Download Chapter 2 Shakespeare`s Indian Appropriations: The Indian

Chapter 2
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Chapter 2
Shakespeare’s Indian Appropriations: The
Indian Shakespeare
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1.
Introduction
This chapter examines the interaction (more than two hundred years)
between Shakespeare and India. Such an age - old interaction is embedded in
a matrix of simultaneous assimilation and opposition and reflects the
influences of contemporary political and cultural concerns in Shakespeare
appropriations. Indian engagement with Shakespeare is not just a part of
history, it also involves questions pertaining to larger political and
philosophic currents. As rightly viewed by Sisir Kumar Das,
not only widespread, stretching over a vast region conspicuous by its
linguistic and cultural diversities, but also of the longest duration so
far as any other foreign writer is considered. The Indian engagement
with Shakespeare that began almost from the initial phase of the
Indo-British encounter and which continues still to-day, fifty years
after the end of the Raj, is not simply an issue of literary history
involving the problematics of influence and impacts, reception and
survival, but an integral part of larger questions of politics and culture
in a colonial situation. (Das. 52)
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Shakespeare exists in Indian cultural and literary life in two different forms:
the Elizabethan Shakespeare and the Indian Shakespeare. The Elizabethan
Shakespeare exists in the curriculum of the educational system, whereas the
Indian Shakespeare exists in the form of appropriations of various kinds
through translations, performances, adaptations and has gradually emerged
as a discipline in India. In India, Shakespeare’s reception dates back to the
beginning phase of Indo-British encounter.
Shakespeare is diffused into
various regions in India from the initial phases of colonization, and the main
centers of his activity is found in places like Bengal, Maharastra, Tamilnadu
particularly during the colonial rule. This section outlines Shakespeare
appropriations in these regions focusing on translations and performances in
the respective languages. In this regard, Shakespeare appropriations in
Bangla, Marathi, Tamil, Kannada and Hindi are discussed in some detail as
they bear the Shakespearean impact significantly.
2.
Shakespeare in Bangla
When English came to Calcutta, the Englishmen brought with them
the reverence for Shakespeare. In 18th century the formation of Calcutta
Theatres initiated the practice of
regular English play performance.
Shakespearean plays like Hamlet and Richard III became quite popular. In
the process, other theatres like The Chowringhee Theatre and a theatre called
Sans Souchi played a major role in staging Shakespearean productions.
Plays like Othello, Merchant of the Venice, Macbeth were staged frequently
to appease the British and some aristocratic Indians. Shakespearean themes
and plots generated enthusiasm and interest for the Bengali elite group. A
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knowledge of Shakespeare and an ability to quote the dramatist became a
symbol of aristocracy and the Bengali elite started adopting this new cultural
identity to elevate their status to more refined natives in the colonial rule.
Jyotshna Singh in “Different Shakespeares” (1996) analyzes the ‘new found
passion’ in theatrical performances in Calcutta. Singh’s words are quoted in
some length here.
While the English playhouses by their production of English,
especially Shakespeare’s plays, created an appetite for theatrical
performances, the foundation of the Hindu College in 1816, and the
teaching of Shakespeare by eminent teachers like Richardson [who
was also a founder of the Chowringhee Theatre] created in the minds
of students - the intelligentsia of modem Bengal - a literary taste for
drama as such, and taught them, not only how to appreciate
Shakespeare criticism, but also to recite and act scenes from his
plays. This fashion spread to every academic institution. In 1837
Bengali students staged scenes from The Merchant of Venice in the
Governor’s house; in 1852 and 1853, the students of the Metropolitan
Academy and David Hare Academy staged Shakespeare’s plays,
while the old and new students of the Oriental Academy staged...
Shakespeare’s Othello in 1853, The Merchant of Venice in 1854, and
Henry IV in 1855. Shakespeare’s dramas became an indispensable
part of English education and a popular item in all cultural
productions. The Bengali theatre, which made its mark in the later
decades, was the natural outcome of this new-found passion.
