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Ck12 Science
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AUTHOR
Ck12 Science
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Chapter 1. Work, Power, and Simple Machines
C HAPTER
1
Work, Power, and Simple
Machines
C HAPTER O UTLINE
1.1
Work
1.2
Power
1.3
Simple Machines
1.4
References
If you push against a wall with all your strength for a full minute, how much work have you done? You might think
you’ve worked very hard, but from a physics definition you haven’t completed any work. Completing work from a
physics point of view requires not only force, but also movement of an object.
Imagine trying to lift a 400 lb object, such as the blue box shown above. Could you do that by yourself? If you
simply leaned over and tried to pick it up, you’d never be able to. However, a series of pulleys such as the system
shown above allows a single person to lift a 400 lb object without any other assistance.
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This chapter examines the physics definition of work, the relationship between work, force, and power, and the
mechanical assistance provided by simple machines.
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Chapter 1. Work, Power, and Simple Machines
1.1 Work
• Define work.
• Identify forces that are doing work.
• Given two of the three variables in the equation, W = Fd, calculate the third.
For some, the exciting part of a roller coaster is speeding down; for others it is the anticipation of climbing up. While
the coaster is being towed up, it is having work done on it. The work done towing it to the top of the hill becomes
potential energy stored in the coaster and that potential energy is converted to kinetic energy as the coaster runs
down from the top of the hill to the bottom.
Work
The word work has both an everyday meaning and a specific scientific meaning. In the everyday use of the word,
work would refer to anything which required a person to make an effort. In physics, however, work is defined as the
force exerted on an object multiplied by the distance the object moves due to that force.
W = Fd
In the scientific definition of the word, if you push against an automobile with a force of 200 N for 3 minutes but
the automobile does not move, then you have done no work. Multiplying 200 N times 0 meters yields zero work.
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1.1. Work
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If you are holding an object in your arms, the upward force you are exerting is equal to the object’s weight. If
you hold the object until your arms become very tired, you have still done no work because you did not move the
object in the direction of the force. When you lift an object, you exert a force equal to the object’s weight and
the object moves due to that lifting force. If an object weighs 200. N and you lift it 1.50 meters, then your work
is W = Fd = (200. N)(1.50 m) = 300. N m.
One of the units you will see for work is shown above: the Newton meter (Nm). More often, however, units of work
are given as the Joule (pronounced "jool") in honor of James Prescott Joule, a nineteenth century English physicist.
A Joule is a kg·m2 /s2 .
Example Problem: A boy lifts a box of apples that weighs 185 N. The box is lifted a height of 0.800 m. How much
work did the boy do?
Solution: W = Fd = (185 N)(0.800 m) = 148 N m = 148 Joules
Work is done only if a force is exerted in the direction of motion. If the motion is perpendicular to the force, no
work has been done. If the force is at an angle to the motion, then the component of the force in the direction of the
motion is used to determine the work done.
Example Problem: Suppose a 125 N force is applied to a lawnmower handle at an angle of 25° with the ground
and the lawnmower moves along the surface of the ground. If the lawnmower moves 56 m, how much work was
done?
Solution: The solution requires that we determine the component of the force that was in the direction of the motion
of the lawnmower because the component of the force that was pushing down on the ground does not contribute to
the work done.
Fparallel = (Force)(cos 25◦ ) = (125 N)(0.906) = 113 N
W = Fparallel d = (113 N)(56 m) = 630 J
Summary
• Work is the force exerted on an object multiplied by the distance the object moves due to that force.
• The unit for work is called the joule, which is a kg m2 /s2 .
• If the force is at an angle to the motion, then the component of the force in the direction of the motion is used
to determine the work done.
Practice
The following video introduces energy and work. Use this resource to answer the questions that follow.
http://wn.com/Work_physics_#/videos
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Chapter 1. Work, Power, and Simple Machines
MEDIA
Click image to the left for more content.
1. What definition is given in the video for energy?
2. What is the definition given in the video for work?
3. What unit is used in the video for work?
Visit the following website and answer the questions for practice at calculating work.
http://www.sparknotes.com/testprep/books/sat2/physics/chapter7section6.rhtml
Review
1. How much work is done by the force of gravity when a 45 N object falls to the ground from a height of 4.6 m?
2. A workman carries some lumber up a staircase. The workman moves 9.6 m vertically and 22 m horizontally. If
the lumber weighs 45 N, how much work was done by the workman?
3. A barge is pulled down a canal by a horse walking beside the canal. If the angle of the rope is 60.0°, the force
exerted is 400. N, and the barge is pulled 100. m, how much work did the horse do?
