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Transcript
16-‐01-‐21 Distribu6on of Aqua6c Organisms Factors influencing Aqua6c Distribu6on: • Temperature • Chemical proper6es – e.g. nutrients, salinity • Currents • Depth: light penetra6on (oxygen, nutrients) Aqua6c “biomes” Modified by: Mixing Currents Rainfall Runoff… Readings – Ch 3 (esp. pp. 63-‐69) & Ch 5 (esp pp. 151-‐156) 16-‐01-‐21 1 Photo: J. Gamon (Monterey Bay Aquarium) Distribu6on of Water in the Biosphere (“Ecosphere”) “Water, water, everywhere, nor any drop to drink.” – Coleridge Rime of the Ancient Mariner Mackenzie 2003 16-‐01-‐21 2 1 16-‐01-‐21 Aquatic Biomes (Biogeographic regions) 16-‐01-‐21 3 Campbell & Reece 2002 Marine Biomes . …Oceans are full of surprises, and are more structured than they appear to the casual observer 16-‐01-‐21 4 2 16-‐01-‐21 North Pacific Subtropical Gyre – the largest ecosystem on the planet Prochlorococcus, the most abundant oxygenic phototroph in the NPSG, was first described around 1990. NPSG Plankton (e.g. Prochlorococcus) h`p://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosynthe6c_picoplankton Other novel Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya have not yet been isolated (described only by nucleic acid sequences). Karl (1999) Ecosytems 2:181-214. 16-‐01-‐21 5 Representa6ve Marine “Algae” Marine diatoms with silicate casings h`p://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diatoms Coccolitho-‐ phore with calcium carbonate plates 16-‐01-‐21 Gephyrocapsa oceanica h`p://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algae 6 Kelp “forest” – Monterey Bay Aquarium 3 16-‐01-‐21 Algal Blooms visible from space – Barents Sea 16-‐01-‐21 7 Chlorophyll – indicator of phytoplankton distribu6on and produc6on Net Primary Produc6on (NPP) – annual carbon gain (= photosynthe6c uptake – respiratory loss) Schlesinger & Bernhardt (2013) 16-‐01-‐21 8 4 16-‐01-‐21 Large-‐scale ocean currents create a “structure” to the oceans 16-‐01-‐21 Ocean currents driven by: Lomolino et al. 2010 • Thermohaline circula6on • Coriolis effect 9 • Winds (surface currents) Ocean currents influence species distribu6on and produc6vity 16-‐01-‐21 Currents create isolated regions or “gyres” 10 Molles 2008 5 16-‐01-‐21 Net Primary Produc6on (NPP) Viewed from Space 16-‐01-‐21 Source: NASA MODIS imagery 11 How Do these Currents Affect Distribu6on of Marine Organisms? 16-‐01-‐21 12 6 16-‐01-‐21 Oceans are highly structured, yet inherently dynamic 16-‐01-‐21 16-‐01-‐21 http://www.cinms.nos.noaa.gov/marineres/MRWG_SP_ED/ppframe.htm http://www.cinms.nos.noaa.gov/marineres/MRWG_SP_ED/ppframe.htm 13 14 7 16-‐01-‐21 16-‐01-‐21 http://www.cinms.nos.noaa.gov/marineres/MRWG_SP_ED/ppframe.htm 15 http://www.cinms.nos.noaa.gov/marineres/MRWG_SP_ED/ppframe.htm 16 16-‐01-‐21 8 16-‐01-‐21 Consequently, fish populations are inherently variable, 16-‐01-‐21 Botsford et al. 199717 Mixing Events on the Edges of Gyres Lomolino et al. 2010 16-‐01-‐21 18 9 16-‐01-‐21 Sta6s6cs on fish popula6ons and catches are notoriously unreliable. Pauly & Zeller (2015) Nature Communica7ons. Catch reconstruc6ons reveal that marine global fisheries are higher than reported and declining. 