Download Study Guide - Earth and Space

3rd Nine Weeks Study Guide
Earth + Space
6.6B Calculate density to identify an unknown substance
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Density is a physical property of matter that does not depend on the size or amount
of the sample.
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Density is the mass per unit volume of a substance.
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Common units of density are grams per milliliter (g/mL) or grams per cubic
centimeter (g/cm3). 1 mL = 1 cm3

Density is useful when identifying unknowns because it is a constant for a given
substance regardless of size of the sample.
o For example, the density of water is always 1.0 g/mL. The density of gold is
always 19.32 g/cm3 and the density of pyrite (fool’s gold) is always 5.01
g/cm3.

To calculate the density of a sample, divide the mass of the sample by its volume.

Density = mass ÷ volume
o Example: if you have a sample that has a mass of 27g and a volume of 9
cm3, the density is calculated as follows:
Density = mass ÷ volume
= 27g ÷ 9cm3
= 3 g/cm3

Mass can be measured using a triple beam balance. The unit of measure for a TBB
is the gram (g).

Volume of a regular shape can be found by multiplying its length, its width and its
height together (LxWxH). A common unit of measure of a solid is cm 3 (cubic
centimeter).

Volume of an irregular shape is measured using displacement.
o The volume of the object is the difference between the water before and after
the object is placed in water.
Initial volume = 30 mL
Final volume = 40 mL
Displacement = 10 mL
Volume of solid = 10 cm3
6.10A Build a model to illustrate the structural layers of Earth, including the inner
core, outer core, mantle, crust, asthenosphere, and lithosphere

The CRUST is the brittle, rocky outer layer of the Earth.
o Thinnest layer
o Least dense layer
o Made of elements of low mass  silicon and oxygen

Oceanic Crust is crust under the oceans. It is denser than continental crust.

Continental Crust is crust on land. It is thicker but less dense than oceanic crust.

The MANTLE is the thick middle layer in the solid part of Earth.
o More dense than either type of crust
o Made of rock that contains elements iron and magnesium
o Grouped into 4 layers  uppermost mantle, asthenosphere, upper mantle
and lower mantle

The LITHOSPHERE is the rigid layer containing solid and brittle rocks (made of
crust and uppermost mantle)

The ASTHENOSPHERE is the plastic layer within the mantle. The word plastic
refers to materials that are soft enough to flow. Rocks in the asthenosphere move as
slowly as fingernails grow. The movement of these rocks within this semi-solid layer
are called convection currents.

The upper and lower mantle make up the largest layer of the Earth. The rock in
these layers are hotter than the layers above it, but high pressure prevents melting.

The CORE is the dense metallic center of Earth.
o Most dense layer
o Made of mostly iron and some
nickel
Oceanic Crust
Continental Crust
Uppermost Mantle


The OUTER CORE is
liquid due to different
melting temperatures of
the metals that make it up.
The INNER CORE is a
dense ball of solid iron
crystals.
 Highest pressure,
density and
temperatures of all
Earth layers.
Lithosphere
Asthenosphere
Upper Mantle
Mantle
Lower Mantle
Outer Core
Core
Inner Core
6.10B Classify rocks as metamorphic, igneous, or sedimentary by the process of
their formation

A rock is a natural, solid mixture of minerals or grains.

Rocks are classified, or placed in groups, by geologists based on how they form.

The three major groups of rocks are igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks.

IGNEOUS rocks forms when magma or lava cools and crystallizes.
o Magma is molten or liquid rock underground.
o Lava is molten rock that erupts on Earth’s surface.
o Form in a variety of environments: subduction zones, mid-ocean ridges, and
hotspots where volcanoes are common.

SEDIMENTARY rocks form from deposited sediments, rock fragments, minerals, or
organic materials that have compacted and cemented together.
o Sediment is rock material that forms where rocks are broken down into
smaller pieces or dissolved in water as rocks erode.
o Found in rivers and streams, deserts, and valleys.
o Compaction is the process that forces out fluids and decreases the space
between grains in a sedimentary rock.
o Cementation is the process by which minerals dissolved in water crystallize
between sediment grains.

