Center located at UCLA. The "ARPANET" was to touch off an explosion of networking research that continues to the present. Apart from exercising leadership by issuing its RFQ for a system that many thought was simply not feasible (AT&T was particularly pessimistic), DARPA also set a crucial tone by making the research entirely unclassified and by engaging some of the most creative members of the computer science community who tackled this communication problem without the benefit of the experience (and hence bias) of traditional telephony groups. Even within the computer science community, though, the technical approach was not uniformly well-received, and it is to DARPA's credit that it persevered despite much advice to the contrary. ARPANET The ARPANET grew from four nodes in 1969 to roughly one hundred by 1975. In the course of this growth, a crucial public demonstration was held during the first International Conference on Computer Communication in October 1972. Many skeptics were converted by witnessing the responsiveness and robustness of the system. Out of that pivotal meeting came an International Network Working Group (INWG) composed of researchers who had begun to explore packet switching concepts in earnest. Several INWG participants went on to develop an international standard for packet communication known as X.25, and to lead the development of commercial packet switching in the U.S., Canada, France, and the UK, specifically for systems such as Telenet, Datapac, Experimental Packet Switching System, Transpac, and Reseau Communication par Paquet. By mid-1975, DARPA had concluded that the ARPANET was stable and should be turned over to English for Special Purposes a separate agency for operational management. Responsibility was therefore transferred to the Defense Communications Agency (now known as the Defense Information Systems Agency). New Packet Technologies ARPANET was a single terrestrial network. Having seen that ARPANET was not only feasible but powerfully useful, DARPA began a series of research programs intended to extend the utility of packet switching to ships at sea and ground mobile units through the use of synchronous satellites (SATNET) and ground mobile packet radio (PRNET). These programs were begun in 1973, as was a prophetic effort known as "Internetting" which was intended to solve the problem of linking different kinds of packet networks together without requiring the users or their computers to know much about how packets moved from one network to another. Also in the early 1970s, DARPA provided followon funding for a research project originated in the late 1960s by the Air Force Office of Scientific Research to explore the use of radio for a packet switched network. This effort, at the University of Hawaii, led to new mobile packet radio ideas and also to the design of the now-famous Ethernet. The Ethernet concept arose when a researcher from Xerox PARC spent a sabbatical period at the University of Hawaii and had the insight that the random access radio system could be operated on a coaxial cable, but at data rates thousands of times faster than could then be supported over the air. Ethernet has become a cornerstone of the multi-billion dollar local area network industry. These efforts came together in 1977 when a four-network demonstration was conducted linking ARPANET, SATNET, Ethernet and the PRNET. The satellite effort, in particular, drew international involvement from participants in the UK, Norway, and later Italy and Germany. http://www.cs.washington.edu/homes Computer Engineering UNIT 6 COMPUTER GRAPHICS: The concept of computer graphics An image or picture is an artifact, usually twodimensional, that has a similar appearance to some subject – usually a physical object or a person. Images may be two-dimensional, such as a photograph, screen display, and as well as a three-dimensional, such as a statue. They may be captured by optical devices – such as cameras, mirrors, lenses, telescopes, microscopes, etc. and natural objects and phenomena, such as the human eye or water surfaces. A digital image is a representation of a twodimensional image using ones and zeros (binary). Depending on whether or not the image resolution is fixed, it may be of vector or raster type. Without qualifications, the term "digital image" usually refers to raster images. A pixel is the smallest piece of information in an image. Pixels are normally arranged in a regular 2dimensional grid, and are often represented using dots or squares. Each pixel is a sample of an original image, where more samples typically provide a more accurate representation of the original. The intensity of each pixel is variable; in color systems, each pixel has typically three or four components such as red, green, and blue, or cyan, magenta, yellow, and black. Graphics are visual presentations on some surface, such as