16-‐01-‐21 19 Humans have had a discernable impact on terrestrial and aqua6c biomes McCauley et al (2015) Marine defauna6on: Animal loss in the global ocean. Science. 347 DOI: 10.1126/science.1255641 16-‐01-‐21 20 10 16-‐01-‐21 Industrial fisheries are largely responsible for overfishing Pauly & Zeller (2015) Nature Communica7ons. Catch reconstruc6ons reveal that marine global fisheries are higher than reported and declining. 16-‐01-‐21 21 Experimental Studies Reveal the Role of Nutrient Limita6ons in Phytoplankton Blooms • Coastal Marine – Nitrogen • Open Ocean – Iron • Freshwater – Phosphorus 16-‐01-‐21 22 11 16-‐01-‐21 Experimental Studies Reveal the Role of Nutrient Limita6ons in Phytoplankton Blooms • Coastal Marine – Nitrogen • Open Ocean – Iron • Freshwater – Phosphorus Addi6on of phosphorus to the Experimental Lakes Area, Ontario – These “ecosystem experiments” revealed that phosphorus limits algal growth in freshwater lakes. Addi6on of phosphorus caused algal blooms. (Work of David Schindler) Carbon + Nitrogen + Phosphorus Carbon + Nitrogen Figure 1.5 in Molles & Cahill 16-‐01-‐21 23 Joyce (2000) Environmental Health Perspectives 108:A120-A125 16-‐01-‐21 24 12 16-‐01-‐21 Runoff causes harmful algal blooms and hypoxia h`p://www.nasa.gov/centers/goddard/news/topstory/2004/0810deadzone.html Hypoxic zone (“dead zone”) following algal bloom along the Louisiana-Texas coastline Nitrogen runoff from fer6lizers (e.g. nitrates) are largely responsible for these blooms in Gulf of Mexico. Winter runoff from urban areas cause bloom off the coast of California Harmful algal bloom off the coast of LaJolla 16-‐01-‐21 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_tide 25 IronEx – Iron Fer6liza6on Experiments 16-‐01-‐21 Coale et al. 1998 Deep-‐Sea Research 45: 919-‐945 26 13 16-‐01-‐21 Depth -‐Temperature and light penetra6on with depth can influence produc6vity and the distribu6on of aqua6c organisms Pho6c zone “pelagic” “benthic” = bo`om “abyssal” Fig. 3.6 Molles & Cahill, 2008 27 16-‐01-‐21 Epipelagic zone -‐ the “pho6c zone” – where light is sufficient to drive photosynthesis) Molles & Cahill, 2008 16-‐01-‐21 28 14 16-‐01-‐21 Ecosystem of chemotrophic organisms at the bo`om of the ocean. (Benthic organisms in the Abyssal Zone) 16-‐01-‐21 29 Molles & Cahill 2008 Creatures of the deep! 16-‐01-‐21 30 Molles & Cahill 2008 15 16-‐01-‐21 Special technology is needed to explore the ocean bo`om 16-‐01-‐21 31 In lakes, depth effects can be dynamic due to seasonal turnover. 16-‐01-‐21 Lomolino et al. 2010 32 16 16-‐01-‐21 Upwelling effects -‐ Ocean chlorophyll concentra6on and surface temperature off the California coast Phytoplankton blooms (orange color on leq image) correspond to cool regions (blue color on right image). This is due to upwelling that brings cold, nutrient-‐rich water to the surface, boos6ng NPP along the California coast. 