Download Observational learning: Learning by observing others

Observational learning: Learning by observing others
Bandura (1965) and others have demonstrated that we learn from observing
models but we don't necessarily copy them. This is called observational learning. In
an early study, children watched a film of an adult hitting and kicking a large
punching bag type of doll. Some of the children saw the adult rewarded for the
aggressiveness, others saw the adult punished, and still others saw no rewards or
punishment afterwards. Later, as you might imagine, when placed in a similar
situation as the adult with the doll, the children were more aggressive themselves if
they had seen an adult rewarded for being aggressive. If they had seen the adult
punished, they were less aggressive, even though they could imitate the adult
perfectly. They had learned behavior by observing and learned to monitor and control
their behavior if it might lead to rewards or punishment. Every parent has observed
this too.
Modeling has also been used as a form of treatment. Children with a fear of dogs
(Bandura, Grusec, and Menlove, 1967) or snakes (Bandura, Blanchard, and Ritter,
1969) were shown a model who was not afraid and approached and handled the
animal. The children learned to be less afraid. Although observing an effective model
in a film is helpful, seeing a live model works better. Even more effective is watching
a live model first and then participating by approaching and safely handling the feared
animal yourself.
This area of research is called Social Learning Theory because it involves people
learning from each other or modeling. Humans can learn what behavior leads to what
outcomes by directly or vicariously (indirectly on TV or from books) observing
others, they don't have to experience the situation themselves or be rewarded for the
new behavior. In this theory, reinforcement does not strengthen learning; it is simply a
payoff that motivates us to perform the behavior that leads to the reward.
The observational learner uses his/her head and thinks. He/she must attend to the
model, remember what the model did, see the usefulness of the model's behavior, and
be able to duplicate the behavior (after some practice). This kind of learning, along
with classical and operant, is also involved in many things we do. We learn how to
socialize, to do a job, to intimidate by yelling...from others. Every one of us can
readily see the influence of our parents' model on our habits, preferences, attitudes,
and patterns of thought. In several places in this book, the powerful influence of
friends will be mentioned. Schools, TV, entertainment stars, religion, and other
sources provide other models. In complex ways these models help us decide how to
behave and what kind of person we want to be.
Observational learning involves higher order thinking, not just thoughtless
imitating. The person becomes a controlling factor; we make decisions that direct our
lives; our mind is an active "agent" involved in learning and changing ourselves and
our environment.
http://mentalhelp.net/psyhelp/chap4/chap4g.htm
Social Learning and Social Cognitive theories accept and expand on conditioning
principles. Social Learning emphasizes the particularly power of learning through
social rewards and punishments, including vicarious reinforcements and modeling.
Social Cognitive theories build on behavioral theories and show that people’s
cognitive processes influence and are influenced by behavioral associations.
Conditioning theories assume direct connection between behaviour and learning
WHEREAS Cognitive theories allow for the learning process to be modified by
cognitions.
Bandura: Observational Learning
• Efficient learning method which involves:
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Attention
Retention
Production
Performance (Motivation)
Observational Learning: this is a key concept - one can learn vicariously e.g.
Bandura’s bobo dolls. Humans can also learn emotions vicariously e.g.
empathy/sympathy
* more prevalent and efficient than classical or operant learning
* most human behaviours and attitudes learned through observation intentionally
or accidentally
* begins at a very early age e.g. basis of most early language acquisition
* can exceed imitation: the observer can learn from the model’s mistakes as well
as successes
* can result in synthesis of different behaviours, which then lead to innovative
and creative behaviours
* can acquire internal standards for evaluating own and other’s behaviours
* behaviour is maintained by expectancies or anticipated consequences
BEHAVIOUR IS LEARNED AND ULTIMATELY REPEATED DUE TO ATTENTION,
RETENTION, PRODUCTION AND MOTIVATION.
Learning by modelling
ATTENTION: Pay attention if: Similarity; status; competence; power; attractive;
simpler behaviours more readily imitated; and aggressive behaviours readily
copied by young children.
RETENTION: Use imagery, language and rehearsal to encode.