a wall, canvas, computer screen, paper, or stone to brand, inform, illustrate, or entertain. Examples are photographs, drawings, line art, graphs, diagrams, typography, numbers, symbols, geometric designs, maps, engineering drawings, or other images. Graphics often combine text, illustration, and color. Graphic design may consist of the deliberate selection, creation, or arrangement of typography alone, as in a brochure, flier, poster, web site, or book without any other element. Clarity or effective communication may be the objective, association with other cultural elements may be sought, or merely, the creation of a distinctive style. Rendering is the process of generating an image from a model, by means of computer programs. The model is a description of three dimensional objects in a strictly defined language or data structure. It would contain geometry, viewpoint, texture, lighting, and shading information. The image is a digital image or raster graphics image. The term may be by analogy with an "artist's rendering" of a scene. 'Rendering' is also used to describe the process of calculating effects in a video editing file to produce final video output. 3D projection is a method of mapping three dimensional points to a two dimensional plane. As most current methods for displaying graphical data are based on planar two dimensional media, the use of this type of projection is widespread, especially in computer graphics, engineering and drafting. Ray tracing is a technique for generating an image by tracing the path of light through pixels in an image plane. The technique is capable of producing a very high degree of photorealism; usually higher than that of typical scanline rendering methods, but at a greater computational cost. Shading refers to depicting depth in 3D models or illustrations by varying levels of darkness. It is a process used in drawing for depicting levels of darkness on paper by applying media more densely or with a darker shade for darker areas, and less densely or with a lighter shade for lighter areas. There are various techniques of shading including cross hatching where perpendicular lines of varying closeness are drawn in a grid pattern to shade an area. The closer the lines are together, the darker the area appears. Likewise, the farther apart the lines are, the lighter the area appears. The term has been recently generalized to mean that shaders are applied. Texture mapping is a method for adding detail, surface texture, or colour to a computer-generated graphic or 3D model. Its application to 3D graphics was pioneered by Dr Edwin Catmull in 1974. A texture map is applied (mapped) to the surface of a shape, or polygon. This process is akin to applying patterned paper to a plain white box. Multitexturing is the use of more than one texture at a time on a polygon. Procedural textures (created from adjusting parameters of an underlying algorithm that produces an output texture), and bitmap textures (created in an image editing application) are, generally speaking, common methods of implementing texture definition from a 3D animation program, while intended placement of textures onto a model's surface often requires a technique known as UV mapping. English for Special Purposes 129 130 Computer Engineering Volume rendering is a technique used to display a 2D projection of a 3D discretely sampled data set. A typical 3D data set is a group of 2D slice images acquired by a CT or MRI scanner. Usually these are acquired in a regular pattern (e.g., one slice every millimeter) and usually have a regular number of image pixels in a regular pattern. This is an example of a regular volumetric grid, with each volume element, or voxel represented by a single value that is obtained by sampling the immediate area surrounding the voxel. 3D modeling is the process of developing a mathematical, wireframe representation of any threedimensional object, called a "3D model", via specialized software. Models may be created automatically or manually; the manual modeling process of preparing geometric data for 3D computer graphics is similar to plastic arts such as sculpting. 3D models may be created using multiple approaches: use of NURBS curves to generate accurate and smooth surface patches, polygonal mesh modeling (manipulation of faceted geometry), or polygonal mesh subdivision (advanced tessellation of polygons, resulting in smooth surfaces similar to NURBS models). A 3D model can be displayed as a two-dimensional image through a process called 3D rendering, used in a computer simulation of physical phenomena, or animated directly for other purposes. The model can also be physically created using 3D Printing devices. UNIT 7 MULTIMEDIA: Rich media features The term Rich Media refers to a broad range of digital interactive media that can either be downloadable or embedded in a webpage. When downloaded, it