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12 Kingdoms and Trading States
of Africa
750 b.c.–a.d. 1586
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1 Early Civilizations of Africa
2 Kingdoms of West Africa
3 Trade Routes of East Africa
4 Many Peoples, Many Traditions
Chapter Review and Assessment
Geography and Climates of Africa
Africa's many climate zones and landforms have encouraged the development of a wide variety of
cultures.
CHAPTER EVENTS
GLOBAL EVENTS
SECTION
1
Reading Focus
How did geography
affect cultural
development and the
migration of peoples?
Early Civilizations of Africa
Vocabulary
savanna
desertification
outpost
Taking Notes
this concept web. As you read the
section, complete the circles with
important facts to remember about
Print out
What were the
achievements of the
kingdom of Nubia?
How did outside
influences lead to
change in North Africa?
desertification. Add as many circles as
you need.
Africa's geographic features had a major impact on the development of
societies.
Setting the Scene
As the sun rose above the east bank of the Nile, workers hurried to the
construction site. They had only a few hours to work in comfort before the
sun turned the desert into a furnace. Still, as long as King Taharqa (tuh
hahr kuh) was determined to turn the old mud-brick temple into a
magnificent monument, their work would continue. An ancient inscription
explains how the monument was “built of good white sandstone, excellent,
hard, … the house being of gold, the columns of gold, the inlays thereof
being of silver.”
About 680 b.c., Taharqa commanded the Nile Valley from Nubia to the
Mediterranean. By that time, Nubia was already 3,000 years old. Along
with Egypt, it stood as one of the world's early civilizations.
The Geography of Africa
After Asia, Africa is the second largest continent, covering one fifth of all the
Earth's land surface. Its geography is immensely varied. However, certain
geographic features, such as distinct climate zones, have had a major impact on its
development.
Many outsiders, misled by movies, imagine Africa as a continent
covered with thick jungles. In fact, tropical rain forests cover less than five percent
of the land, mostly along the Equator. Thick trees and roots make this region
unsuitable for farming.
Climate Zones
Africa's largest and most populated climate zone is the savanna, or grassy plain,
which stretches north and south of the forest zone. Although the savanna has good
soil, irregular patterns of rainfall sometimes cause long, deadly droughts. In parts
of the savanna, the tsetse fly infects people and cattle with sleeping sickness. But
in other parts, cattle herding is a common occupation.
The savanna belts trail off into increasingly dry steppe zones and then into two
major deserts. The blistering Sahara in the north is the world's largest desert.
Although the Sahara did become a highway for migration and trade, its size and
harsh terrain limited movement. The Kalahari and Namib in the south are smaller
but equally forbidding. Finally, along the Mediterranean coast of North Africa and
at the tip of southern Africa lie areas of fertile farmland. These varied regions also
The Tsetse Fly
The tsetse fly carries one of
Africa's most troublesome
diseases—sleeping sickness.
Flies pass on the deadly
disease by biting humans
and large animals. Some
people have abandoned their
villages in heavily infested
areas. In other regions,
people have stopped raising
offer a variety of mineral resources, such as salt, gold, iron, copper, diamonds, and
oil, all of which have spurred trade.
Movement In addition to deserts and rain forests, other geographic features have
acted as barriers to easy movement of people and goods. Africa has an enormous
coastline, but few good natural harbors. In addition, much of the interior is a high
plateau. As rivers approach the coast, they cascade through a series of rapids and
cataracts that hinder travel between the coast and the interior.
Despite geographic barriers, people did migrate within Africa and to neighboring
lands. The Great Rift Valley of East Africa served as one interior corridor. Many
rivers were navigable in the interior of the continent. The Red Sea and Indian
Ocean linked East Africa to the Middle East and other Asian lands, while North
Africa was a part of the Mediterranean world.
Mineral resources spurred trade among various African regions. Salt,
gold, iron, and copper were particularly valuable to early trade. In later centuries,
diamonds and oil would also gain importance.
horses and cattle because of
the pests. Many tourists
arrange their trips to avoid
the tsetse fly.
How can Africans overcome
this menace? Tsetse flies are
attracted to moving vehicles,
dark colors, and perfume and
aftershave. Using this
knowledge, scientists have
built traps. A dark blue cloth,
treated to smell like ox
breath—irresistible to the
tsetse fly—acts as a lure.
The cloth is also treated with
insecticide, to kill the flies.
Resources
Theme: Economics and
TechnologyHow might
African economies be
affected by eliminating the
tsetse fly?
Migration of Peoples
Archaeologists have uncovered evidence that the Great Rift Valley of East Africa was the home of
the earliest people. Gradually, their descendants spread to almost every corner of the Earth.
In Africa, as elsewhere, Paleolithic people developed skills as hunters and
food gatherers. By 5500 b.c., Neolithic farmers had learned to cultivate the Nile Valley and to
domesticate animals. As farming spread across North Africa, Neolithic villages even appeared in the
Sahara, which was then a well-watered zone. Ancient rock paintings show a Sahara full of forests
and rivers.