• work: A force is said to do work when it acts on a body so that there is a displacement of the point
of application, however small, in the direction of the force. Thus a force does work when it results in
movement. The work done by a constant force of magnitude F on a point that moves a distance d in the
direction of the force is the product, W = Fd.
• joule: The SI unit of work or energy, equal to the work done by a force of one Newton when its point of
application moves through a distance of one meter in the direction of the force.
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1.2. Power
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1.2 Power
• Define power.
• Given two of the three variables in P = Wt , calculate the third.
Typical Pressurized Water Reactors (PWR), a type of nuclear power reactor originally built in the 1970’s, produce
1100 to 1500 megawatts, or about 1,500,000,000 Joules/second. By comparison, a windmill farm with hundreds of
individual windmills produces about 5 megawatts (5,000,000 Joules/second).
Power
Power is defined as the rate at which work is done, or the rate at which energy is transformed.
Power =
Work
Time
In SI units, power is measured in Joules per second, which is given a special name: the watt , W .
1.00 watt = 1.00 J/s
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Chapter 1. Work, Power, and Simple Machines
Another unit for power that is fairly common is horsepower.
1.00 horsepower = 746 watts
Example Problem: A 70.0 kg man runs up a long flight of stairs in 4.0 s. The vertical height of the stairs is 4.5 m.
Calculate the power output of the man in watts and horsepower.
Solution: The force exerted must be equal to the weight of the man:mg = (70.0 kg)(9.80 m/s2 ) = 686 N
W = Fd = (686 N)(4.5 m) = 3090 N m = 3090 J
J
P = Wt = 3090
4.0 s = 770 J/s = 770 W
P = 770 W = 1.03 hp
Since P = Wt and W = Fd, we can use these formulas to derive a formula relating power to the speed of the object
that is produced by the power.
P = Wt =
Fd
t
= F dt = Fv
The velocity in this formula is the average speed of the object during the time interval.
Example Problem: Calculate the power required of a 1400 kg car if the car climbs a 10° hill at a steady 80. km/h.
Solution: First convert 80. km/h to m/s: 22.2 m/s.
In 1.00 s, the car would travel 22.2 m on the road surface but the distance traveled upward would be (22.2 m)(sin 10°) =
(22.2 m)(0.174) = 3.86 m. The force in the direction of the upward motion is the weight of the car: (1400 kg)(9.80 m/s2 )
= 13720 N.
W = Fd = (13720 N)(3.86 m) = 53, 000 J
Since this work was done in 1.00 second, the power would be 53,000 W.
This problem can be solved a different way; by calculating the upward component of the velocity of the car. The
process would be similar, and start with finding the vertical component of the velocity vector: (22.2 m/s)(sin 10°) =
(22.2 m/s)(0.174) = 3.86 m/s. Again, calculate the weight of the car: (1400 kg)(9.80 m/s2 ) = 13720 N. Finally, we
could use the formula relating power to average speed to calculate power.
P = Fv = (13720 N)(3.86 m/s) = 53, 000 W
Summary
• Power is defined as the rate at which work is done or the rate at which energy is transformed.
• Power = Work
Time
• Power = Force × velocity
Practice
Use the video below to answer the following questions about work and power?
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u6y2RPQw7E0
MEDIA
Click image to the left for more content.
1. What is the difference between positive and negative work?
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1.2. Power
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2. What are the standard units for power?
3. What is horsepower?
4. How many grandfather clocks could you power with the same amount of power as is used by a single light
bulb?
The following website has practice problems on work and power.
http://www.angelfire.com/scifi/dschlott/workpp.html
Review
1. If the circumference of an orbit for a toy on a string is 18 m and the centripetal force is 12 N, how much work
does the centripetal force do on the toy when it follows its orbit for one cycle?
2. A 50.0 kg woman climbs a flight of stairs 6.00 m high in 15.0 s. How much power does she use?
3. Assuming no friction, what is the minimum work needed to push a 1000. kg car 45.0 m up a 12.5° incline?
• power: The rate at which this work is performed.
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Chapter 1. Work, Power, and Simple Machines
1.3 Simple Machines
•
•
•
•
•
Name the simple machines.
Define ideal mechanical advantage.
Define actual mechanical advantage.
Calculate both ideal and actual mechanical advantages for simple machines.
Of the four variables, input force, output force, input distance, output distance, given three of them, calculate
the fourth for simple machines.
A "Rube Goldberg Machine" is a complex construction of many simple machines connected end-to-end in order to
accomplish a particular activity. By design, Rube Goldberg Machines are far more intricate than necessary, and may
be quite entertaining. Although this kind of construction may be extremely inefficient, simple machines commonly
make work easier, and can be found all around us.