METAMORPHIC rocks form under high temperature and pressure deep within
Earth’s crust or with the addition of chemical fluids.
o Metamorphism is any process that affects the structure or composition of a
rock in a solid state as a result of changes in temperature or pressure, or the
addition of chemical fluids.
o Can form from sedimentary, igneous, or another metamorphic rock.
6.10C Identify the major tectonic plates, including Eurasian, African, IndoAustralian, Pacific, North American, and South American.
INDO-
INDOAUS
PLATE
6.10D Describe how plate tectonics causes major geological events such as
ocean basins, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and mountain building

PLATE TECTONICS is the theory that states that Earth’s surface is made of rigid
slabs of rock, or plates, that move with respect to each other.

The lithosphere (cold and rigid) “floats” on top of the asthenosphere (hot and semiplastic).

Earth’s tectonic plates move in three ways: pulling apart, pushing together, or sliding
past one another.

Convection currents within the asthenosphere are responsible for the plates’ motion
on Earth. .

The place where two tectonic plates meet is called a plate boundary.
There are three types of plate boundaries on Earth: divergent, transform, and
convergent.

Divergent Plate Boundaries form where two plates separate.
o When oceanic crust spreads (known as seafloor spreading)
lava erupts and forms new oceanic crust. This landform is
called a mid-ocean ridge.
o When continental crust pulls apart, the landform that is
created is called a rift valley.
o Examples: East African Rift, Mid-Atlantic Ridge

Transform Plate Boundaries form where two plates slide past
each other.
o The plates get stuck as they move past each other and
stress builds up. When the stress is too great, the rock
breaks, and earthquakes occur.
o Examples: San Andreas Fault, Alpine Fault

Convergent Plate Boundaries form where two plates collide.
o Subduction is the process in which the denser plate sinks
below the less dense plate.
o A subduction zone is the area along a convergent
boundary where a denser plate descends into Earth.
o When an oceanic and continental plate collide, the more
dense oceanic plate subducts under the edge of the
continent. A deep ocean trench forms at the subduction
zone and volcanoes form on the edge of the continent.
o When two oceanic plates collide, the older and more dense plate subducts
beneath the younger plate. A deep ocean trench forms at the subduction
zone and a line of volcanoes, called an island arc, are formed.
o When two continental plates collide, neither plate is
subducted and folded mountains form from uplifted rock.
o Examples: Mount Rainer of Cascade Mountains, Mariana
Trench, Aleutian Islands, Japanese Islands, Andes
Mountains, Himalayas
6.11A describe physical properties, locations, and movements of the Sun,
planets, Galilean moons, meteors, asteroids, and comets
Physical Properties

Sun
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Planets
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Galilean Moons
Meteors
Largest object in
our solar system
A star
Made mostly of
Hydrogen gas
Spherical shape,
mass larger than
all objects that
orbit close by
Inner Planets:
made mostly of
metals and solid
rocky materials,
smaller in size,
referred to as
terrestrial planets
Outer Planets:
made mainly of
ice and gases
such as hydrogen
and helium, larger
in size (gas
giants)
Four (of 67)
largest moons of
Jupiter
Made of iron,
nickel, and rock


Small, rocky
Range in size
from less than 1m
to several
hundred km in
length
Usually not
spherical

Comets

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Asteroids

Location
Made of gas, dust
and ice

Located at
center of our
solar system




Surround the
Sun within our
solar system
Inner Planets:
four closest
planets to Sun
Outer Planets:
four planets
farthest from
Sun

In Jupiter’s orbit

Between
planets
Fall through
Earth’s
atmosphere

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Orbit (revolve
around) the Sun
Rotate on axis
Move in elliptical
shape around
Sun
Planets closer
to Sun revolve
at a faster
speed than
planets further
from the Sun

Revolve around
Jupiter

Travel between
planets within
solar system
In the asteroid
belt between the

orbits of Mars
and Jupiter
Come from
outer parts of
solar system
Movement
Rotates on its
own axis while it
revolves around
the galactic
center of the
Milky Way
Galaxy

Orbit the Sun
Moves around
Sun in ovalshaped orbit
6.11B understand that gravity is the force that governs the motion of our solar
system

GRAVITY is an attractive force that exist between all objects that have mass.

