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Learning
Unit 6
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Classical conditioning activity

Close your eyes.

It is a hot summer day and you
are at the beach. The sun is
scorching. You are getting
hotter and hotter and can’t
stand it any longer. You run
toward the ocean and splash
in the water. You swim out to
deeper water and enjoy
cooling off after being in the
sun.
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Learning

Learning - The process by which practice or
experience results in a relatively permanent change in
behavior.

Conditioning – A simple form of learning in which a
specific pattern of behaviors is learned in the presence
of well-defined stimuli.
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Classical Conditioning
Pavlov’s dog
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Classical Conditioning

Classical Conditioning (Pavlovian Conditioning)
- Learning in which a response naturally caused by one
stimulus comes to be elicited by a different, formerly
neutral stimulus.

Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)
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Russian physiologist who was studying digestive
processes accidentally discovered classical
conditioning.
His experiments on salivation in dogs turned into
research on learning.
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Elements of Classical Conditioning

Unconditioned stimulus (US) - A stimulus that
automatically (or naturally) causes a specific response in
an organism. An example of a US would be food.

Unconditioned response (UR) - The response
caused by a US. The UR is automatic and unlearned.
An example of a UR is salivation in response to food.
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Elements of Classical Conditioning

Conditioned stimulus (CS) - A formerly neutral
stimulus that is paired with a US and eventually causes
the desired response all by itself. An example of a CS is
the bell in Pavlov’s studies.

Conditioned response (CR) - The learned response
to the CS. An example is salivation in response to the
bell.
Classical
Conditioning
video clip
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall

Classical Conditioning Procedure
Before Conditioning
Bell
(NS)
No
Response
Food
(US)
Salivation
(UR)
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Classical Conditioning Procedure
During Conditioning
Food
(US)
Bell
(CS)
Salivation
(UR)
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Classical Conditioning Procedure
After Conditioning
Bell
(CS)
Salivation
(CR)
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Classical Conditioning In Humans

Many phobias are the result of classical
conditioning.


The “Little Albert” experiment demonstrated a
classically conditioned phobia.
Desensitization therapy:
A technique that uses classical conditioning to
treat phobias.
 Person learns to relax in presence of stimulus
that used to be upsetting.

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Little Albert experiment
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
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
The Little Albert experiment
was a famous psychology
experiment conducted by
behaviorist John B. Watson
and graduate student Rosalie
Raynor.
Watson was able to show that
emotional responses could be
conditioned, or learned.
Pavlov and Watson’s
behavioral work lead to B.F.
Skinner’s operant conditioning
experiments ten years later.
http://www.youtube.com/watch
?v=9hBfnXACsOI
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Classical Conditioning

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Stimulus generalization – after conditioning,
other stimuli similar to the CS may also trigger a
response.
Extinction – when the US stops following the CS,
conditioning will fade away, or extinguish.
Spontaneous recovery – the return of a learned
response after apparent extinction.
Stimulus discrimination – the ability to respond
differently to various stimuli.
Taste aversion - Learned association between
the taste of a certain food and a feeling of
nausea or revulsion.
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Operant Conditioning
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Operant Conditioning



Operant (or instrumental) Conditioning Learning in which an organism’s behavior is
followed by a reward or punishment. Organism
learns to perform behavior in order to gain a
reward or avoid a punishment.
Classical conditioning is concerned with
involuntary behavior, whereas operant
conditioning deals with voluntary behavior.
Operant behavior – behavior that is learned to
gain a reward or avoid punishment.
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Elements of Operant Conditioning


Operant response – a response operates on the
environment to produce specific consequences.
Consequence:
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Reinforcer - A stimulus or event that follows a behavior and
makes that behavior more likely to occur again (Increases
behavior).
Punisher - A stimulus or event that follows a behavior and
makes that behavior less likely to occur again (Decreases
behavior).
Law of Effect – (Thorndike) behavior that brings a satisfying effect
(reinforcement) is likely to be performed again. Behavior that brings a
negative effect (punishment) would likely be suppressed. (Called by
some the “principle of reinforcement”)
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Clips of Operant Conditioning
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Types of Reinforcement

Positive reinforcer (+)


Adds something
rewarding following a
behavior, making that
behavior more likely to
occur again.
Giving a dog a treat for
fetching a ball is an
example.
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Negative reinforcer (-)
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
Removes something
unpleasant from the
environment following
a behavior, making
that behavior more
likely to occur again.
Taking an aspirin to
relieve a headache is
an example.
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Punishment



The goal of punishment is to decrease the occurrence
of a behavior.
It adds something unpleasant to weaken behavior.
Effective punishment:
 Should occur as soon as possible after the
behavior.
 Should be sufficient, i.e., strong enough.
 Should be certain, occurring every time the
behavior does.
 Should be consistent.
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Punishment

Punishment:
Is not as effective as reinforcement.
 Does not teach proper behavior, only
suppresses undesirable behavior.
 Causes upset that can impede learning.
 May give impression that inflicting pain is
acceptable.