The Changing Sahara
About 2500 b.c., a climate change slowly dried out the Sahara. As the land became parched, the
desert spread. This process of desertification has continued to the present, devouring thousands of
acres of cropland and pastureland each year. Desertification has also encouraged migration, as
people are forced to seek new areas to maintain their ways of life.
Over thousands of years, migrations contributed to the rich diversity of
peoples and cultures. Scholars have traced these migrations by studying language patterns. They
have learned that West African farmers and herders migrated to the south and east between about
b.c. 500 and a.d. 1500. Like the Indo-European peoples of Europe and Asia, these West African
peoples spoke a variety of languages that derived from a common root language. We call this root
language Bantu.
The Bantu Migrations
As people migrated across Africa, they adapted to its many climates and developed a diversity of
cultures. While some were nomadic cattle herders, others cultivated grain or root crops. In several
regions, farming people built great empires.
The Nile Kingdom of Nubia
While Egyptian civilization was developing, another African civilization took
shape on a wide band of fertile land among the cataracts of the upper Nile. The
ancient kingdom of Nubia, also called Kush, was located in present-day Sudan.
From time to time, ambitious Egyptian pharaohs subdued Nubia, but the
Nubians always regained their independence. As a result of conquest and trade,
Nubian rulers adapted many Egyptian traditions. They modeled palaces and
pyramids on Egyptian styles. About 750 b.c., the Nubian king Piankhi (pee
ahng kee) conquered Egypt. For a century, Nubian kings ruled Egypt. But their
armies could not match the iron weapons of the invading Assyrians. The
Nubians retreated south from Egypt.
Conquest and trade provided Nubia with opportunities to learn about
Egyptian culture. Many traditions and beliefs were adapted to become
part of Nubian civilization.
By 500 b.c., Nubian rulers moved their capital to Meroë
(mehr uh wee). Meroë commanded both the north-south Nile route and the
east-west route from the Red Sea into the savanna and North Africa. Along
this wide trade network, Nubia sent gold, ivory, animal skins, perfumes, and
slaves to the Mediterranean world and the Middle East.
The Furnaces of Meroë
Equally important, Meroë was rich in iron ore. Its furnaces, fueled by large
quantities of timber, produced iron. Today, giant heaps of iron waste remain as
evidence of ancient Meroë's industry.
Although Nubia absorbed much from Egypt, it later
followed an independent course. Nubians worshiped their own gods including
Apedemak, a lion-headed warrior god. At Meroë, artistic styles reflected a
greater sense of freedom than did Egyptian styles. Nubians also created their
own system of writing, using an alphabet instead of hieroglyphics.
Unfortunately, the Nubian alphabet has yet to be deciphered.
Splendor and Decline
After the joint reign of King Natakamani and Queen Amanitere in the first
century a.d., Nubia's golden age dimmed. Finally, about a.d. 350, armies from
the kingdom of Axum on the Red Sea overwhelmed Nubia. King Ezana of
Axum boasted, “I burnt their towns, both those built of brick and those built of
reeds, and my army carried off their food and copper and iron … and
destroyed the statues in their temples.” As you will read later, Axum would
make its own mark on this region beyond the Nile.
North Africa
Early African civilizations had strong ties to the Mediterranean world. At
the opposite end of the Mediterranean from Nubia and Axum, Carthage
rose as a great North African power. Like Nubia, its wealth came from
trade. Founded by Phoenician traders, Carthage came to dominate trade in
the western Mediterranean and North Africa. Between 800 b.c. and 146
b.c., it forged an empire that stretched from the Maghreb (present-day
Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco) to southern Spain and Sicily. Carthage also
established outposts, or distant military stations, in England and France.
As Rome expanded, territorial and trade rivalries erupted between the two
powers, resulting in the Punic Wars. Despite the efforts of Hannibal, Rome
eventually crushed Carthage. Trade, however, continued.
The Romans built roads, dams, aqueducts, and cities across
North Africa. They developed its farmlands and imported lions and other
fierce animals to do battle with gladiators. North Africa also provided
soldiers for the Roman army. One of them, Septimius Severus, later
became emperor of Rome.
Roman Rule
Under Roman rule, Christianity spread to the cities of North Africa. St.
Augustine, the most influential Christian thinker of the late Roman empire,
was born in present-day Algeria. From a.d. 395 to a.d. 430, Augustine was
bishop of Hippo, a city near the ruins of ancient Carthage.
By a.d. 200, camels had been brought to North Africa
from Asia. These hardy “ships of the desert” revolutionized trade across
the Sahara. Camels could carry loads of up to 500 pounds and could plod
20 or 30 miles a day, often without water. Although daring traders had
earlier made the difficult desert crossing in horse-drawn chariots, camel
caravans created new trade networks.
Camels and Trade
Spread of Islam Further changes came in the 600s, when Arab armies
carried Islam into North Africa. At first, the Arabs occupied the cities and
battled the Berbers in the desert. Later, Berbers and Arabs joined forces to
conquer Spain. Islam replaced Christianity as the dominant religion of
North Africa, and Arabic replaced Latin as its language.
