Download Classical Conditioning

Unit 06 - Overview
• How We Learn and Classical Conditioning
• Operant Conditioning
• Operant Conditioning’s Applications, and
Comparison to Classical Conditioning
• Biology, Cognition, and Learning
• Learning By Observation
Click on the any of the above hyperlinks to go to that section in the presentation.
How Do We Learn?
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Learning
Habituation
Stimulus
Associative learning
–Classical conditioning
–Operant conditioning
–Cognitive learning
• Observational learning
Definition
Learning is a relatively permanent change in an
organism’s behavior due to experience.
Learning is more flexible in comparison to the
genetically-programmed behaviors of Chinooks,
for example.
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How Do We Learn?
Classical Conditioning
Stimulus-Stimulus Learning
Learning to associate one stimulus
with another.
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How Do We Learn?
Operant Conditioning
Response-Consequence Learning
Learning to associate a response
with a consequence.
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How do we learn?
• observational learning – learning by watching
others’ experiences and examples.
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Classical Conditioning
• Classical conditioning
–Ivan Pavlov
–John B. Watson
–Behaviorism
Classical ConditioningPavlov’s Experiment
Sovfoto
Ideas of classical conditioning originate from old
philosophical theories. However, it was the
Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov who elucidated
classical conditioning. His work provided a basis
for later behaviorists like John Watson and B. F.
Skinner.
Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)
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Pavlov’s Experiments
Before conditioning, food (Unconditioned
Stimulus, US) produces salivation
(Unconditioned Response, UR). However, the
tone (neutral stimulus) does not.
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Pavlov’s Experiments
During conditioning, the neutral stimulus (tone)
and the US (food) are paired, resulting in
salivation (UR). After conditioning, the neutral
stimulus (now Conditioned Stimulus, CS) elicits
salivation (now Conditioned Response, CR)
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CC
• Pavlov’s experiment with dogs:
– food in mouth  salivation
– after repetition the dog would salivate even when
stimuli associated with food was presented (dish,
footsteps, door opening, etc.)
– he decided to experiment
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Classical Conditioning
Pavlov’s Experiments
CC
• Dog was isolated and harnessed!
• Present food through opening
• Paired a neutral stimulus with presentation of food
(a tone, a light, etc.)
• Dog forms an association b/w neutral stimulus and
food
• Dog begins to salivate just with neutral stimulus
• It works with people too!!!
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Classical Conditioning
Classical Condition – VERY IMPORTANT
TERMS!!!
• UNCONDITIONED RESPONSE (UR): a naturally
occurring response to a stimuli (it doesn’t have to be
learned)
• UNCONDITIONED STIMULUS (US): a stimulus that
naturally triggers a response
• CONDITIONED RESPONSE (CR): a learned response
to a previously neutral stimulus
• CONDITIONED STIMULUS (CS): used to be the
neutral stimulus; but after pairing it with a US it
triggers a conditioned response
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(Hopefully) A HELPFUL SUMMARY
• Conditioned = learned
• UNconditioned = UNlearned or instinctive
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Classical Conditioning
Acquisition
• Acquisition
Acquisition is the initial
stage in classical conditioning
in which an association
between a neutral stimulus
and an unconditioned stimulus
takes place
• Higher-order
conditioning
Classical Conditioning
Extinction and Spontaneous
Recovery
• Extinction
When the US (food) does not follow
the CS (tone), CR (salivation) begins to decrease and
eventually causes extinction.
Classical Conditioning
Extinction and Spontaneous
Recovery
• Spontaneous recovery
After a rest period, an
extinguished CR
(salivation)
spontaneously recovers,
but if the CS (tone)
persists alone, the CR
becomes extinct again.
Classical Conditioning
Generalization
• Generalization
a tendency to respond
to stimuli similar to
the CS
Generalization in a nutshell
John
Watson
SICKO!!
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Classical Conditioning
Discrimination
• Discrimination the learned ability to
distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and
other stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned
stimulus.
Discrimination in a nutshell
• Like dogs?
• Which one are you afraid of??
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Classical Conditioning
Pavlov’s Legacy
• Classical conditioning applies to
other organisms
• Showed how to study a topic
scientifically
Classical Conditioning
Pavlov’s Legacy:
Applications of Classical
Conditioning
• John Watson and Baby Albert
Difference b/w CC and OC
• Classical Conditioning – the organism learns
associations between events that it DOES NOT
control.
• Operant Conditioning – the organism learns
associations between its behavior and
resulting events.
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Operant Conditioning
• Classical Conditioning
–Respondent behavior
• Operant conditioning
–Actions associated with
consequences
–Operant behavior
Skinner’s Experiments
• Edward Thorndike’s Law of Effect
This law states
• B.F. Skinner
that rewarded
–Behavioral technology
–Behavior control
behavior is likely
to occur again.
