Download File - Tony S. Jugé, Ph.D.

1
2
Gender Inequality
Gender vs. Sex (pp. 295-297)
Sex
Biological differences that separate males and females
Gender roles
Set of psychological, cultural and social expectations we have about how to
behave as man or a woman
Refers to the personal traits and social positions that members of a society
attach to being female or male
3
Gender (identities)
Product of our social interactions
We construct our identities according to our self-concept of gender roles and
how people react with us in those roles
Nurture vs. Nature (pp. 346-348)
Margaret Mead’s Research
If gender is based on biological differences, people everywhere should define
“feminine” and “masculine” the same
In New Guinea men and women have both characteristics and behaviors that
would be associated with feminine behaviors in Western societies
Gender roles are reversed from the roles traditionally assigned to males and
females in Western societies
Some men do “women’s work”
Studied three societies in New Guinea
Arapesh, Mundugumor, and Tchambuli
4
Concluded that culture is the key to gender distinction
What one society defines as masculine another may see as feminine
Gender Roles (1)
(pp. 297-301)
They represent our master status
The way people see us and interact with us
5
They define our goals and ways of achieving them
Result in gender inequality
Not everybody has the same perspective on what gender roles should and/
or should NOT be
Gender Roles (2)
(pp. 297-301)
5
Gender Roles (2)
(pp. 297-301)
Doing gender
Our socially constructed behaviors are often exaggerated
People who deviate from specific gender roles are seen as deviant and
often homosexual
“Baby X” Experiment
People interact based on certain colors
The colors dictate their behaviors
6
“Is it a boy or a girl?”
Important because answer involves not only sex but the likely direction of a
child’s life
Gender Roles (3)
(pp. 297-301)
Women’s Gender Roles
Female world revolves around cooperation and emotion
How do girls come to develop a feminine self-image?
Role models
Children’s books in the 40s-60s show girls underrepresented in central
roles and illustrations
7
Motherhood mandate
Women are expected to marry and have children
Women should want to be mothers
Women’s success is often measured in whether their kids turn out
alright
Men’s success is measured by their careers!
Gender Roles (4)
(pp. 297-301)
Men’s gender roles
Boys and men are also restricted in the behaviors that they can do
They are supposed to like gym, sports, and physical activities
8
Male world puts a premium on independence and action
Gender Roles (5)
Specific elements of Masculinity
NO SISSY STUFF: NO VULNERABILITY!
Specific elements of Masculinity
NO SISSY STUFF: NO VULNERABILITY!
Success element
Masculinity proven in sports, work
Aggressive
Use force to deal with others
Sexual
Initiate/control all sexual relations
Self-reliant
Keep your cool!
9
10
Gender Roles (6)
Biggest element of ANTIFEMINISM
Learn what girls are supposed to do, then do the opposite
Boys who do not conform to this masculine model face constant criticism
11
This might explain why men hate sharing intimate feelings
Patriarchy and Matriarchy (1)
(p. 302)
Matriarchy (“Rule of Mothers”)
A form of social organization in which females dominate males
Rarely documented in human history
Patriarchy (“Rule of Fathers”)
A form of social organization in which males dominate females
Pattern found almost everywhere in the world
Women take on the name of their husband after getting married
12
Sexism
The belief that one sex is innately superior to the other
Justification for patriarchy
Patriarchy and Matriarchy (2)
(p. 302)
The Costs of Sexism
Limits the talents and ambitions of half the human population – women
Masculinity in U.S. culture encourages men to engage in high-risk behaviors
13
14
Limits the talents and ambitions of half the human population – women
Masculinity in U.S. culture encourages men to engage in high-risk behaviors
Masculinity is linked to:
Accidents, suicide, violence, and stress related diseases
As men seek control, they lose opportunities for intimacy and trust
Gender Differentiation
It requires that not only individuals are socialized into traditional roles within the
family, but also that institutions promote these roles
There are also in every society people who successfully oppose stereotypes, like
strong women and nurturing men
Pay attention gender and language
Gender Inequality (1)
(pp. 302-310)
Difference in the status, power, and prestige that men and women have in groups,
collectivities, and societies
Gender is a dimension of social organization
Gender involves a hierarchy
Questions
Do women have equal access to valued societal resources?