Machines
A machine is an object or mechanical device that receives an input amount of work and transfers the energy to an
output amount of work. For an ideal machine , the input work and output work are always the same. Remember that
work is force times distance; even though the work input and output are equal, the input force does not necessarily
equal the output force, nor does the input distance necessarily equal the output distance.
Machines can be incredibly complex (think of robots or automobiles), or very simple, such as a can opener. A simple
machine is a mechanical device that changes the magnitude or direction of the force. There are six simple machines
that were first identified by Renaissance scientists: lever, pulley, inclined plane, screw, wedge, and wheel and axle.
These six simple machines can be combined together to form compound machines.
We use simple machines because they give us a mechanical advantage. Mechanical advantage is a measurement
of the force amplification of a machine. In ideal machines, where there is no friction and the input work and output
work are the same,
(Effort Force)(Effort Distance) = (Resistance Force)(Resistance Distance)
The effort is the work that you do. It is the amount of force you use times the distance over which you use it. The
resistance is the work done on the object you are trying to move. Often, the resistance force is the force of gravity,
and the resistance distance is how far you move the object.
The ideal mechanical advantage of a simple machine is the ratio between the distances:
effort distance
IMA = resistance
distance
Again, the IMA assumes that there is no friction. In reality, the mechanical advantage is limited by friction; you must
overcome the frictional forces in addition to the resistance force. Therefore, the actual mechanical advantage is
the ratio of the forces:
force
AMA = resistance
effort force
When simple machines are combined to form compound machines, the product of each simple machine’s IMA gives
the compound machine’s IMA.
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1.3. Simple Machines
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Simple Machines
Lever
A lever consists of an inflexible length of material placed over a pivot point called a fulcrum. The resistance is the
object to be moved (shown here in red), and is placed to one side of the fulcrum. The resistance distance in a lever
is called the resistance arm. The effort is exerted elsewhere on the lever, and the effort distance is called the effort
arm or effort lever arm. The lever shown here is the most common type of lever, a Class One Lever, but there are
two other types of levers. If you would like to learn about the other types of levers, visit this website:
http://www.ohio.edu/people/williar4/html/haped/nasa/simpmach/lever.htm
The effort work is the effort force times the effort lever arm. Similarly, the resistance work is the resistance force
times the resistance lever arm. If we ignore any friction that occurs where the lever pivots over the fulcrum, this is an
ideal machine. Suppose the resistance force is 500. N, the resistance arm is 0.400 m, and the effort arm is 0.800m.
We can calculate exactly how much effort force is required to lift the resistance in this system:
Output Work = Input Work
(Resistance Force)(Resistance Arm) = (Effort Force)(Effort Arm)
(500. N)(0.400 m) = (x)(0.800 m)
x = 250. N
In this case, since the effort arm is twice as long as the resistance arm, the effort force required is only half the
resistance force. This machine allows us to lift objects using only half the force required to lift the object directly
against the pull of gravity. The distance the effort force is moved is twice as far as the resistance will move. Thus,
the input work and the output work are equal.
Example Problem:
(a) How much force is required to lift a 500. kg stone using an ideal lever whose resistance arm is 10.0 cm and
whose effort arm is 2.00 m?
(b) What is the IMA?
(c) If the actual effort force required to lift the stone was 305 N, what was the AMA?
Solution:
(a) (resistance force)(resistance arm) = (effort force)(effort arm)
)(resistance arm)
effort force = (resistance (force
=
effort arm)
effort arm = 2.00 m = 20
(b) IMA = resistance
arm 0.100 m
force 4900 N
(c) AMA = resistance
effort force = 305 N = 16
10
(4900 N)(0.100
(2.00 m)
m) = 245 N
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Chapter 1. Work, Power, and Simple Machines
Pulley
A pulley is a wheel on an axle that is designed to rotate with movement of a cable along a groove at its circumference.
Pulleys are used in a variety of ways to lift loads, apply forces, and to transmit power, but the simplest of pulleys
serves only to reverse the direction of the effort force. It consists of a single pulley attached directly to a non-moving
surface with a rope or cable through it. As a downward force is applied to one side of the pulley, the other side of
the pulley, with the attached resistance force, is pulled upward. This type of pulley is called a fixed pulley, and is
labeled A in the image below.
FIGURE 1.1
Another type of pulley is shown above as B. This type of pulley is called a movable pulley. A set of pulleys
assembled so they rotate independently on the same axle form a block. It is shown below in a system called a block
and tackle. A block and tackle consists of two blocks, in which one block is fixed and the other is movable; the
movable block is attached to the load.