can be used or viewed offline using media players such as Microsoft Media Player, Real Networks' RealPlayer, or Apple's QuickTime. For distance learning through the Web as in elearning, rich media must be an integral part of the courseware. It should comprise animation, interactivities to various levels of sophistication, visuals and narration. These components make training programs more effective and your company sees a significant Return on Investment (ROI). Other components of Rich Media File sizes: File sizes must always be small. To minimize delays in file transfer, use file formats that make the best use of Rich Media and are of good quality. These include Microsoft Media Player, GIF, JPG, RealPlayer, or Apple's QuickTime, Macromedia Flash (SWF), MP3, Shockwave Audio (SWA), Animated GIF, Macromedia Authorware (AAM) and VOX. If there are delays in self-paced interactive course programs, students can be very frustrated as it interferes with understanding and retention. So, file sizes must be small and very streamable to slow modems. By streamable is meant that as bits of the digital video are downloaded, the movie starts to play, until the entire download is complete. Image formats: If you use less than 256 colors, English for Special Purposes sharp colors and small file sizes, the GIF format is ideal. These include screen grabs, clipart, drawings and illustrations. JPGs are better for photographs and illustrations with over 256 colors. If you use JPGs for screen captures, it will cause blurring of colors and the file size will be larger because the colors are averaged. Animation: Macromedia Flash is best for animation on the Web. Not only can you increase the Flash movie to 1024 x 768 from 640 x 480, but you don't lose any picture quality nor do you increase the file size. Alternatively, you can use animated GIF format. Movies and digital video: The most popular streamable formats for digital video are Windows Media Player, Apple QuickTime and RealVideo. Sound files: Of the many formats for sound compression available, MP3 is the most popular and has excellent quality. If you use Real Audio and Windows Media Player, you can safely use MP3. One of the best ways of using sound on the Web is to use Macromedia Flash which converts WAV files to the Shockwave format it has internally. If you use Macromedia Authorware with its 800kbps plug-in, you can either use SWA (Shockwave Audio) or VOX (Voxware). Authoring software: You could give your learners a "no plug-in" option by using Macromedia Dreamweaver with Course Builder. It creates good interactive learning, is compliant with AICC norms and can import all kinds of media. Computer Engineering 131 UNIT 8 TELECOMMUNICATION: Telecommunications Save Lives Earthquake in Mexico Gas escaping from a broken pipe burns as water from a ruptured main floods a Los Angeles street after an earthquake. Forest fire in South Africa Aftermath of the South East Asia tsunami disaster of Sunday 26 December 2004 Disasters kill at least one million people each decade and leave millions more homeless. When disaster strikes, communication links are often disrupted; yet for disaster relief workers, these links are essential in order to answer critical questions as to how many people have been injured or died, where the injured are located and the extent of the medical help needed. To put it simply, in disaster and emergency situations, telecommunications can save lives. The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) has put the subjects of disaster prevention, preparedness and relief high on its agenda in an effort to promote and offer technical assistance to developing countries in the field of telecommunications, and also to promote the mobilization of the material, human and financial resources needed for its implementation, as well as access to information. For nearly 140 years, ITU has been helping the world communicate, a guiding mission that becomes even more important when disaster strikes. As noted by the United Nations SecretaryGeneral, Kofi Annan: "Humanitarian work is one of the most important, but also one of the most difficult tasks of the United Nations. Human suffering cannot be measured in figures, and its dimensions often surpass our imagination, even at a time when news about natural and other disasters reaches every corner of the globe in next to real time. An appropriate response depends upon the timely availability of accurate data from the often remote and inaccessible sites of crises. From the mobilization of assistance to the logistics chain, which will carry assistance to the intended beneficiaries, reliable telecommunication links are indispensable." English for Special Purposes 132 Computer Engineering UNIT 8 TELECOMMUNICATION: Infosphere The concept of the "biosphere" was coined in the beginning of this century by Russian geochemist Vernadsky (1929) to