Do men and women have similar life options?
15
16
Are women’s and men’s roles valued similarly?
Gender Inequality (2)
(pp. 302-310)
Do biological differences become the reasons why certain occupations are more
suited for men or women?
Does being a female suit you better to be a teacher or nurse?
Does being a male suit you better to be a CEO?
Think about the social expectations for each occupation
Do those expectations match in some ways the social expectations
associated with masculinity and femininity?
Why are 99% of secretaries women?
Why are 99% of auto mechanic men?
Gender Inequality (3)
(pp. 302-310)
Institutionally, it involves policies, procedures and practices that produce unequal
outcomes for men and women
While it could be applied to both men and women, women are the main
While it could be applied to both men and women, women are the main
recipients of disadvantages and inequality
17
Women can be referred to as a minority groups
Gender Inequality (4)
(pp. 302-310)
Gender shapes interests and beliefs about abilities, guiding areas of study, and
career choices
Women are now the majority (57%) of students on college campuses
Now represented in many fields of study that once excluded them
Men still predominate in many fields
Engineering, physics, and philosophy
18
19
Women cluster in the fine arts
Social sciences
Gender Inequality (5)
(pp. 302-310)
Men hold center stage in television
Historically, ads show women in the home
Study of gender in advertising revealed that men usually appear taller than
women implying male superiority
Women are more frequently portrayed lying down appearing sexual and
submissive
Advertising perpetuates the “beauty myth”
Society teaches women to measure their worth in terms of physical
appearance
Women as a Minority Group (1)
They have encountered prejudice and discrimination
They have physical traits and cultural traits that distinguish them from men
They represent a self-conscious group
20
Their membership is involuntary
Women as a Minority Group (2)
Women make up 51% of the population but only 3 states had a female governor
in 2000
What about today? 8 in 2009
Women make up 51% of the population but only 3 states had a female governor
in 2000
What about today? 8 in 2009
There were only 72 women in Congress in 2001 (59 House, 13 Senate), and 95 in
2008 (79 house, 16 senate) more than ever before
21
22
23
In 2003, women held about 22% of seats in state legislatures, five times more
than in 1969
Median Earnings of Full-Time,
Year-Round Workers by Gender, 1960-2008
Ratio of Female-to-Male Median Weekly Earnings for Full-Time Wage and
Salary Workers, U.S. 2012
Pink collar jobs?
It refers to the idea that women are a better fit for certain positions such as
secretaries or retail sales positions
However, those careers are poorly paid with less promotional outlooks
73% of minimum wage earners are women
24
25
26
27
Those positions are reinforced by socialization during which women are told that
their husbands’ careers come first
Men seek better paid positions with better career outlooks
Intersection of Race and Gender (1)
Intersection of Race and Gender (2)
Glass Ceiling & Glass Escalator
(pp. 310-311)
Set of invisible barriers that prevent women from advancing in their careers,
especially in “male-dominated” industry
Globally, women occupy only 2 to 3% of top corporate positions
40% of Japanese corporations hire NO women college graduate for
management-level positions
In “female-dominated” jobs, sociologists have found that males tend to be
promoted much faster
Might be due to clients willing to deal with males rather females
Sexual Harassment (1)
(p. 311)
It refers to unwanted or repeated sexual advances, remarks, or behavior that
offensive to the recipient and cause discomfort or interference with job
performance
Quid Pro Quo
Demands of sexual acts in return (or promises) of job-related advancement
Quid Pro Quo
Demands of sexual acts in return (or promises) of job-related advancement
28
29
30
“Hostile work environment”
Sexual language, sexual advances make a worker uncomfortable
Sexual Harassment (2)
(p. 311)
Women are the most affected by sexual harassment
However, they do not always report it because
Of the lack of knowledge about the offenses related to sexual harassment
They are reluctant to come forward because of the fear of not being believed
It is hard to differentiate between joking on the job and sexual harassment
Family & Gender Issues
Hochschild’s The Second Shift
When both men and women work full-time, women have a double burden of
work outside the home and childcare/housework afterwards
They are oppressed at work during the first shift, and once they go home with
the second shift (unpaid labor)
Women spend 15 hours a week less then men in leisure activities
In a year, women spend an extra month of 24 hours days in unpaid child care
and housework
Causes stress in women subject to these concerns
Violence Against Women (1)
(pp. 315-318)
Rape
It is sociologically defined as the forcing of non-consensual vaginal, oral and
anal intercourse
It is an act of violence, NOT a sexual act
“No means No”
Rape can be the result of continual pressure, threat, coercion and force
31
Most rapes are committed by relatives (husbands included)
At least 80% of all sexual assaults are committed by an acquaintance of
the victim (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2001)
Violence Against Women (2)
(pp. 315-318)
At least 1 in 4 college women will be the victim of a sexual assault during her
academic career. (Hirsch, 1990)
48.8% of college women who were victims of attacks that met the study’s
definition of rape did not consider what happened to them rape (Bureau of
Justice Stats, 2000)
32
33
48.8% of college women who were victims of attacks that met the study’s
definition of rape did not consider what happened to them rape (Bureau of
Justice Stats, 2000)
There are 35.3 incidents of sexual assault per 1,000 female students on a campus
as recorded over a 6.91 month period (the academic year of ‘96 – ’97) as reported
in the 2000 DOJ Bureau of Justice Statistics report “The Sexual Victimization of
College Women.”