North Africa benefited from the blossoming of Muslim civilization. Cities
like Cairo, Fez, and Marrakesh were famed for their mosques and libraries.
Linked into a global trade network, North African ports did a busy trade in
grain, wine, fruit, ivory, and gold. Along with their goods, Muslim traders
from North Africa carried Islam into West Africa.
SECTION
2
Kingdoms of West Africa
Reading Focus
Vocabulary
Why were gold and salt
important in early
Africa?
How did the rulers of
Ghana, Mali, and
Songhai build strong
kingdoms?
How did other West
African kingdoms
develop?
surplus
commodity
mansa
oba
Taking Notes
and complete the timeline below. As you
read, add entries for the establishment of kingdoms
mentioned in this section. One has been included
as an example.
Print out
Between about a.d. 800 and a.d. 1600, several powerful kingdoms won
control of the Sahara trade and built prosperous cities in West Africa.
Setting the Scene
In the early 1500s, the scholar Hassan ibn Muhammad—known in the
West as Leo Africanus—described the commercial wealth and bustling
markets of the West African city of Timbuktu:
“Here are many shops of … merchants, and especially such as
weave linen and cotton cloth. And here do the Barbary (North
African) merchants bring the cloth of Europe. All the women of
this region, except maidservants, go with their faces covered
and sell all the necessary foods.”
—Hassan ibn Muhammad, quoted in Ancient African Kingdoms (Shinnie)
Timbuktu stood at one end of a trade network that reached north to Cairo
and then across the Mediterranean Sea to Italy. Between about 800 and
1600, several powerful kingdoms in turn won control of the prosperous
Sahara trade. Among the richest of these West African states were Ghana,
Mali, and Songhai.
Trading Gold and Salt
As the Sahara dried out, you will recall, some Neolithic people migrated southward into the savanna.
There, farmers grew beans, melons, and cereal grains. By a.d. 100, settled farming villages were
expanding, especially along the Senegal and Niger rivers and around Lake Chad.
Villagers traded any surplus, or excess, food they produced. Gradually, a trade network linked the
savanna to forest lands in the south and then funneled goods across the Sahara to civilizations along the
Mediterranean and in the Middle East.
Two products, gold and salt, dominated the Sahara trade. Gold was plentiful in present-day Ghana,
Nigeria, and Senegal. Men dug the gold-bearing soil from pits. Women then washed the soil to extract
the gold dust. The precious metal was stuffed into hollow feather quills for safe travel to the markets of
North Africa and Europe.
The Salt Trade
The camel changed the
Saharan salt trade. For
centuries, trade was limited
because the horses that
transported the salt were
not suited to desert travel.
However, about a.d. 300,
the Berbers, an Arabic
people of North Africa,
began using camels to
carry their goods. When
the caravans reached
Ghana, merchants would
pay one pound of gold dust
for one pound of salt. The
As farming and trade prospered, cities developed on the northern edges of the savanna. Strong monarchs salt trade began to thrive.
In return, West Africans received an equally important commodity, or valuable product, salt. People
need salt in their diet to prevent dehydration, especially in hot, tropical areas. The Sahara had an
abundance of salt. At Taghaza, in the central Sahara, people even built homes of salt blocks. But in the
savanna, several hundred miles south, salt was scarce. A block of salt was easily worth its weight in
gold.
gained control of the most profitable trade routes and
Gold Wealth of Ghana
By a.d. 800, the rulers of the Soninke people had united many farming
villages to create the kingdom of Ghana.* Ghana was located in the broad
“V” made by the Niger and Senegal rivers. From there, the king controlled
gold-salt trade routes across West Africa. The two streams of trade met in
the marketplaces of Ghana, where the king collected tolls on all goods
entering or leaving his land. So great was the flow of gold that Arab writers
called Ghana “land of gold.”
Capital and King The capital of Ghana was Kumbi Saleh, made up of two
separate, walled towns, some six miles apart. The first town was dominated
by the royal palace, surrounded by a complex of domed buildings. Here, in
a court noted for its wealth and splendor, the king of Ghana presided over
elaborate ceremonies. To the people, he was a semidivine figure who
dispensed justice and kept order.
Now, more than 1,000
years later, the salt trade
still exists. As late as 1975,
workers in Taghaza (now
called Taoudenni) were
living in salt huts and
mining several thousand
tons of salt per year. Small
caravans of camels
carrying salt still arrive in
Timbuktu today.
Theme: Continuity and
Change Why are camels
still used in the salt trade
in today's technological
age?
In the second town of Kumbi Saleh, prosperous Muslim merchants from
north of the Sahara lived in luxurious stone buildings. Lured by the gold
wealth of Ghana, these merchants helped make Kumbi Saleh a bustling
center of trade.
Influence of Islam Muslim merchants, settled in their own communities
throughout the kingdom, brought their Islamic faith to Ghana. Islam spread
slowly at first. The king employed Muslims as counselors and officials,
gradually absorbing Muslim military technology and ideas about
government. Muslims also introduced their written language, coinage,
business methods, and styles of architecture. In time, a few city dwellers
adopted Islam, but most of the Soninke people continued to follow their
own traditional beliefs.