describe the "envelope of life" as an interdependent planetary web. The new information environment needs a metaphor that implies the growing unity, interdependence and accessibility of information produced by humankind and to this end the author proposes the infosphere. The infosphere summarizes advances in nearly all human endeavors. Sputnik, manned lunar landings, and the first photograph of the entire Earth, a fragile blue orb in space, encouraged all people to think globally. For educators, this revolutionary flow of information forces a rethinking of traditional learning paradigms. Is there anything useful besides sending email and accessing databases that can help teachers teach and students learn? There are five general educational functionalities of the infosphere . 1. Tele-access is the use of online resources in learning, including online libraries, databases, museums, satellite data and other classrooms. The latest space shuttle photos, paintings inspired by Shakespeare plays, pending congressional legislation, or foreign language resources for forty languages are available to students via the Internet. When students conduct online searches, they are tapping into information that is real-world oriented and nearly unlimited. Rather than digesting precanned answers, they are constructing their own knowledge and they can do so with equal facility at home and in class. 2. Virtual publishing can authenticate learning by setting students' scholarship in the real world. On the networks supported by International Education and Resource Network (I*EARN), students from different countries publish results of their collaborative projects, including news magazines, literary journals, environmental and human-rights newsletters. Virtual publishing is hardly limited to text documents. Students can include graphics, video, sound and animation in their publications, as well as the hypertext links of digital books. 3. Tele-presence enables students to experience events at remote sites. Students near an ecological disaster or in the path of a hurricane can serve as eye- English for Special Purposes witnesses for their peers by issuing firsthand accounts, or students can collect data from remote probes, whether the probes be on school grounds or on the moon. When used with video technologies, CMC allows students to actually see and hear events as they happen remotely. Classes can journey on real expeditions, participate in real experiments and, in effect "look over the shoulders" of working scientists. For example, in the "Live from Antarctica" project, students accessed scientists' diaries and field journals to learn how they "lived, worked, and played" at the South Pole. 4. Tele-mentoring becomes a rich and viable teaching option. Many sites on the Internet, such as professional groups and bulletin boards, are responsive to student inquiries. By serving as mentors, scientists and scholars can answer questions and provide classrooms with resources beyond textbooks and the individual teacher's expertise. By exposing students to experts, scholars and people of achievement, telementoring provides learners with positive role models, particularly for those students to whom positive role models are not readily available. Such relationships can reward not only students but the mentors themselves. 5. Tele-sharing often begins with simple e-mail chats between "keypals." It advances to "one-to-many" and "many-to-many" communications, and then blossoms into the sharing of resources, ideas, experiences, data and findings. This transition from simple communications to cooperative learning offers relevancy and the analytical challenge of comparative studies. Further, it calls upon students to engage in deeper social interactions. Such learning implies an equality among participants rather than the traditional vertically-structured, teacher-student relationship. We can also name the following positive features of telecommunication: helping students perceive knowledge as constructed, not given; providing students with an effective model of lifelong learning; bolstering social, communication, and critical-thinking skills; increasing the authenticity of the learning environment; putting a human face on learning; finding role models for students; equity; and also for the first time, students can benefit from the newest technologies rather than be the last to use them. Computer Engineering UNIT 9 VIRTUAL REALITY: Shadow Dexterous Hand The SDH (Shadow Dexterous Hand) is the closest robot Hand to the human hand available. It provides 24 movements, allowing a direct mapping from a human to the robot. The Shadow Hand has integrated sensing and position control, allowing precise control from off-board computers, or integration into any existing robot platform. The Shadow Hand contains an integrated bank of 40 Air Muscles which make it move. The