Skinner’s Experiments
• Operant Chamber (Skinner Box)
• Reinforcement
Skinner’s Experiments
Shaping Behavior
• Shaping
–Successive
approximations
–Discriminative
stimulus
An operant conditioning
procedure in which reinforcers
guide behavior towards the
desired target behavior
through successive
approximations.
Shaping Example
•
Avion has difficulty kicking the kickball while playing with
the class during recess and physical education class. Put
these steps in her shaping program in the correct order.
a. Avion will run to an approaching ball rolled slowly
by the teacher and kick it firmly.
b. Avion will stand in place and kick a stationary ball.
c. Avion will run to a quickly approaching ball that has
spin on it and kick it firmly.
d. Avion will stand in place and firmly kick a slowly
approaching ball rolled by the teacher.
e. Avion will run to an approaching ball rolled quickly
by another student and kick it firmly.
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Skinner’s Experiments
Types of Reinforcers
• Reinforcer
–Positive reinforcement
–Negative reinforcement
Skinner’s Experiments
Types of Reinforcers:
Primary and Secondary
Reinforcers
• Primary reinforcer – innately reinforcing (food, water)
• Conditioned reinforcer
–Secondary reinforcer
• Immediate vs
delayed reinforcers
Skinner’s Experiments
Reinforcement Schedules
• Continuous reinforcement
• Partial (intermittent) reinforcement
• Schedules
–Fixed-ratio schedule
–Variable-ratio schedule
–Fixed-interval schedule
–Variable-interval schedule
Skinner’s Experiments
Reinforcement Schedules
Examples: Which Schedule…?
1.Studying for an exam when it gets
close
2.Preparing every night for a possible
“pop quiz”
3.Factory worker being paid based on
the number of sleeves they sew on a
sweatshirt.
4.Casting out to catch a fish all
afternoon long.
Skinner’s Experiments
Reinforcement Schedules
Skinner’s Experiments
Punishment
• Punishment
–Positive punishment
–Negative punishment
Skinner’s Experiments
Punishment
• Negatives of using punishment
– Punished behavior is
suppressed not forgotten
– Punishment teaches
discrimination
– Punishment can teach fear
– Physical punishment may
increase aggression
Skinner’s Legacy
• Controversies surrounding
Skinner’s Operant
Conditioning
Skinner argued that
behaviors were shaped by
external influences instead
of inner thoughts and
feelings. Critics argued
that Skinner dehumanized
people by neglecting their
free will (to the video tape!).
Applications of Operant
Conditioning
Skinner introduced the concept of teaching
machines that shape learning in small steps and
provide reinforcements for correct rewards.
LWA-JDL/ Corbis
In School
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Applications of Operant
Conditioning
Reinforcement principles can enhance athletic
performance.
In Sports
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Applications of Operant
Conditioning
Reinforcers affect productivity. Many companies
now allow employees to share profits and
participate in company ownership.
At work
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Applications of Operant
Conditioning
In children, reinforcing good behavior increases
the occurrence of these behaviors. Ignoring
unwanted behavior decreases their occurrence.
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Contrasting Classical and
Operant Conditioning
Module 29:
Biology, Cognition, and
Learning
Extending Pavlov’s Understanding
Pavlov and Watson underestimated the
importance of cognitive processes and
biological constraints on learning.
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Biological Constraints on
Conditioning
Biological Predispositions
Pavlov and Watson believed that laws of
learning were similar for all animals.
No difference in how Pigeons and People learn.
What, what??
However, behaviorists later suggested that
learning is constrained by an animal’s biology.
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Biological Constraints on Conditioning
Limits on Classical Conditioning
• John Garcia
Important name!!
–Conditioned Taste Aversion
–Biologically primed associations
• Natural Selection and
Learning
–Genetic predisposition
Biological Predispositions
John Garcia
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Courtesy of John Garcia
Garcia showed that the duration
between the CS and the US may be
long (hours), but yet result in
conditioning. A biologically adaptive
CS (taste) led to conditioning and not
to others (light or sound).
Biological Constraints on Conditioning
Limits on Classical Conditioning
Biological Constraints on Conditioning
Limits on Operant Conditioning
• Naturally
adapting
behaviors
• Instinctive drift
Biological Predisposition
Photo: Bob Bailey
Biological constraints
predispose organisms to
learn associations that
are naturally adaptive.
Breland and Breland
(1961) showed that
animals drift towards
their biologically
predisposed instinctive
behaviors.