(Singh 129)
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Shakespearean appropriations in the form of translations were domesticated
to bring a native flavor to its readers. Haran Chandra Ghose rendered The
Merchant of Venice in both prose and verse, named Bhanumati Chittavilas in
the year 1853. This is an adaptation and the translator domesticated the play
to a great extent. Another case of similar domestication is found in the year
1869 by Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar. He translated The Comedy of Errors as
Bhranti Vilas where he domesticated the entire play including the smallest
details. In the 19th century, a prominent translator Haran Chandra Rakshit
summarized the complete works of Shakespeare in Bangla prose in twelve
volumes in
the
form of a novel (1896-1903). Shakespearean plays
influenced the contemporary literature and theatres. Exposure to Western
sources endowed the Bengali translators and authors an opportunity to
enhance the theatrical performances during that time. In the words of Sudipto
Chatteij ee,
Concentration of wealth in the hands of the tabus [the bourgeoisie]
and the rise of a Western-style educated middle class [Macaulay’s
subjects] provided the right moment of pollination for the budding of
a Bengali theatre... Close contact with the British inspired both
classes to create their own theatre in the European mould. With the
coming of economic, political, and social stability [for these classes]
i
- with a mean being struck between traditional Bengali culture and
the ... British cultural imports - a system of patronage was bom that
was to keep Bengali theatre alive for some time. (20)
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Shakespearean appropriations in Bangla in the post colonial period featured
some distinct traits and differentiated them from pre-colonial productions.
The pre-colonial translations were based on the colonial troupe of
civilization, whereas the postcolonial productions focused on an indigenous
identity, independent of British culture and convention. The purpose of these
translations were twofold : introducing Western sources and showing the
social and political concerns of contemporary India. (Singh, 141) In this
revival of Shakespeare appropriations, Utpal Dutt played a major role by
introducing Shakespeare in Jatra
(folk theatre) form.
He was quite
successful in introducing the Elizabethan Shakespeare to rural India through
an intercultural experiment. Macbeth was made very popular among the
rural natives with such intercultural perspective combined with elements of
melodrama. However, Shakespeare exercised more profound influence on
Bangla theatre and literature than any other foreign author of the west.
3.
Shakespeare in Marathi
The Marathi appropriation of Shakespeare is interesting as the Bard
was received with a purpose to underline the contemporary social and
political problems. The opposition against the British rule and rejection of
the cultural and social values of the liberal west were reflected in Marathi
literature. The translations and productions reflect the gap between both the
cultures and there by establish the superiority of Indian values and tradition
over British culture and customs. Hence, a cultural movement evolved out of
such strong responses to Shakespeare. This movement was initiated by V.J
Kirtane in the year 1861. Another prominent national figure and a translator
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Nanasaheb Peshwa translated Shakespeare’s Hamlet into Marathi in the year
1862. The first adaptation of Othello was done in 1867 by a well-known
dramatist Mahadev
Govindshastri Kolhatkar, and this was staged
successfully. Following this, other translations and adaptations of
Shakespeare like The Tempest (1874) King Lear (1881), A Midsummer
Night’s dream (1882)Borneo and Juliet (1882) were quite successful and
popularized Shakespeare on Marathi stage. Sisir Kumar Das describes the
reasons of such grand success of Shakespearean plots in Marathi:
(...) despite its tragic ending, it provided much closure approximation
to the Indian experience of love and passion, social authority and
individual frustration within the rigidities of caste and marriage rules.
The twin lovers became a part of the Indian inventor}' of love legends
that include Radha and Krishna, Laila and Majnu, Shirin and Farhad,
Heer and Ranjha, Sohini and Mahiwal, and Devdas and Parvati.
( Das,76)
Among other Shakespearean plays, Hamlet was
very successful and
remained unparalleled by any other play. This play was most successfully
rendered in Marathi and “has evoked such unbounded enthusiasm and
admiration in India” (Yajnik,159). In the year 1883, most notable adaptation
of Hamlet was made by Agarkar as Vikara vilasit. In the play, the English
names were replaced by the names of Sanskrit origin and the European
myths by Indian myths and allusions. The play in translation was
domesticated and blended in an Indian flavour that contributed to
its
success. Among other translations, the three act adaptation of Hamlet (1957)
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by Nana Joag deserves attention as the translator attempted a Marathi
parallel of Shakespeare’s blank verse. This play was also domesticated and
admired for its dramatic impact. The Marathi renderings of King Lear and
Romeo and Juliet reflected deviations and variations in plot development.