Shadow Hand can be fitted with touch sensing on the fingertips, offering sensitivity sufficient to detect a single small coin. Applications The Shadow Dexterous Hand is an advanced robot hand system that reproduces all the movements of the human hand and provides comparable force output and sensitivity. This means it can pick up or handle small to medium sized objects and perform precision tasks, so robots using it can have the versatility of humans. The sensitivity and compliance of the Hand makes it possible to manipulate delicate objects such as fruit and eggs. For the same reason, the Hand is safe around human beings, since it is less strong than a person. Being the same size as a human hand, the system is versatile and suitable for use for a variety of purposes: Research. The University of Bielefeld is using the SDH in their research into situated learning. Carnegie Mellon University is using it in their research into grasping. NASA's Robonaut group bought a SDH "to inspire their engineers". Others are interested in using the Hand as a component in their neurological, rehabilitation projects and many more applications. Telepresence operations. A remote system using the SDH technology will allow an operator to work in an inaccessible area (a harmful envi- ronment where radiation, toxic chemicals or biological hazards are present). Also medical examination, education and training by experts could be done on long distance. Ergonomic Research. When doing ergonomic research, one often needs a model of a human hand The Shadow Dexterous Hand is an almost perfect reproduction. It can be used to test all kinds of objects that are designed for human hands: gloves, tools, pens, handles, etc. We also see uses for the Hand in the testing of all kinds of human manipulation, for example the accessibility of objects. Actuation The Hand is driven by 40 Air Muscles mounted on the forearm. These provide compliant movements. Following the biologically-inspired design principle, tendons couple the air muscles to the joints. Integrated electronics at the base of the hand system drive the pneumatic valves for each muscle and also manage corresponding muscle pressure sensors. Busses. The hand system presents a Controller Area Network (CAN) bus interface to the outside world. The CAN interface has been tested with standard controller cards as well as the supplied interface cards. All sensor data, components, configuration and controllers can be accessed over this bus. A simple protocol is used for the communication. Example code for protocol interface is supplied as part of the GPL (General Public License) codebase only; alternate licensing is also available as an option. An embedded Ethernet interface option permits direct access to robot data and configuration by TCP/IP communication. English for Special Purposes 133 134 Computer Engineering UNIT 10 COMPUTER SECURITY: Phishing The World Wide Web is home to many threats and the sneakiest of all Internet attacks is phishing. This nefarious online theft mechanism can rob your money, personal information and even your identity. Phishing (password harvesting fishing) is getting passwords for online bank accounts or credit card numbers by using emails that look like they are from real organizations, but in fact they are fake. So you think you are logging into your online bank account but you are actually logging into a very craftily disguised site that stores your login info to access your account. The term "phishing" is a word play on "fishing", where a fisherman baits his hook, fools the fish into thinking it is food and reels it in. Such tactics are a serious threat to online safety and individual users’ security. Here are some tips to prevent phishing from stealing your information. 1) Read emails and messages carefully. Look for some tell-tale phishing signs such as: • Spelling mistakes and grammatical errors in the email's text. • Your name isn't present anywhere but instead a general name is given. ("Dear satellite subscriber", instead of your full name heading the email). • Subtle threats to follow the email's instructions ("your account will be terminated if you fail to follow the procedure"). • Unknown senders or companies you have never heard of. • Impossibly unrealistic deals ("a wealthy millionaire died and decided to leave you, Mr. Abc, all his money"). 2) Verify the authenticity of the email sender. If an organization like a bank or company is trying to contact you, whether known or unknown, you should contact that organization personally and verify that they have sent you the mail. Phishing sites are like chameleons, they do their best to simulate or imitate legitimate sites, to look English for Special Purposes authentic. Do not use any phone numbers provided in the email. Remember that most legitimate sites and financial services will never deal with sensitive issues in emails. 