About 1050, the Almoravids (al mor uh veedz), pious Muslims of North
Africa, launched a campaign to spread their form of Islam. They eventually
overwhelmed Ghana, but were unable to maintain control over such a
distant land. In time, Ghana was swallowed up by a rising new power, the
West African kingdom of Mali.
*Ghana, meaning ruler, was the name used for the kingdom by Arab traders. The modern nation of Ghana is not located on the site of the ancient
kingdom, but lies several hundred miles to the south.
built powerful kingdoms.
The Kingdom of Mali
Amid the turmoil of Ghana's collapse, the Mandinka people on the upper Niger
suffered a bitter defeat by a rival leader. Their king and all but one of his sons
were executed. According to tradition, the survivor was Sundiata. By 1235, he had
crushed his enemies, won control of the gold trade routes, and founded the empire
of Mali.
Mali is an Arab version of the Mandinka word meaning “where the king dwells.”
The mansas, or kings, expanded their influence over both the gold-mining regions
to the south and the salt supplies of Taghaza. Where caravan routes crossed, towns
like Timbuktu mushroomed into great trading cities.
Sundiata
(?)–1255
During the early 1200s, a
tyrant named Sumanguru
ruled in western Africa.
According to legend,
Sumanguru feared a royal
Mandinka family. He killed 11
brothers in the family. But he
spared the life of one brother,
The greatest emperor of Mali was Mansa Musa (mahn sah moo sah), who came to
the throne in about 1312. He expanded Mali's borders westward to the Atlantic
Ocean and pushed northward to conquer many cities. During Mansa Musa's 25year reign, he worked to ensure peace and order in his empire. “There is complete
and general safety throughout the land,” commented Ibn Battuta when he visited
Mali. “The traveler here has no more reason to fear thieves than the man who stays
at home.”
Sundiata, who appeared to
be sickly and already near
death. Sundiata survived and
recruited an army. In 1235,
Sundiata defeated
Sumanguru and quickly
persuaded other Mandinka
chiefs to surrender to his
rule.
Mansa Musa converted to Islam and based his system of justice on the Quran. At
the same time, he did not adopt all customs associated with some nearby Muslim
History tells us that over the
societies. For example, women in Mali wore no veils and were not secluded within next two decades, Sundiata
expanded his power. He
the home.
In 1324, Mansa Musa fulfilled one of the Five Pillars of Islam by making the hajj,
or pilgrimage to Mecca. Through his pilgrimage, Mansa Musa showed his
devotion to Islam. He also forged new diplomatic and economic ties with other
Muslim states. The movement of wealth, people, and ideas increased Mali's
renown. By the 1400s, Timbuktu had become a leading center of learning. The
city drew some of the best scholars from all over the Muslim world.
founded the empire of Mali,
which lasted for 200 years.
Sundiata became a great
hero, and West Africans
have told stories about his
exploits for hundreds of
years.
Theme: Impact of the
IndividualWhy did West
Africans tell stories about
Sundiata long after his
death?
A New Empire in Songhai
In the 1400s, disputes over succession weakened Mali. Subject peoples broke
away, and the empire shriveled. By 1450, the wealthy trading city of Gao (gow)
had emerged as the capital of a new West African kingdom, Songhai (sawng
hī).
Songhai grew up on the bend of the Niger River in presentday Niger and Burkina Faso. Between 1464 and 1492, the soldier-king Sonni
Ali used his powerful army to forge the largest state that had ever existed in
West Africa. Sonni Ali brought trade routes and wealthy cities like Timbuktu
under his control. Unlike the rulers of Mali, he did not adopt the practices of
Islam. Instead, he followed traditional religious beliefs.
Two Great Leaders
Soon after Sonni Ali's death, though, the emperor Askia Muhammad set up a
Muslim dynasty. He further expanded the territory of Songhai and improved the
government. Askia Muhammad set up a bureaucracy with separate departments
for farming, the army, and the treasury.
Like Mansa Musa, Askia Muhammad made a pilgrimage to Mecca that led to
increased ties with the Muslim world. Scholars and poets from Muslim lands
flocked to his court at Gao. In towns and cities across Songhai, Askia
Muhammad built mosques and opened schools for the study of the Quran.
Invaders From the North Songhai prospered until about 1586, when disputes
over succession led to civil war. Soon after, the ruler of Morocco sent his
armies south to seize the West African gold mines. The invaders used
gunpowder weapons to defeat the disunited forces of Songhai.
Like the Almoravids in Ghana, however, the Moroccans were not able to rule
an empire across the Sahara. With the downfall of Songhai, this part of West
Africa splintered into many small kingdoms.
Other Kingdoms of West Africa
In the period from 500 to 1500, other kingdoms flourished in various parts of
West Africa. The fertile northern lands of modern-day Nigeria were home to
the Hausa people, who had probably migrated there when the Sahara dried
out. They were successful at both farming and trading.