The strength of the force of gravity depends on the mass of each object and the
distance between the objects.

Gravitational force increases as mass increases and decreases as distance
increases.

Planets and other objects in the solar system revolve around the Sun because of its
gravitational pull on them.

The planets would move in a straight line, as opposed to an elliptical path around the
Sun, without the Sun’s gravitational pull.

The gravitational pull of the Sun is always towards the Sun.
6.11C describe the history and future of space exploration, including the types of
equipment and transportation needed for space travel

A rocket is a vehicle designed to propel itself by ejecting exhaust gas from one end.
o A rocket must be able to overcome the force of Earth’s gravity.
o It does not draw in oxygen from surrounding air to burn fuel, but carries it with
them, so it is able to operate in space where there is little oxygen.
o Cape Canaveral Air Force Station and Kennedy Space Center in Florida are
rocket launch sites.
o Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas is a center for design,
development, and testing of spacecrafts used for human spaceflight.

A satellite is any small object that orbits a larger object.
o Artificial satellites are made and launched by rockets to orbit Earth or other
objects in space and send radio signals back.
o Sputnik 1 – first satellite sent into orbit in 1957.
o Explorer 1 – first Earth orbiting satellite launched in 1958.
o GPS (Global Positioning System) – an array of satellites that are used for
navigation.

NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration) was established in 1958 to
oversee all space missions and telescopes.

Early Space Exploration
o 1926 – First rocket: Robert Goddard’s liquid-fueled rocket rose 12m in the air.
o 1958 – First US Satellite: Explorer 1 launched. Orbited Earth 58,000 times
before burning up in Earth’s atmosphere in 1970.
o 1962 – First planetary probe: Mariner 2 traveled to Venus and collected data
for 3 months.
o 1972 – First probe to outer solar system: Pioneer 10 is still traveling onward
to someday exit the solar system.

A space probe is an uncrewed spacecraft sent from Earth to explore objects in
space.

Project Apollo is a series of space missions designed to send people to the moon.

1969 - Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin, Apollo 11 astronauts, were the first people to
walk on the moon.

Space shuttles are reusable spacecraft that transport people and materials to and
from space.
6.6C Test the physical properties of minerals, including hardness, color, luster,
and streak
A mineral is a naturally occurring, inorganic solid with a definite chemical composition
and an orderly arrangement of atoms.
Mineralogists, scientists who study minerals and their properties and uses, use simple
tests to help identify and classify unknown minerals based on their physical properties.
Color
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Color alone cannot be used to identify a mineral because different minerals can
have the same color.
One type of mineral can be found in different colors.
Variations in color reflect the presence of chemical impurities.
Luster
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Luster is the way a mineral reflects or absorbs light at its surface.
Metals that reflect light with a shiny luster are called metallic luster. Nonmetallic
minerals have luster types that might be shiny, but not as reflective as a metal.
Minerals that are not shiny are often called earthy or dull.
Oher descriptions of luster include waxy, silky, pearly, and vitreous (glassy).
A mineral’s luster is directly related to the chemical composition of the mineral.
Hardness
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Hardness is the resistance of a mineral being scratched.
A German mineralogist, Friedrich Mohs, developed a scale to compare the
hardness of different minerals. It is referred to as the Moh’s Hardness Scale.
A hardness of 1 is assigned to the softness mineral on the scale, talc.
A hardness of 10 is assigned to the hardest mineral on the scale, diamond.
A mineral with a hardness of 7 will scratch any mineral with a hardness of 6 or
less, but will not scratch a mineral with a hardness of 8 or higher. Minerals with
the same hardness may produce tiny scratches on each other, but will be mostly
ineffective in producing a scratch.
Streak


Streak is the color of a mineral in powdered form.
Even if two minerals of the same type are different colors, they will have the
same streak color.
Cleavage
 Cleavage describes a mineral that breaks along a smooth, definite line.
Fracture
 Fracture describes a mineral that has rough, uneven breakage.