On average, at least 50% of college students’ sexual assaults are associated with
alcohol use (Abbey et al., 1996a, 1998)
Within a nationally represented sample of college students the results found
that 74% of perpetrators and 55% of rape victims had been drinking alcohol
prior to the assault (Koss, 1998)
In a survey of high school students, 56% of girls and 76% of boys [some of
whom may be incoming college freshmen] believed forced sex was acceptable
under some circumstances (Acquaintance Rape: The Hidden Crime, 1991)
Violence Against Women (3)
(pp. 315-318)
Rape might be the result of culture, also known as “rape culture”
Most rapes involve men known and trusted by their victims
Men are socialized to believe that they have a sense of sexual entitlement
Might encourage encounters and promiscuity
Men believed that they have led on, then they are entitled to have sex
(research on college students in 1990)
Violence Against Women (4)
(pp. 315-318)
Death and injury – The study found that globally, 38% of all women who were
murdered were murdered by their intimate partners, and 42% of women who
have experienced physical or sexual violence at the hands of a partner had
experienced injuries as a result.
Depression – Partner violence is a major contributor to women’s mental health
problems, with women who have experienced partner violence being almost
twice as likely to experience depression compared to women who have not
experienced any violence.
Alcohol use problems – Women experiencing intimate partner violence are almost
twice as likely as other women to have alcohol-use problems.
Sexually transmitted infections – Women who experience physical and/or sexual
partner violence are 1.5 times more likely to acquire syphilis infection, chlamydia,
or gonorrhoea. In some regions (including sub-Saharan Africa), they are 1.5 times
more likely to acquire HIV.
Unwanted pregnancy and abortion – Both partner violence and non-partner
Sexually transmitted infections – Women who experience physical and/or sexual
partner violence are 1.5 times more likely to acquire syphilis infection, chlamydia,
or gonorrhoea. In some regions (including sub-Saharan Africa), they are 1.5 times
more likely to acquire HIV.
Unwanted pregnancy and abortion – Both partner violence and non-partner
sexual violence are associated with unwanted pregnancy; the report found that
women experiencing physical and/or sexual partner violence are twice as likely to
have an abortion than women who do not experience this violence.
34
35
Low birth-weight babies – Women who experience partner violence have a 16%
greater chance of having a low birth-weight baby.