16-‐01-‐21 Molles 2008 Figure 22.28 33 Aqua6c Biomes (Biogeographic Provinces) 16-‐01-‐21 34 17 16-‐01-‐21 Coastal Biomes – Kelp “forests” and coral reefs (distributed according to temperature, la6tude) 16-‐01-‐21 Molles 2008 35 Kelp beds (cold waters) J. Gamon 16-‐01-‐21 36 Molles 2008 18 16-‐01-‐21 Coral reefs warm, tropical regions 16-‐01-‐21 Molles 37 2008 Coral Reefs (warm waters) -‐ biologically diverse 16-‐01-‐21 38 19 16-‐01-‐21 Inter6dal region – zone between low and high 6de 16-‐01-‐21 Fig. 3.19 -‐ Molles & Cahill, 2008 39 Inter6dal organisms are adapted to extremes (physical forces, temperature extremes, dessica6on) 16-‐01-‐21 Molles 2008 40 20 16-‐01-‐21 Sea stars, mussels and anemones in the rocky inter6dal The rocky inter6dal has been the subject of many classical studies in community ecology (e.g. work of Paine and colleagues on “keystone species”). 16-‐01-‐21 Fig. 3.18, Molles & Cahill 2008 41 Coastal biomes – salt marshes and mangrove forests (distributed according to temperature, la6tude) Note the distribu6on by la6tude 16-‐01-‐21 Fig. 3.24, Molles & Cahill 2008 42 21 16-‐01-‐21 Coastal Biomes Represent Transi6on Zones (between freshwater & saltwater) Fig. 3-‐28 Molles & Cahill 43 16-‐01-‐21 The importance of Coastal Zones: “Buffering” by kelp forests, coral reefs, salt marshes, mangrove forests, and other near-‐shore ecosystems protect coastal communi6es. Human altera6on of coastal zones disrupts these buffering processes. (Altera6ons include development, destruc6on, pollu6on, altered runoff…) 16-‐01-‐21 Heywood, Global Biodiversity Strategy 44 22 16-‐01-‐21 Salt marshes dominate coastlines in cool regions Molles 2008 16-‐01-‐21 Molles & Cahill 45 2008 Aerial view of a salt marsh – note the gradual transi6on between land and sea 16-‐01-‐21 Fig. 3.25, Molles & Cahill 2008 46 23 16-‐01-‐21 Mangroves dominate coastlines in warm (tropical) regions Mangrove leaf exuding salt Fig. 3.23 h`p://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mangrove Fig. 3.27 Molles & Cahill2008 47 16-‐01-‐21 Earthquake Spawns Tsunami Jan. 3, 2003 High-‐resolu6on images: Khao Lak, Thailand Dec. 29, 2004 Wave ~ 10m IKONOS 16-‐01-‐21 Coastal areas with healthy mangrove forests had significantly less loss of life than areas where mangrove forests had been removed. 48 24 16-‐01-‐21 Freshwater biomes (Rivers, Lakes, & Wetlands) 16-‐01-‐21 49 Wetlands (including bogs & fens) 16-‐01-‐21 Fig. 3.45, Molles & Cahill 2008 50 25 16-‐01-‐21 Human Impacts: • Humans divert over 50% of the world’s freshwater. • Some streams never make it to the ocean. • Many streams are polluted (e.g. nitrates, phosphates, or heavy metals) 16-‐01-‐21 51 In coastal tundra, much of the “land” is actually water Alaskan North Slope -‐ J. Gamon 16-‐01-‐21 52 26 16-‐01-‐21 Arc6c sea ice – a shrinking marine biome The extent of “permanent ice” is changing rapidly. 16-‐01-‐21 53 Stroeve et al. 2008 …some6mes leaving marine mammals stranded. 16-‐01-‐21 54 27 16-‐01-‐21 Kerr RA (2012) Science 337:1591 16-‐01-‐21 55 Arc6c Sea Ice Mel6ng & Terrestrial Greening) -‐ Evidence the biosphere is changing NDVI – an index of vegetation “greenness” 16-‐01-‐21 Bhatt et al (2010) Earth Interactions 56 14(8): 28 16-‐01-‐21 Links between sea ice cover, summer warmth index on land, and NDVI (an index of vegeta6on greenness). Bha` et al. 2010 16-‐01-‐21 57 Wiggles in the Jet Stream Arc6c Cold Severe Drought h`p://arstechnica.com/science/2013/12/mel6ng-‐arc6c-‐sea-‐ice-‐could-‐be-‐altering-‐jet-‐stream/ Is this pa>ern linked to mel7ng sea ice? 58 What are the implica7ons for weather and biomes elsewhere? 16-‐01-‐21 29