The IMA of a pulley system can be determined by counting the number of supporting strands of rope in the system.
Be careful though, because in some systems the rope to which the effort force is applied will be a supporting strand,
but in others it is not. For example, in the image above with the five pulley systems, the rope to which the effort
force is applied (the one with the arrowhead) in A is not a supporting strand because it does not hold up any of the
weight of the load. The IMA of A is 1. In B, however, the effort rope is supporting half of the weight of the load and
is therefore a supporting strand. B has 2 supporting strands and an IMA of 2.
Example Problem: Determine the IMA for C, D, and E in the image above.
Solution:
C = 2 supporting strands; IMA = 2
D = 3 supporting strands; IMA = 3
E = 3 supporting strands; IMA = 3
If the direction of the effort force is in the same direction and the movement of the load, the effort strand will be a
supporting strand. If the direction of the effort force is in the same direction as the resistance force, the effort strand
is not a supporting strand. Look again at the five pulley systems to ensure this is true.
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1.3. Simple Machines
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Example Problem: Consider the pulley system sketched above. Given that the resistance force is 8500. N, find
(a) the IMA.
(b) the ideal effort force required to list this weight.
(c) the distance the weight will rise if the effort force moves 1.0 m.
(d) the AMA if the actual effort force is 2000. N.
Solution:
(a) Since the effort strand moves in the opposite direction of the resistance, it is not a supporting strand. Therefore,
there are 5 supporting strands and that makes the IMA = 5.
force = 8500 N = 1700 N
(b) Effort force = resistance
5
IMA
(c) Since the IMA is 5, the resistance distace will be 1/5 of the effort distance: the resistance distance is 1.0m/5 =
0.20 m
force 8500 N
(d) AMA = resistance
effort force = 2000 N = 4.25
Wheel and Axle
Just like it sounds, a wheel and axle is composed of two connected cylinders of different diameters. Since the
wheel has a larger radius (distance) than the axle, the axle will always have a larger force than the wheel. The ideal
mechanical advantage of a wheel and axle is dependent on the ratio between the radii:
IMA = Radius
wheel Radius
axle
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Chapter 1. Work, Power, and Simple Machines
Inclined Plane
An inclined plane is also a simple machine. The resistance is the weight of the box resting on the inclined plane. In
order to lift this box straight up, the effort force would need to be equal to its weight. However, assuming no friction,
less effort (a smaller effort force) is required to slide the box up the incline. We know this intuitively; when movng
boxes into a truck or onto a platform, we use angled platforms instead of lifting it straight up.
The red triangle that hangs below the yellow box is a similar triangle to the inclined plane. The vector perpendicular
to the inclined surface is the normal force and this normal force is equal to the portion of the weight of the box that
is supported by the surface of the plane. The parallel force is the portion of the weight pushing the box down the
plane and is, therefore, the effort force necessary to push the box up the plane.
The effort distance, in the case of an inclined plane, is the length of the incline and the resistance distance is the
vertical height the box would rise when it is pushed completely up the incline. The mechanical advantages for an
inclined plane are
length
effort distance =
1
IMA = resistance
distance vertical height = sin θ
weight
force
IMA = resistance
effort force = applied force
Example Problem: Suppose, in the sketch above, the weight of the box is 400. N, the angle of the incline is 35°,
and the surface is frictionless. Find the normal force (by finding the portion of the weight acting perpendicular to
the plane), the parallel force, and the IMA for the box on this incline.
Solution:
Normal force = (400. N)(cos 35◦ ) = (400. N)(0.82) = 330 N
Parallel force = (400. N)(sin 35◦ ) = (400. N)(0.57) = 230 N
IMA =
1
sin θ
=
1
sin 35◦
=
1
0.57
= 1.74
Wedge
A wedge is essentially two inclined planes back to back. Like an inclined plane, the IMA of a wedge is the ratio
between the length of the wedge and the width of the wedge. Unlike an inclined plane, a wedge does not have a
right angle; the IMA of a wedge cannot be found with sines.
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1.3. Simple Machines
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Screw
A screw is an inclined plane wrapped around a cylinder. When on a screw, inclined planes are called threads, which
can be seen in the image above. The mechanical advantage of a screw increases with the density of the threads. The
calculations to determine the IMA for a screw involve the circumference of the head of the screw and the thread
width. When the screw is turned completely around one time, the screw penetrates by one thread width. So, if the
circumference of the head of a screw is 3.0 cm and the thread width is 0.60 cm, then the IMA would be calculated
by
effort distance = 3.0 cm = 5.