By the 1300s, the Hausa had built a number of
clay-walled cities. While these city-states remained independent of one
another, in time they expanded into thriving commercial centers. In the cities,
cotton weavers and dyers, leatherworkers, and other artisans produced goods
for sale. Merchants traded with Arab and Berber caravans from north of the
Sahara. Hausa goods were sold as far away as North Africa and southern
Europe.
Walled City-States of the Hausa
Kano was the most prosperous Hausa city-state. Its walls, 14 miles in
circumference, protected a population of more than 30,000. Kano's greatest
king, Muhammad Rumfa, was a Muslim, as were many merchants and
officials. The Hausa developed a written language based on Arabic.
Many Hausa rulers were women, such as Amina of the city-state of Zaria. In
the 1500s, she conquered Kano and expanded the boundary of Zaria as far as
the Niger River. Under Amina, the Hausa came to dominate many Saharan
trade routes.
South of the savanna, Benin (beh nin) rose in the
rain forests of the Guinea coast. The forest peoples carved out farming
villages and traded pepper, ivory, and, later, slaves to their neighbors in the
savanna.
The Forest Kingdom of Benin
The rulers of Benin organized their kingdom in the 1300s, probably building
on the achievements of earlier forest cultures. An oba, or king, was both a
political and a religious leader. Still, much power was spread among other
figures, including the queen mother and a council of hereditary chiefs. A
three-mile-long wall surrounded the capital, Benin City. Its broad avenues
were dotted with tidy homes and a great palace.
The palace, in particular, was decorated with elaborate brass plaques and
sculptures. According to tradition, artisans from Ife (ee fay), an earlier forest
society, had taught the people of Benin how to cast bronze and brass. Benin
sculptors developed their own unique style for representing the human face
and form. Their works depicted warriors armed for battle, queen mothers with
upswept hairstyles, and the oba himself.
Looking Ahead
Later Benin bronzeworks showed helmeted and bearded Portuguese
merchants. These newcomers began to arrive in growing numbers in the
1500s. At first, Benin benefited from the new trade with European countries.
However, increasing contacts with Europe opened the door to a booming
slave trade that would have far-reaching consequences for all of West
Africa.
SECTION
3
Trade Routes of East Africa
Reading Focus
How did religion
influence the
development of Axum
and Ethiopia?
What effects did trade
have on city-states in
East Africa?
What have
archaeologists
discovered about Great
Zimbabwe?
Taking Notes
this table. As you read, fill in the columns
with trade goods from Africa, Asia, and Europe
and the Mediterranean that passed through the
markets of Axum and the East African coast.
Print out
Religion and trade played an important role in Ethiopia and East African
city-states.
Setting the Scene
According to Ethiopian tradition, the first emperor of Ethiopia was the son
of the Israelite king Solomon and Makeda, the queen of Sheba. An ancient
chronicle described how Makeda decided to journey to Jerusalem after
hearing of Solomon's wisdom. “Learning is better than treasures of silver
and gold,” she said. The queen spent six months at Solomon's court,
gathering knowledge to bring back to her people.
According to the chronicle, when Makeda was about to return to Sheba,
Solomon gave her a ring and a blessing:
“May the peace of God be with thee. While I was sleeping … I
had a vision. The sun which before my eyes was shining upon
Israel, moved away. It went and soared above Ethiopia. It
remained there. Who knows but that thy country may be blessed
because of thee? Above all keep the truth which I have brought
thee. Worship God.”
—The Glory of Kings
The kingdom of Ethiopia was proud of its ancient Jewish roots and
Christian traditions of Byzantine origin. In later centuries, other areas in
Africa were joining the Islamic world. Ethiopia, however, remained mainly
Christian and established the Coptic church.
Axum and Its Successors
About a.d. 350, as you will recall, King Ezana of Axum conquered and
absorbed the ancient Nile kingdom of Nubia. Located to the southeast of
Nubia, Axum extended from the mountains of present-day Ethiopia to the
sun-bleached shores of the Red Sea. The peoples of Axum were descended
from African farmers and from traders who brought Jewish religious
traditions through Arabia. This merging of cultures introduced another
religion to Axum. It also gave rise to a unique written and spoken
language, Geez.
The kingdom of Axum profited from the strategic location
of its two main cities, the port of Adulis on the Red Sea and the upland
capital city of Axum. From about 200 b.c. to a.d. 400, Axum commanded a
triangular trade network that connected Africa to India by way of the
Arabian Sea and to the Mediterranean world.
A Trade Network
From the interior of Africa, traders brought ivory, animal hides, rhinoceros
horns, and gold to the markets of Axum. Goods from farther south along
the African coast came to the harbor of Adulis. There, too, markets offered
iron, spices, precious stones, and cotton cloth from India and other lands
beyond the Indian Ocean. Ships bore these goods up the Red Sea, where
they collected linen cloth, brass, copper, iron tools, wine, and olive oil
from Europe and countries along the Mediterranean.
In these great centers of international trade,
Greek, Egyptian, Arab, and Jewish merchants mingled with traders from
Africa, India, and other regions. As elsewhere, ideas spread along with
goods. In the 300s, Axum's great king, Ezana, converted to Christianity. As
the new religion took hold among the people, Christian churches replaced
older temples.