They ended in happy notes. Such Shakespearean tragedies ending with happy
notes, created a space for a new sensibility in modem Marathi literature.
Shakespeare had a profound influence on the Marathi literature and
translators and authors frequently borrowed ideas from his subtle treatment
of characters. Such influences are reflected especially in the works of Ram
Ganesh Gadkari and K.P. Khadilkar. They borrowed distinct character traits
from different plays of Shakespeare and blended them together in the
Marathi text. However, most of the translators domesticated Shakespearean
themes and plots and projected the superiority of Indian tradition in
comparison to that of the west. The portrayal of such social and cultural
agenda with the help of Western sources were successful. It also justified
Shakespeare’s fine treatment of characters and stylistic rhetoric that
influenced and shaped translators’ decisions to domesticate the plays with a
Sanskritized bent.
4.
Shakespeare in Tamil
The Tamil appropriations of Shakespeare appeared in the late 18th
century. In 19th century, Shakespeare was introduced in the Tamil stage by
Pammal Sambanda Mudaliyar, a founding member of the Tamil theatre
called Suguna Vilasa 5aMa.( 1874-1964). He
adapted five plays of
Shakespeare and staged them. The plays were Hamlet, Macbeth, As you
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Like It, Cymberline and The Merchant of Venice. Out of these, Hamlet was
very popular. This play followed the original closely but the translator
presented it in an Indian context. In this play the reflections of Dravidian
practices made it quite successful on the stage. Other active translators of the
time were Aru Somasundaram, Pulavar Ekambaranathan, Justice Mahajan,
T.N. Seshachalam and Swami Vibhulananda (a missionary of the
Ramakrishna Mission in Sri Lanka). Swami Vibhulananda played a major
part in the Shakespearean studies in Tamil. He analyzed Shakespearean plays
in the light of the eight-fold theory of the ancient scripture, Meyppatu.
However, these translators appropriated Shakespeare through translation and
familiarized Shakespearean themes and plots in Tamil.
5.
Shakespeare in Kannada
Shakespeare in Kannada language bore national significance as many
translations and adaptations received the reputation of a national status. In
19th and 20th century, thirty-six Shakespearean plays were translated. Out of
them, Raktaksi, an adaptation of Hamlet by Dr Kuvempur V.Puttapa won the
prestigious Janpith award in 1932. Other translators like, Ananda Rao, Masti
Venkata Ayyangar, Ramachandra Deva, Y.M. Shanmukhayya translated
Shakespeare in Kannada. The most popular plays were Hamlet, Macbeth,
Othello and King Lear. Among the major tragedies, Hamlet was quite
successful.
It was staged frequently and generated mush interest in the
contemporary time. Kuvempur contributed to Hamlefs success by
incorporating cross - cultural dialogues. The translator skillfully shifts the
venue and locates it in an Indian context:
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(...) the British and Christian culture into Indian, Hindu and
especially Lingayat, culture by borrowing the historical characters
belonging to the royal family of the Bidanur kingdom in the Shimoga
district in mid-Karnataka. Likewise, Kuvempu finds parallels with
the major events of Hamlet in the royal history of Bidanur and their
relationship with Hyder Ali of Mysore. (Naiker 5-6)
Modem Kannada literature is considered rich for profound influence of
Sanskrit and a reflection of Western resources. Most of the renderings were
in prose and the translators attempted a free translation of the text where the
translator produced Shakespearean texts in the target language without the
form and style of Shakespeare (Newmark.81). The reason behind such
appropriations was the caution taken to preserve one’s own identity and
come to terms with a predominant alien culture. Writers started translating
Shakespeare faithfully “when our own language (Kannada) and culture had
become strong enough to accept Shakespeare on the basis of equality”
(Guttal, 5). However, more promising translations started in the 20th century
after Kuvempur received national fame for translating a Shakespearean play.
6.