Marian Breland Bailey
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Cognitive Processes
Early behaviorists believed that learned
behaviors of various animals could be reduced
to mindless mechanisms.
However, later behaviorists suggested that
animals learn the predictability of a stimulus,
meaning they learn expectancy or awareness of a
stimulus (Rescorla, 1988).
Recall your participation in the balloon pop demo!
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Cognition’s Influence on Conditioning
Cognitive Processes and
Classical Conditioning
• Predictability of an event
–Expectancy
• Stimulus
associations
Cognition & Operant Conditioning
Evidence of cognitive processes during operant
learning comes from rats during a maze
exploration in which they navigate the maze
without an obvious reward. Rats seem to
develop cognitive maps, or mental
representations, of the layout of the maze
(environment).
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Such cognitive maps are based on latent
learning, which becomes apparent when an
incentive is given (Tolman & Honzik, 1930).
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Would you be able to find your
way?
Motivation
Intrinsic Motivation:
The desire to perform a
behavior for its own
sake.
Extrinsic Motivation:
The desire to perform a
behavior due to
promised rewards or
threats of punishments.
Remember the study with school-age artists?
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Influences on Conditioning
Learning and Personal Control
• Cope
• Problem-focused coping
• Emotion-focused coping
Learning and Personal Control
Learned Helplessness
• Learned helplessness (Martin Seligman)
Learning and Personal Control
Learned Helplessness: Internal
Versus External Locus of Control
• External locus of control
• Internal locus of control
Learning and Personal Control
Learned Helplessness:
Depleting and Strengthening
Self-Control
• Self-control
Mirrors and Imitation in the
Brain
• Observational learning
–Social learning
–Modeling
–Bandura’s Bobo
Doll Experiment
Albert Bandura
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Still alive today (born 1925)
Social Cognitive Learning Theory
We look and we learn.
Bobo Doll Experiment
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modeling – the process of observing
and imitating a specific behavior
other “less structured” examples:
fashion, catch phrases, traditions, fads – all
spread by imitation
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Bo-Bo Doll Experiment
Albert Bandura
Mirrors and Imitation in the
Brain
• Mirror neurons
Neuroscientists discovered mirror
neurons in the brains of animals and
humans that are active during
observational learning.
Mirrors and Imitation in the Brain
• Cognitive imitation
Applications of Observational Learning
Prosocial versus Antisocial
Effects
• Prosocial effects
• Antisocial effects
Applications of Observational
Learning
Unfortunately,
Bandura’s studies
show that antisocial
models (family,
neighborhood or TV)
may have antisocial
effects.
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Positive Observational Learning
Bob Daemmrich/ The Image Works
Fortunately, prosocial (positive, helpful) models
may have prosocial effects.
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The End
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Definition
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Learning
= the process of acquiring new and relatively
enduring information or behaviors.
Habituation
= an organism’s decreasing response to a
stimulus with repeated exposure to it.
Associative Learning
= learning that certain events occur together.
The events may be two stimuli (as in
classical conditioning) or a response and
its consequence (as in operant
conditioning).
Stimulus
= any event or situation that evokes a
response.
Cognitive Learning
= the acquisition of mental information,
whether by observing events, by watching
others, or through language
Classical Conditioning
= a type of learning in which one learns to
link two or more stimuli and anticipate
events.
Behaviorism
= the view that psychology (1) should be an
objective science that (2) studies behavior
without reference to mental processes.
Most research psychologists today agree
with (1) but not with (2).
Neutral Stimulus
= in classical conditioning, a stimulus that
elicits no response before conditioning.
Unconditioned Response (UR)
= in classical conditioning, an unlearned,
naturally occurring response to the
unconditioned stimulus (US), such as
salivation when food is in the mouth.
Unconditioned Stimulus (US)
= in classical conditioning, a stimulus that
unconditionally – naturally and
automatically – triggers a response (UR).
Conditioned Response (CR)
= in classical conditioning, a learned
response to a previously neutral (but now
conditioned) stimulus (CS).
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
= in classical conditioning, an originally
irrelevant stimulus that, after association
with an unconditioned stimulus (US),
comes to trigger a conditioned response
(CR).
Acquisition
= in classical conditioning, the initial stage,
when one links a neutral stimulus and an
unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral
stimulus begins triggering the conditioned
response. In operant conditioning, the
strengthening of a reinforced response.
Higher-Order Conditioning
= a procedure in which the conditioned
stimulus in one conditioning experience is
paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating
a second (often weaker) conditioned
stimulus. For example, an animal that has
learned that a tone predicts food might then
learn that a light predicts the tone and begin
responding to the light alone. (Also called
second-order conditioning.)