3) Do not click on links in your email at first. Hover the mouse icon over the link and see what address appears in your browser screen. The text of the link can say one thing but the actual address could be someone's private computer or fake website. Do not copy the URL or link and paste it in your browser's address bar. To truly test its authenticity, open a new window and type in the official site address of the organization or company. Phishing sites will use legitimate looking links to fool you into clicking and then take you somewhere else entirely. Do not clickon links in pop-up windows at all. 4) Avoid sending private information like your name, account details, passwords - any sensitive information that is unique to your online identity, through emails. Your email account or the recipient's account could get hacked and your information exposed. 5) Be vigilant with downloads and attachments. Only open or download email attachments from known senders but make sure you scan the attachment prior to download, using your antivirus software. 6) Check any of your online or financial accounts and transaction statements for any suspicious activity or operations. For example, if there has been a deduction from your bank account which you have no knowledge of or a "password successfully changed" alert appears on your phone, contact the respective department of the company involved and assert that you have not performed any changes. Such checking of accounts should be done at least once a month. 7) Your computer is your castle, so line its defenses with spam filters, anti-spyware programs and a decent firewall. Look for anti-virus programs, with phishing filtering. Download the latest Computer Engineering security updates and keep your computer up-todate, so that it can handle the latest threats as they come. 8) If you are carrying out sensitive data transactions like online shopping or money transfers, make sure you are using a secure connection to a secure site. So look for "https://" in your address bar, before the site's address. Another sign is in the bottom right-hand side of the web browser. A small chain or yellow lock icon indicates a secure connection. Sometimes such icons can be "faked", so check the URL of the site as well. Clicking on the lock icon should display the site's security certificate. If the site name and the name of the site on the certificate do not match, leave the site immediately. 9) With phishing being such a silent yet deadly web menace, web browsers are also stepping up their security mechanisms. So install a tool-bar or phishing filter utility on your browser to warn you from navigating to phishing sites. Turn on your browser's security mechanisms and alert messages. Updating your browser will also keep such security features informed of the latest threats. 10) If you suspect a site of being "phishy" or you have been phished", then your silence will just allow the guilty party to scam someone else. Some web browsers allow you to report suspected sites or mark them as unsafe. You can even inform the legitimate site being impersonated of the phishing site. The Federal Trade Commission deals with phishing scams and sites dealing with such attacks, visit their site to complain of such sites and if you are a victim, then informing the FTC can help prevent the possible theft of your identity. Don't fall for the "hook", be the smart fish that got away by following the right anti-phishing tips. It is web hooligans like phishers and hackers that give the Internet a bad name, so surf smart and access secure information smartly. By Rave Uno http://www.buzzle.com/articles English for Special Purposes 135 136 Computer Engineering Word list UNIT 1 COMPUTER & COMPUTING attach (v) case (chassis) (n) circuitry (n) collate (v) connectivity (n) convert (v) data (n) digitization (n) distributed (adj) drastically (adv) embedded computer (n) execute (v) fraction (n) hardware (n) intelligence (n) laptop (n) loom (n) maintain (v) transmission (n) motherboard (n) palm-size (palmtop) (adj) pin (n) punch card (n) rapid (adj) succession (n) raw (adj) refer (v) refined (adj) respond (v) shrink (v) steam-driven machine (n) store (v) tabletop (desktop) computer (n) total (adj) tower shape (desktop) (n) mainframe (n) vague (adj) various (adj) service provider (n) English for Special Purposes Computer Engineering UNIT 2 SOFTWARE acquire (v) bug (n) coin (v) commercially (adv) debugging (n) eliminate (v) encode (v) flowchart (n) gain (v) get rid of (v) implement (v) inadequate (adj) interoperability (n) kernel (n) linear (adj malfunction (n) message queue (n) multiple (adj) paging file (n) require (v) requirement (n) schedule (n) semaphore (n) sequence (n) simultaneously (adv) socket (n) specification (n) split (v) submit (v) subroutine (n) tool (n) vendor (n) verify (v) English for Special Purposes 137 