The Spread of Christianity
At first, Christianity strengthened the ties between Axum, North Africa,
and the Mediterranean world. Axum's other African neighbors, however,
were not Christian. In the 600s, Islam began spreading across Africa. Many
African rulers embraced this new faith, creating strong cultural ties across
much of the continent. Axum was now isolated from its own trade
network—by distance from Europe and by religion from many former
trading partners. Civil war and economic decline combined to weaken
Axum, and the kingdom slowly declined.
Though Axum's political and economic power
faded, its cultural and religious influence did not vanish. This legacy
survived among the peoples of the interior uplands, in what today is
Ethiopia. Protected by rugged mountains, descendants of the Axumites
were able to maintain their independence for centuries. Their success was
due in part to the unifying power of their Coptic Christian faith, which
gave them a unique sense of identity and helped establish a culture distinct
from that of neighboring peoples.
Ethiopia, a Christian Outpost
During the reign of King Lalibela in the early 1200s, Christian monks built
a number of remarkable churches. They were carved into the solid rock of
the mountains. According to Ethiopian chronicles, the builders had divine
help:
“Angels joined the workers, the quarry men, the stone cutters,
and the laborers. The angels worked with them by day and by
themselves at night. The men … doubted whether the angels
were doing this work because they could not see them, but
Lalibela knew, because the angels, who understood his virtue,
did not hide from him.”
—The Ethiopian Royal Chronicles
Despite their isolation, Ethiopian Christians kept ties with the Holy Land.
Some made pilgrimages to Jerusalem. Ethiopians also were in touch with
Christian communities in Egypt. Still, Ethiopians saw their country as a
Christian outpost. Over time, Ethiopian Christians absorbed many local
customs. They adapted traditional East African drum music and dances that
are still used in church services today.
The kings of Ethiopia claimed descent from the Israelite king Solomon and
the queen of Sheba. This belief was recorded in an ancient Ethiopian book
called The Glory of Kings and reinforced by observing Jewish holidays and
dietary laws. One group of Ethiopians practiced Judaism rather than
Christianity. These Ethiopian Jews, known as the Falasha, survived in the
mountains of Ethiopia until recent years, when they were evacuated to
Israel during a famine.
East African City-States
While Axum declined, a string of commercial cities—including Kilwa,
Mogadishu, Mombasa, and Sofala—gradually rose along the East African
coast. Since ancient times, Phoenician, Greek, Roman, and Indian traders
had visited this coast. Under the protection of local African rulers, Arab
and Persian merchants set up Muslim communities beginning in the a.d.
600s. Later, Bantu-speaking peoples migrated into the region and adopted
Islam. Port cities, as well as offshore islands like Lamu and Zanzibar, were
ideally located for trade with Asia. As a result, Asian traders and
immigrants from as far away as Indonesia soon added to the rich cultural
mix.
Early mariners learned that the annual monsoon winds
could carry sailing ships northeast to India in summer and back to Africa in
winter. On the East African coast, rulers saw the advantages of trade. They
welcomed ships from Arabia, Persia, and China. Traders acquired ivory,
leopard skins, iron, copper, and gold from the interior of Africa, as well as
from coastal regions. From India, Southeast Asia, and China came cotton
cloth, silk, spices, porcelain, glassware, and swords. A thriving slave trade
also developed, sending captured people from the African interior to the
Middle East and beyond.
Growing Trade
Trade helped local rulers build strong city-states. A Muslim visitor
described Kilwa as “one of the most beautiful and well-constructed towns
in the world.” Its royal palace stands on cliffs that today overlook the
modern city. The complex of courtyards and large rooms runs for two
acres. Built of coral and cut stone, the structure is evidence of the city's
splendor.
International trade created a rich and varied mix of
cultures in the East African city-states. Bantu-speaking Africans, Arabs,
and other Middle Easterners mingled in the streets with people from
Southeast Asia, India, and China. With the spread of Islam, Middle Eastern
influences grew stronger. Marriages between African women and nonAfrican Muslim men furthered the spread of Muslim culture. An African
wife's traditional property rights allowed her husband to settle and own
land, creating opportunities for these non-African men. Their children
often gained positions of leadership.
A Blend of Cultures
Both private houses and palaces show strong Arab and Middle Eastern
influences in the East African cities. Additionally, the blend of cultures
gave rise to a new language. Known as Swahili, it fused many Arabic
words onto a Bantu base and was written in Arabic script.
Great Zimbabwe
To the south and inland from the coastal city-states, massive stone ruins
sprawl across rocky hilltops near the great bend in the Limpopo River. The
looming walls, great palace, and cone-shaped towers testify that these
structures were part of the powerful and prosperous capital of a great
inland empire. Today, these impressive ruins are known as Great
Zimbabwe, which means “great stone buildings.”
Europeans who came upon these ruins in the 1800s thought they were the
work of the ancient Phoenicians. In fact, the builders were a succession of
Bantu-speaking peoples who settled in the region between 900 and 1500.
The newcomers brought improved farming skills, iron, and mining
methods. On the relatively fertile land, they produced enough food to
support a growing population.