PRODUCTION: capacity to produce response
MOTIVATION: Is the observer motivated to perform the behaviour. What are the
consequences associated with the behaviour for the model? Vicarious
reinforcement influences whether the behaviour performed (in Bobo Doll case
(1965), particularly punishment of the model) What are the likely outcomes for
the observer?
Attributes of the Observer:
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People are more like to imitate when they:
lack self esteem
are incompetent
highly dependent
have been rewarded previously for conforming
are highly motivated to master a desired behaviour
substantial short or long term rewards
Modelling & sex role acquisition. Some studies have shown that children
model same-sex parents/characters more than different sex parents/characters.
And of course there’s still a lot of social reinforcement for gender-specific
behaviours. Little girls are often told how sweet they are when they comply and
are quiet or help mummy with the cooking. Little boys are encouraged and
praised to help dad with the car and go out and kick a football with dad.As with
other learning, this sex-role acquisition can be strongly influenced by portrayals
of males and females in the media.
Modelling & Aggression: modelling of aggression occurs e.g.:via observing
aggression within the home; via observing aggression on TV. Of course on
television this violence is often not just permitted but also rewarded (video
games) and this results in the promotion of beliefs that aggression is an
appropriate way to deal with conflict. It doesn’t matter whether the model is in
real life, on television and is a real person or an animated character!
Intervention Approaches
Inappropriate and maladaptive behaviours can be the result of prior
reinforcement patterns i.e. inappropriate behaviour has been conditioned.
Maladaptive behaviour can have been learned from models. People can have
inappropriate or maladaptive expectancies for their behaviour e.g. always
expecting to do badly in exams or always expecting to be REWARDED for
bullying. People can suffer from skills deficits which might be due to a lack of
models with appropriate skills.
All these things can be reversed by the same processes. Thus new behaviour can
be conditioned via reinforcing appropriate behaviour; by modelling appropriate
behaviour (often used for teaching social skills and assertiveness for example).
People can be helped to increase their expectancies via observational learning as
well. When a model shows they can overcome fear for example this helps the
observer overcome their fear. Furthermore self-instructions can help people
change their expectancies about outcomes. Cognitive behaviour therapy works on
the assumption that many problems stem from ineffective and disruptive
thoughts that slip into peoples minds. People often tell themselves they can’t
cope; they’re no good etc. They often expect bad things. The goal of CBT is to
get the client to recognize instances of maladaptive thinking and to make suitable
adjustments. (Test anxiety: Prepare for the stressor: plan for the test, no
negative self-statements, don’t worry. Confront and cope with the stressor: Take
it one step at a time break, remember to use your relaxation exercises; pause
when the anxiety comes; relax and keep focused on the bit at hand. After the
coping attempt: pat yourself on the back for your progress. Tell yourself you can
do it.
http://www.wilderdom.com/personality/L9-3SocialLearningCognitive.html
Observational Learning
Effect on behaviour
Social learning may effect behaviour in the follow ways:
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Teaches new behaviours
Increases or decreases the frequency of which previously learnt behaviours are
carried out
Can encourage previously forbidden behaviours
Can increase or decrease similar behaviours. For example, observing a model
excelling in piano playing may encourage an observer to excel in playing the
saxophone
http://www.yourencyclopedia.net/Observational_learning.html
Albert Bandura believed aggression reinforced by family members was the most
prominent source of behavior modeling. He reports that children use the same
aggressive tactics that their parents illustrate when dealing with others (Bandura,
1976: p.206). While studying at Iowa, Bandura became strongly interested in
aggression in children (Bandura, 1977). In order to control aggression, Bandura stated
that the problem should be diagnosed and treated during one’s childhood. "We should
not be subjecting people to treatments and then, some years later, trying to figure out
what effects they have. We should test treatments before we embark on widespread
applications (Evans,1989: p3.)." Children learn to act aggressive when they model
their behavior after violent acts of adults, especially family members. For example,
the boy who witness his father repeatedly strike his mother will more than likely
become an abusive parent and husband (Siegel, 1992: p. 170)
http://www.criminology.fsu.edu/crimtheory/bandura.htm