138 Computer Engineering UNIT 3 PORTABLE COMPUTERS add-in card (n) ambient (adj) augment (v) backplane (n) battery pack (n) bay (n) chipset (n) conducive (adj) conform (v) consistency (n) convertible (adj) digitizer (n) display panel (n) docking station (n) excel (in) (v) failure point (n) form factor(pl) (n) general-purpose (adj) graphics processor (n) handwriting recognition (adj) hinge (n) housing (n) implement (v) inception (n) inflexible (adj) internal optical drive (n) intrinsic (adj) omit (v) pen computing (n) pertain (to) (v) power efficiency (n) prosthetic (adj) removable (adj) removable medium (n) rechargeable battery (n) restrict (to) (v) solid-state storage devices (n) stand-alone (adj) stylus (n) swivel (v) tablet (n) touchpad (n) ultraportable (adj) English for Special Purposes Computer Engineering UNIT 4 PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES abstraction (n) algorithm (n) artificial (adj.) cognitive science compute (v) computation (n) concept (n) constraint (n) construct (n) descendant (n) domain-specific (adj.) execute (v) feature (n) footprint (n) GOTO statements implement (v) implementation (n) lambda calculus mnemonic (adj.) mode (n) multi-disciplinary field object-oriented programming polymorphic (adj.) programming language punch card require (v) scratch (n) syntax (n) written specification update (v) English for Special Purposes 139 140 Computer Engineering UNIT 5 COMPUTER NETWORKING backbone (n) bridge (n) cable (n) calculation (n) capacity (n) communication (n) conduct (v) content provider converge (v) deploy (v) dissimilar (adj.) Domain Name System exchange data flow (n/v) Frame Relay gateway (n) hierarchical (n) High-Level Data Link Control host (n) hub (n) interconnect (v) IP address layout (n) multiple connection network hub networking (n) peer-to-peer Point-to-Point Protocol provide information rely on (v) router (n) routing protocol server (n) socket (n) specification (n) time-sharing (n) topology (n) wire (n) English for Special Purposes Computer Engineering UNIT 6 COMPUTER GRAPHICS aesthetic (adj) although (conj) boundary (n, adj) capture (n) conjunction (n) content (n) data-driven (adj) define (v) detract (v) differentiate (v) dimension (n) discrete (adj) encompass (v) exterior (adj, n) finite (adj) fluid (adj, n) foundation (n) frame (n) illumination (n) issue (v, n) jerkiness (n) keyframing(n) limbs (n) mesh (n) polygonal (adj) reinforce (v) representation (n) rig (n) sample (n) setting (n) shape (v, n) similar (adj) spatial (adj) standalone temporal (adj) transparent (adj) visibility (n) English for Special Purposes 141 142 Computer Engineering UNIT 7 MULTIMEDIA access (v) advertisement (n) appropriate (adj) bitmap (n) blend (v) blurring (n) combine (v) content (n) convergence (n) convey (v) delay (n) deliver (v) determine (v) display (v) divide (v) into download (v) enable (v) enhance (v) feature (n) haptic (adj) incorporate (v) install (v) interactivity (n) linear (adj) modifiable (adj) plug-in (n) predictability (n) reduce (n) self-paced (adj) simulation (n) survivability (n) upload (v) volatile (adj) English for Special Purposes Computer Engineering UNIT 8 TELECOMMUNICATION access (n) allocate (v) browser(n) chunk (n) convert (v) customize(v) derive (v) destine (v) discrete (adj) division (n) encode (v) ensure (v) eventually familiar (adj) handle (v) investigate (v) involve (v) layered (adj) medium (adj) merge (v) multiple (adj) padlock (n) recurring (adj) regardless (adj, adv) restrict (v) route (v) router (n) run (v) stack (n) vary (v) English for Special Purposes 143 144 Computer Engineering UNIT 9 VIRTUAL REALITY awareness (n) couple (v) data gloves (n, pl) demand (n) dimension (n) extensive (adj) force feedback (n) hamper (v) haptic (adj) helmet (n) imaginary (adj) immersion (n) Implementation (n) Innovative (adj) Interactivity (n) involve (v) mapping (n) mounted (pp) (head mounted display) multithreading (n) omnidirectional treadmill (n) reflective (adj) resolution (n) response (v) schematic (adj) screen (n) simulation (n) simultaneously (adv) superimpose (v) surroundings (n, pl) telemetry (n) tracking (n) visor (n) wireless (adj) English for Special Purposes Computer Engineering UNIT 10 COMPUTER SECURITY adjust (v) backdoor (adj), (n) bypass (v) collapse (n) compromise (v) conceal (v) copyrighted (adj) disguise (v) disseminate (v) hacking (n) header (n) header field (n) hijacking (n) hoax (n) hostile (adj) inhibit (v) innocuous (adj) intruder (n) intrusive (adj) legitimate (adj) malicious (adj) menace (n) mischief (n) nefarious (adj) overwrite (v) piggybacking (n) propagate (v) relay (v) replicate (v) scam (n) self-contained (adj) sneaky (adj) subtle (adj) tamper (v) trigger (v, n) vendor (n) vigilant (adj) English for Special Purposes 145 146 Computer Engineering NOTES English for Special Purposes Computer Engineering English for Special Purposes 147