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Operant Conditioning


Operant conditioning techniques work best with
behaviors that would typically occur in a specific
situation, or naturally for a given subject.
Superstitious behavior:
 Tendency to repeat behaviors that are
followed closely by a reinforcer, even if they
are not related.
 For example, a particular pair of socks might
become “lucky” if something good happened
when you wore them.
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Learned Helplessness
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
Failure to try to avoid
or escape from an
unpleasant stimulus
because in the past it
was unavoidable.
Subjects that
acquired learned
helplessness showed
signs similar to
depression in humans
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Behavioral Change Using Biofeedback


Biofeedback - is an operant technique that
teaches people to gain voluntary control over
bodily processes like heart rate and blood
pressure.
Neurofeedback – a biofeedback technique that
monitors brain waves using an EEG to teach
people to gain voluntary control over their brain
wave activity.
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Clips of Operant Conditioning
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Clips of Operant Conditioning
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Comparing Classical and Operant Conditioning

Response Acquisition – the “building phase” of
conditioning during which the strength of desired
response increases.
Classical conditioning
 Operant conditioning
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Naturally occurring responses
are attached to conditioned
stimulus by pairing that stimulus
with the unconditioned stimulus.
Spacing of trials effects rate of
training. If trials are spaced too
close together or too far apart, it
may take many trials to get the
response strength. If trials are
spaced evenly, then it will take
less training to get desired effect.
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Learning process in which
desired responses are followed
by reinforcers.
Getting to desired responses in
operant conditioning is more
difficult than in classical
conditioning.
Shaping - reinforcing
successive approximations to a
target behavior, can speed up
acquisition.
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery

Classical conditioning

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Extinction occurs
when the US and CS
are no longer paired,
eliminating the CR.
Spontaneous recovery
occurs when the CR
temporarily returns
without additional
training.

Operant conditioning
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Extinction occurs
when reinforcement is
stopped, eliminating
the conditioned
behavior.
Spontaneous recovery
occurs when behavior
temporarily returns
without additional
training.
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Generalization and Discrimination

Classical conditioning

Stimulus generalization
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Organism learns to respond
to other stimuli that is
similar to the CS.
Stimulus discrimination
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Operant conditioning
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Response generalization
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Stimulus generates similar
responses.
Response discrimination
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Organism learns to respond
only to specific stimuli and
not just anything “like” the
CS.
Only specific responses are
reinforced in the presence of
specific stimuli
**There is no “response generalization” or
“response discrimination” in classical
conditioning.
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
New Learning Based on Original
Learning

Higher-Order Conditioning in Classical
Conditioning – conditioning based on previous
learning; the conditioned stimulus serves as an
unconditioned stimulus for further training.
 Desensitization is based on this principle.
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
New Learning Based on Original
Learning
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Secondary reinforcers in operant conditioning:
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Primary reinforcers:
 Are intrinsically rewarding
 Examples are food, water, and sex
Secondary reinforcers:
 Acquire rewarding properties by being associated
with primary reinforcers.
 Prior learning or conditioning is required before
they will function as reinforcers.
 Provide ability to obtain primary reinforcer.
 Example would be money.
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Contingencies in Classical
Conditioning

Contingency – a reliable “if-then” relationship
between two events such as a CS and a US.

The CS and US must occur close together in
time for classical conditioning to occur.
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Contingencies in Operant
Conditioning

Behaviors that are reinforced intermittently
are more resistant to extinction.

Most behavior is reinforced with some type
of intermittent schedule.
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Schedules of Reinforcement – the rule
for determining when and how often reinforcers will be
delivered.
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Interval schedules
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Fixed-interval schedule
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Reinforcement depends on the passing of TIME. (inTerval =
Time)
Reinforcement follows the first behavior after a fixed amount
of time has passed
An example would be receiving a paycheck every two weeks
Variable-interval schedule
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Reinforcement follows the first behavior after a variable
amount of time has passed
An example would be pop quizzes
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Schedules of Reinforcement
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Ratio schedules
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Reinforcement depends on the NUMBER OF RESPONSES
made. (Ratio = Responses)
Fixed-ratio schedule
 Reinforcement
follows a fixed number of
behaviors.
 For example, being paid on a piecework basis.

Variable-ratio schedule
 Reinforcement
follows a variable number of
behaviors.
 An example would be playing slot machines.
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Response Patterns to Schedules of
Reinforcement
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Comparing Classical And
Operant Conditioning
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Cognitive Learning
Learning that depends on mental activity
that is not directly observable.
 Involves such processes as attention,
expectation, thinking, and memory.
 Cognitive psychologists challenge the idea
that all human learning comes from
conditioning.

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Latent Learning and Cognitive Maps

Latent learning (learning that is stored
internally) is learning that is not apparent
because it is not yet demonstrated.

A cognitive map is latent learning stored
as a mental image.
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Insight and Learning Sets

Insight is when learning seems to occur in
a sudden “flash” as elements of a situation
come together. (An “Aha!” moment)

Learning sets refer to increasing
effectiveness at problem solving through
experience, i.e., organisms “learn how to
learn.”
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Learning by Observing
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Social learning theory focuses on what we learn
from observing other people. (Social cognitive
theory – Albert Bandura)
Observational (or vicarious) learning occurs
when we see the consequences of other
people’s behavior.
Vicarious reinforcement or vicarious punishment
affects the willingness of people to perform
behaviors they learned by watching others.
Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall
Cognitive Learning in Nonhumans
Nonhumans are capable of classical and
operant conditioning.
 Nonhumans are also capable of latent
learning.
 Research has also demonstrated that
animals are capable of observational
learning.

Psychology: An Introduction
Charles A. Morris & Albert A. Maisto
© 2005 Prentice Hall