IMA = resistance
distance 0.60 cm
When simple machines are joined together to make compound machines, the ideal mechanical advantage of the
compound machine is found by multiplying the IMA’s of the simple machines.
Summary
• A machine is an object or mechanical device that receives an input amount of work and transfers the energy
to an output amount of work.
• For an ideal machine, the input work and output work are always the same.
• The six common simple machines are the lever, wheel and axle, pulley, inclined plane, wedge, and screw.
effort distance .
• For all simple machines, the ideal mechanical advantage is resistance
distance
force
• For all simple machines, the actual mechanical advantage is resistance
effort force .
• When simple machines are joined together to make compound machines, the ideal mechanical advantage of
the compound machine is found by multiplying the IMA’s of the simple machines.
Practice
Use this practice quiz to check your understanding of work and simple machines.
http://www.proprofs.com/quiz-school/story.php?title=physics-chapter-10-energy-work-simple-machines
Review
1. Is it possible to get more work out of a machine than you put in?
2. A worker uses a pulley system to raise a 225 N carton 16.5 m. A force of 129 N is exerted and the rope is
pulled 33.0 m.
(a) What is the IMA of the system?
(b) What is the AMA of the system?
3. A boy exerts a force of 225 N on a lever to raise a 1250 N rock a distance of 0.13 m. If the lever is frictionless,
how far did the boy have to move his end of the lever?
4. How can you increase the ideal mechanical advantage of an inclined plane?
5. Diana raises a 1000. N piano a distance of 5.00 m using a set of pulleys. She pulls in 20.0 m of rope.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
How much effort force did Diana apply if this was an ideal machine?
What force was used to overcome friction if the actual effort force was 300. N?
What was the work output?
What was the ideal mechanical advantage?
What was the actual mechanical advantage, if the input force was 300N?
6. A mover’s dolly is used to pull a 115 kg refrigerator up a ramp into a house. The ramp is 2.10 m long and
rises 0.850 m. The mover exerts a force of 496 N up the ramp.
(a) How much work does the mover do?
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Chapter 1. Work, Power, and Simple Machines
(b) How much work is spent overcoming friction?
7. What is the ideal mechanical advantage of a screw whose head has a diameter of 0.812 cm and whose thread
width is 0.318 cm?
simple machine: A mechanical device that changes the direction or magnitude of a force.
ideal machine: An ideal simple machine in one in which the work input equals the work output.
effort force: The force used to move an object over a distance.
resistance force: The force which an effort force must overcome in order to do work on an object via a simple
machine.
• ideal mechanical advantage: The factor by which a mechanism multiplies the force put into it. The mechanical advantage is called the ideal mechanical advantage if there is no friction or if friction is ignored.
distance over which effort is applied
Generally, the mechanical advantage is calculated as follows: MA = distance over which the load is moved .
• actual mechanical advantage: The mechanical advantage of a real machine. Actual mechanical advantage
takes into consideration real world factors such as energy lost in friction. In this way, it differs from the
ideal mechanical advantage, which, is a sort of ’theoretical limit’ to the efficiency. The AMA of a machine is
force
calculated with the following formula: AMA = resistance
effort force .
• compound machine: A combination of two or more simple machines.
•
•
•
•
Work, measured in Joules, is the measurement of the force exerted on an object in the direction it moves multiplied
by the distance the object moved. Power, measured in Joules/second, is the amount of work done divided by the
time it took. Machines are devices that transform input work into equivalent amounts of output work in a different
form; a small force over a large distance may become a large force over a small distance. The six simple machines
discussed in this chapter are the building blocks of all machines.
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1.4. References
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1.4 References
1. CK-12 Foundation - Samantha Bacic, using images copyright Denniro, 2013 and yusufdemirci, 2013. http://w
ww.shutterstock.com . Used under license from Shutterstock.com
2. Image copyright Paul Brennan, 2013. http://www.shutterstock.com . Used under license from Shutterstock.com
3. CK-12 Foundation - Samantha Bacic. . CC BY-NC-SA 3.0
4. CK-12 Foundation - Samantha Bacic. . CC-BY-NC-SA 3.0
5. Courtesy of Ryan Hagerty, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. http://digitalmedia.fws.gov/cdm/singleitem/colle
ction/natdiglib/id/13455/rec/2 . Public Domain
6. . . CC BY-NC-SA
7. CK-12 Foundation - Samantha Bacic. . CC-BY-NC-SA 3.0
8. Flickr: LawPrieR. CC-BY 2.0 . CC-BY 2.0
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