Extinction
= the diminishing of a conditioned response;
occurs in classical conditioning when an
unconditioned stimulus (US) does not
follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs
in operant conditioning when a response is
no longer reinforced.
Spontaneous Recovery
= the reappearance, after a pause, of an
extinguished conditioned response.
Generalization
= the tendency, once a response has been
conditioned, for stimuli similar to the
conditioned stimulus to elicit similar
responses.
Discrimination
= in classical conditioning, the learned ability
to distinguish between a conditioned
stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an
unconditioned stimulus.
Operant Conditioning
= a type of learning in which behavior is
strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or
diminished if followed by a punisher.
Law of Effect
= Thorndike’s principle that behaviors
followed by favorable consequences
become more likely, and that behaviors
followed by unfavorable consequences
become less likely.
Operant Chamber
= in operant conditioning research, a
chamber (also known as a Skinner Box)
containing a bar or key that an animal can
manipulate to obtain a food or water
reinforcer; attached devices record the
animal’s rate of bar pressing or key
pecking.
Reinforcement
= in operant conditioning, any event that
strengthens the behavior it follows.
Shaping
= an operant conditioning procedure in
which reinforcers guide behavior toward
closer and closer approximations of the
desired behavior.
Discriminative Stimulus
= in operant conditioning, a stimulus that
elicits a response after association with
reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli
not associated with reinforcement).
Positive Reinforcement
= increasing behaviors by presenting
positive reinforcers. A positive reinforcer is
any stimulus that, when presented after a
response, strengthens the response.
Negative Reinforcement
= increases behaviors by stopping or
reducing negative stimuli, such as shock.
A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that,
when removed after a response,
strengthens the response
• Note: negative reinforcement is NOT
punishment.
Primary Reinforcer
= an innately reinforcer stimulus, such as
one that satisfies a biological need.
Conditioned Reinforcer
= a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power
through its association with a primary
reinforcer; also known as a secondary
reinforcer.
Reinforcement Schedule
= a pattern that defines how often a desired
response will be reinforced.
Continuous Reinforcement
= reinforcing the desired response every
time it occurs.
Partial (intermittent)
Reinforcement
= reinforcing a response only part of the
time; results in slower acquisition of a
response but much greater resistance to
extinction than does continuous
reinforcement.
Fixed-Ratio Schedule
= in operant conditioning, a reinforcement
schedule that reinforces a response only
after a specific number of responses.
Variable-Ratio Schedule
= in operant conditioning, a reinforcement
schedule that reinforces a response after
an unpredictable number of responses.
Fixed-Interval Schedule
= in operant conditioning, a reinforcement
schedule that reinforces a response only
after a specific time has elapsed.
Variable-Interval Schedule
= in operant conditioning, a reinforcement
schedule that reinforces a response at
unpredictable time intervals.
Punishment
= an event that tends to decrease the
behavior that it follows.
Biofeedback
= a system for electronically recording,
amplifying, and feeding back information
regarding a subtle physiological state,
such as blood pressure or muscle tension.
Respondent Behavior
= behavior that occurs as an automatic
response to some stimulus.
Operant Behavior
= behavior that operates on the
environment, producing consequences.
Cognitive Map
= a mental representation of the layout of
one’s environment. For example, after
exploring a maze, rats act as if they have
learned a cognitive map of it.
Latent Learning
= learning that occurs but is not apparent
until there is an incentive to demonstrate
it.
Insight
= a sudden realization problem’s solution.
Intrinsic Motivation
= a desire to perform a behavior effectively
for its own sake.
Extrinsic Motivation
= a desire to perform a behavior to receive
promised rewards or avoid threatened
punishment.
Coping
= alleviating stress using emotional,
cognitive, or behavioral methods.
Problem-Focused Coping
= attempting to alleviate stress directly – by
changing the stressor or the way we
interact with that stressor.
Emotion-Focused Coping
= attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding
or ignoring a stressor and attending to
emotional needs related to one’s stress
reaction.
Learned Helplessness
= the helplessness and passive resignation
an animal or human learns when unable to
avoid repeated aversive events.
External Locus of Control
= the perception that chance or outside
forces beyond our personal control
determine our fate.
Internal Locus of Control
= the perception that you control your own
fate.
Self-Control
= the ability to control impulses and delay
short-term gratification for greater longterm rewards.
Observational Learning
= learning by observing others. Also called
social learning.
Modeling
= the process of observing and imitating a
specific behavior.
Mirror Neurons
= frontal lobe neurons that some scientists
believe fire when performing certain
actions or when observing another doing
so. The brain’s mirroring of another’s
action may enable imitation and empathy.
Prosocial Behavior
= positive, constructive, helpful behavior.
The opposite of antisocial behavior.