Shakespeare in Hindi
Shakespeare’s major translations in Hindi began in the late 19th
century. The earliest translation appeared in the year 1879 by Ratnachandra
who adapted Shakespeare’s The Comedy of Errors as Bhramajalaka. The
other translations that followed in the consequent years are, The Merchant of
Venice asDurlabh Badhu Ya by Harishchandra, the same play by
Gokulehandra Sharma as Venice ka Byapari in the year 1888. M.P
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Choudhury translated The Tempest in 1893 as Tuphan. In 1894, Gadadhar
Sinha translated Othello and retained the original name in his translation. A
famous poet and writer Harivansh Rai Baeehan translated three plays of
Shakespeare and like Gadadhar Sinha, he too retained the original names. He
translated Macbeth in 1957, Hamlet in 1969, and King Lear in 1972. Hindi
as a national language recreated Shakespearean plays with intercultural
experiment and elements of melodrama. There are almost five film
adaptations of Shakespearean plays in Hindi and in Urdu. Two of them are
Hamlet, one of Romeo and Juliet and the rest two are The Comedy ofErrors.
Shorab Modi, a well known film personality produced Khoon ka Khoon in
the year 1935, and Kishore Sahu produced Hamlet in the year 1957. These
adaptations featured Shakespearean style and contained elements like song,
dance, love triangles, melodrama, comedy, coincidences and so on. Recent
Shakespeare appropriations in the Indian film industry include Maqbool and
Omkara by Vishal Bharadwaj. However, the influence of Shakespeare in
Hindi literature is significant for it portrayed Shakespeare in a remarkable
display of intercultural appropriations.
7.
Conclusion
To sum up, the pre-colonial and the post colonial India has located
Shakespeare beyond his specific and traditional frame of the text and the
stage practice, far from his own historical and cultural context. The Indian
Shakespeare presented here can be seen as an exploration of encounters
between two literary and cultural traditions in different phases of their
histories. Such interaction is embedded in a matrix of simultaneous
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assimilation and opposition and projects the contemporary social and cultural
contexts. The Indian languages have appropriated Shakespeare with success
into their own literary and theatrical traditions and quietly used him to
intervene in the cultural and political contexts of contemporary India and
implemented their own cultural agenda. Shakespeare appropriations in Indian
languages exhibit the authors’ participation in various literary and cultural
movements and at the same time portray the evolution of Indian literature in
different parts of the country. However, John Russel Brown feels that new
modes of understanding can be revealed if Shakespeare is performed in
different contexts: “ in some ways Asian theatres offer a better site than the
new Globe for reconsideration and reform” (Brown 191).
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Work Cited
Brown, John R. New Sites for Shakespeare. London: Routledge, 1999:141
Print.
Chatterjee, Sudipto. “Mise-En-(Colonial)-Scene: The Theatre of Bengal
Renaissance,” Imperialism and Theatre. Ed. J. Ellen Gainor, 20. London:
Routledge, 1995: 19-35. Print.
Das, Sisir Kumar. Indian Ode to the West Wind. Delhi: Pencraft
International, 2001:50-77. Print.
Guttal, Vijaya. “Travails of Translation with Reference to the Translations of
Shakespeare’s Plays in Kannada.” Shakespeare in India. Seminar, Feb. 5-7,
1998. Abstracted in Bulletin of the Shakespeare Society of India (19971999). Delhi: Rajiva Verma, n. d. 5. Print.
Naiker, Basavraj. “Raktaksi: An Example of a Cultural Adaptation of
Hamlet.” Shakespeare in India. Seminar, Feb. 8-9, 1999. Abstracted in
Bulletin of the Shakespeare Society of India (1997-1999). Delhi: Rajiva
Verma, n. d. 5-6. Print.
Newmark, P. Approaches to Translation. Hertfordshire: Prentice Hall. 1998:
80-82.Print.
Singh, Jyotshna G. Colonial Narratives/ Cultural Dialogues: “Discoveries”
of India in the Language of Colonialism. London : Routledge, 1996: 140144. Print.
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—. “Different Shakespeares: the Bard in Colonial/Postcolonial India”
Shakespeare: Varied Perspectives. Ed. Vikram Chopra. Delhi: B.R.
Publications, 1996:122-135. Print.
Yajnik, R.K. The Indian Theatre: Its Origins and its Later Developments
under European
Print.
Influence. London: Allen and Unwin, 1933: 159-160.