Economy and Government We know little about how this civilization
developed. Early settlers raised cattle. They built stone enclosures to
protect their livestock. In time, they improved their building methods and
erected large walls and palaces. The capital probably reached its height
about 1300. By then, it had tapped nearby gold resources and created
profitable commercial links with coastal cities like Sofala. Archaeologists
have found beads from India and porcelain from China, showing that Great
Zimbabwe was part of a trade network that reached across the Indian
Ocean.
Besides controlling trade, Zimbabwe was a center for manufacturing.
Artisans turned gold and copper into beautiful jewelry and made iron tools
for everyday use. Weaving cotton into cloth seems to have been an
important craft.
Very little is known about the government in Great Zimbabwe. Some
scholars have suggested, however, that the ruler was a god-king who
presided over a large court. He may have shared authority with a powerful
queen mother as well as nine queens, each of whom had her own court.
Below the king, a central bureaucracy may have ruled an inner ring of
provinces, while appointed governors had authority in more distant
villages.
By 1500, Zimbabwe was in decline. Some scholars suggest that
overfarming had exhausted the soil. In addition, civil war and dwindling
trade probably contributed to the breakup of Zimbabwe. By then,
Portuguese traders were pushing inland to find the source of gold that they
were able to buy in cities along the coast. They failed to discover the gold
mines, and their intrusion helped undermine later small states that formed
in the region.
Decline
SECTION
4
Many Peoples, Many Traditions
Reading Focus
Vocabulary
How did the interaction
of people and the
environment lead to
diverse societies?
How did government,
family, and religion hold
African societies
together?
How did artistic and
literary traditions reflect
the values of African
societies?
slash-and-burn
agriculture
nuclear family
patrilineal
matrilineal
lineage
griot
Taking Notes
As you read, prepare an outline of this section.
Use Roman numerals to indicate the major
headings of the section, capital letters for the
subheadings, and numbers for the supporting
details. Print out the sample to help get you
started.
The process of adapting to the land contributed to the development of
many different cultures in Africa.
Setting the Scene
At harvest time, the Kikuyu (kee koo yoo) people of East Africa offered
prayers of thanksgiving to their traditional gods. A modern writer recorded
one ancient prayer:
“Mwene-Nyaga, you who have brought us rain and have given
us good harvest, let people eat grain of this harvest calmly and
peacefully…. Guard us against illness of people or our herds
and flocks so that we may enjoy this season's harvest in
tranquility.”
—Jomo Kenyatta, Facing Mount Kenya
In West African mosques, Muslims recited a different prayer:
“Praise be to God, Lord of the Universe, the Compassionate,
the Merciful.”
Differing religious traditions contributed to the diversity of the vast
continent of Africa. At the same time, religious beliefs formed deep bonds
that united individual societies.
People and the Environment
Over thousands of years, Bantu-speaking peoples migrated across Africa.
With them, they carried farming skills and knowledge of ironworking to its
many regions. Wherever these people settled, they adapted to local
environments and absorbed ideas from the peoples they encountered. Trade
or other contacts brought additional changes. As a result, the ways of life of
African societies varied greatly from place to place.
Hunting and Food Gathering Bantu migrations pushed many hunting and
food-gathering peoples of Africa to fringe areas. The Khoisan people, for
example, adapted to the harsh conditions of the Kalahari Desert by
gathering roots and herbs and hunting small game.
Because food was scarce, hunting-gathering people lived in small bands
numbering only about 20 or 30. Their knowledge of the natural world,
however, was unmatched by city dwellers or farming villagers. They could
track animals across long distances and identify the food and healing
properties of many different plants.
In parts of the savanna free from the tsetse fly, some
peoples raised herds of cattle. Because grazing areas were limited, these
societies were often nomadic. To protect their herds against raiders, these
peoples perfected skills in warfare.
Herding and Fishing
Along the coasts and rivers, fish was the basic food for some people. Most
fishing peoples used nets. They traded any surplus fish for grain, animal
skins, and other products made by people who lived inland. Some fishing
areas had enough food resources to support large populations.
Farming communities raised a variety of crops
from grains to root crops like yams or tree crops like bananas. Most
farming peoples practiced a method that is today called slash-and-burn
agriculture. They cleared forest and brush land with iron axes and hoes,
then burned the remains, using the ash for fertilizer. Because the land lost
its fertility within a few years, villagers would move on to clear other land.
Eventually, after giving the soil time to renew its fertility, they might return
to the abandoned fields.
Settled Farming Societies
Sculpted panel of an African farming village
Forms of Village Government
Farming peoples generally lived in tightknit communities and helped one
another in tasks such as clearing the land, planting, and harvesting. Both
men and women planted, but they usually were responsible for different
crops. Political patterns varied, depending in part on the size of the
communities. However, village governments often had similar features.
In these pre-urban societies, power was usually shared
among a number of people rather than centralized in the hands of a single
leader. In some villages, a chief had a good deal of authority, but in many
others, elders made the major decisions. In some places, especially in parts
of West Africa, women took the dominant role in the marketplace or acted
as official peacemakers in the village.