Functionalist Approaches on
Gender Inequality (1)
(pp. 322-325)
Gender differentiation contributes to overall societal stability, as well as makes
sure that all roles within the family are efficiently covered
Women are seen as the key to a good socialization for children, and good for the
overall stability of the family, which in returns is good for children
Functionalist Approaches on Gender Inequality (2)
(pp. 322-325)
Talcott Parsons: Gender and Complementarity
Gender forms a complementary set of roles
Links women and men into family units
Gives each sex responsibility for carrying out important tasks
Gender plays and important part in socialization
Instrumental qualities
36
Society encourages gender conformity by instilling in men and women fear of
rejection
Gender integrates society both structurally and morally
Functionalist Approaches on Gender Inequality (3)
(pp. 322-325)
Reality check
Functionalism assumes a singular vision of society that is not shared by
everyone
Parson’s analysis ignores the personal strains and social costs of rigid gender
roles
In the eyes of those seeking sexual equality
Gender complementarity amounts to little more than women submitting to
37
38
39
In the eyes of those seeking sexual equality
Gender complementarity amounts to little more than women submitting to
male domination
Interactionist Approach on
Gender Inequality (1)
Women “naturally” want and take the EXPRESSIVE role
Concern with the maintenance of harmony and internal emotional affairs of the
family
Women provide care and support for the children
They are subordinate
Men take INSTRUMENTAL role
Emphasis on tasks, focus on distant goals, concern for the relationship
between the family and social institutions
Men are supposed to be the breadwinner
Interactionist Approaches on Gender Roles (2)
Looks at gender stratification through everyday behavior
Men and interruptions
Men initiate 96% of interruptions in male/female conversations
Men change topics
Men ignore topics chosen by women
Men minimize contributions of the opposite sex
Men validate their own ideas and contributions
Interactionist Approaches on Gender Roles (3)
Women spend even more time thinking about children’s care and feel guilty if job
demands keep them from thinking about their babies
Men are more likely to see housework as a leisure activity that they choose to do
It is a women’s work, so it feels like play to men, not work
40
Why do women accept this?
(Hint: if you want it done right, do it yourself…”)
Feminist Approaches on
Gender Inequality (pp. 325-327)
Feminist writers are interested in the unequal position of women in society
Tries to explain inequalities through different lenses such as sexism, patriarchy,
capitalism and racism
Sociological studies like the Zimbardo Prison experiment, the Milgram
Experiment are done with male subjects, then generalized to all peoples
Since men and women have different life experiences, they are likely to
approach different issues in different ways
Since men and women have different life experiences, they are likely to
approach different issues in different ways
41
Liberal feminism
Radical feminism
Black feminism
Liberal Feminism (pp. 325-327)
They explain gender inequality through culture
They do not believe that the subordination of women is rooted in the structure of
society
They are interested in educational disparities, discrimination in the workplace,
and the portrayal of women in the media
They believe in gradual change (and have been successful at it)
42
They are accused by other feminists to want to change minor things in the
system, and therefore accept the unequal competitive nature of society
Radical Feminism (pp. 325-327)
They believe that men are responsible and benefit from the exploitation of women
Patriarchy exemplifies this belief
It is seen as the universal organization of societies
Men exploit women by benefiting from the free domestic labor that women
provide at home
Male violence against females is central to male supremacy
Women’s bodies are sexualized and exploited
43
Gradual reform will not liberate women
Since patriarchy is systematic, the only solution is the overthrowing of the
patriarchal order
Black Feminism (pp. 325-327)
White feminism has historically not included women of color (does not take
racism into account)
Example: struggle for the right to vote, but at the same time no struggle from
white women in favor of black women still being denied citizenship rights, and
being economic and sexually oppressed
White feminism tend to also be rooted in the middle class (does not take poverty
into account)
Black feminist emphasize the legacy of slavery, segregation, and the civil rights
movement on gender inequalities in the black community
Black feminist emphasize the legacy of slavery, segregation, and the civil rights
movement on gender inequalities in the black community
44
Black women are discriminated on the basis of race and gender, and social class
Those factors intersect and reinforce one another
Conflict Approaches on
Gender Inequality (1)
Gender involves differences not just in behavior but in power as well
Similarity between how traditional ideas about gender benefit men and the ways
oppression of racial and ethnic minorities benefits white people
45
Conventional ideas about gender create division and tension
Conflict Approaches on
Gender Inequality (2)
Friedrich Engels: Gender and Class
Capitalism intensifies male domination
Creates more wealth, which give greater power to men as earners and
owners of property
An expanding capitalist economy depends on turning people into consumers
Society assigns women the task of maintaining the home to free men to work
in factories
46
Double exploitation of capitalism
Pay men low wages for labor
Pay women no wages at all
Why Should Gender Inequality Matter to You? (pp. 330-331)
Women represent more than half of the population but are still a global minority
group
They represent a large portion of the global labor force
Many women are now being directly impacted by globalization
Equality is therefore needed