Sharing Power
Villages often made decisions by a process known as consensus. In open
discussions, people whose opinions were valued voiced their views before
a general agreement was reached. The opinions of older women and men
usually held the greatest weight.
Villages within a large kingdom like that of Songhai had to obey decisions
made at a distant court. These villagers had to pay taxes and provide
soldiers to the central government.
The Kingdom of Kongo The kingdom of Kongo, which flourished about
1500 in central Africa, illustrates one of the many forms of government
organization in Africa. It consisted of many villages grouped into districts
and provinces and governed by officials appointed by the king. Each
village had its own chief, a man chosen on the basis of the descent of his
mother's family.
The king of Kongo might seem to have absolute power, but actually that
power was limited. The king was chosen by a board of electors and had to
govern according to traditional laws. Unlike rulers of West African states,
who maintained strong standing armies, kings of Kongo could only call
upon men to fight in times of need. Through local governors, the king
collected taxes either in goods or in cowrie shells, a common African
currency.
Family Patterns
In Africa, as elsewhere, the family was the basic unit of society. Patterns of
family life varied greatly. In hunting-and-gathering societies, for example,
the nuclear family was typical, with parents and children living and
working together as a unit. In other African communities, people lived in
joint families. Several generations shared the same complex of houses.
Lines of Descent Family organization varied in other ways. Some families
were patrilineal. In these families, important kinship ties and inheritance
were passed through the father's side. Other families were matrilineal, with
inheritance traced through the mother's side. In a patrilineal culture, a bride
would move to her husband's village to become part of his family. In a
matrilineal culture, the husband joined his wife's family.
Matrilineal cultures also forged strong ties between brothers and sisters.
Brothers were expected to protect their sisters, and sisters made their sons
available to help their brothers whenever needed.
Each family belonged to a lineage, or group of households who
claimed a common ancestor. Several lineages formed a clan that traced its
descent to an even more remote and often legendary ancestor. Belonging to
a particular family, lineage, or clan gave people a sense of community.
Wider Ties
An individual's place in society was also determined by a system of age
grades. An age grade included all girls or boys born in the same year. Each
age grade had particular responsibilities and privileges. In the older age
grades, children began to take part in village activities, which created
social ties beyond the family.
Religious Beliefs
Across Africa, religious beliefs were varied and complex. Like Hindus or
ancient Greeks and Romans, village Africans worshiped many gods and
goddesses. They identified the forces of nature with divine spirits and tried
to influence those forces through rituals and ceremonies.
Many African peoples believed that a single, unknowable supreme being
stood above all the other gods and goddesses. This supreme being was the
creator and ruler of the universe and was helped by the lesser spirits, who
were closer to the people. Like the Chinese, many African peoples believed
that the spirits of their ancestors could help, warn, or punish their
descendants on Earth. Just as Christians in medieval Europe called on the
saints, people in Africa turned to the spirits of their departed ancestors.
Christianity and Islam, as you have seen, influenced peoples in some parts
of Africa. Converts often associated the God of Christians and Muslims
with their traditional supreme being. In this way, Christianity and Islam
absorbed many local practices and beliefs.
Artistic and Literary Traditions
In art and architecture, African traditions extend far back in time to the
ancient rock paintings of the Sahara. The pyramids of Egypt and Nubia, the
rock churches of Ethiopia, and the palace of Great Zimbabwe bear lasting
witness to the creative power of these early civilizations. Sadly, many
wooden buildings and works of art have not survived.
Kente Cloth
African artists created works in ivory, wood, and bronze. Sometimes,
their work was decorative. Artisans wove and dyed cloth, inscribed jugs
and bowls, and shaped bracelets and neck ornaments simply for beauty.
Much art, though, served social and religious purposes.
Arts
Art strengthened bonds within the community and linked both the makers
and the users of the work. Patterns used to decorate textiles, baskets,
swords, and other objects had important meanings. Often, they identified
an object as the work of a particular clan or the possession of royalty.
In Africa, as elsewhere, much art was closely tied to religion. Statues and
other objects were used in religious ceremonies. In many rituals, leaders
wore impressively carved wooden masks decorated with cowrie shells or
grass. Once the mask was in place, both the wearer and the viewers could
feel the presence of the spiritual force it represented.
Literature African societies preserved their histories and values through
both oral and written literature. Ancient Egypt, Nubia, and Axum left
written records of their past. Later, Arabic provided a common written
language in parts of Africa influenced by Islam. African Muslim scholars
gathered in cities like Timbuktu and Kilwa as well as in North African
cities. Documents in Arabic offer invaluable evidence about law, religion,
and history.
Oral traditions date back many centuries. In West Africa, griots (gree ohs),
or professional poets, recited ancient stories. They preserved both histories
and traditional folk tales in the same way that the epics of Homer or Aryan
India were passed orally from generation to generation.
Histories praised the heroic deeds of famous ancestors or kings. Folk tales,
which blended fanciful stories with humor and sophisticated word play,
taught important moral lessons. Oral literature, like religion and art, thus
encouraged a sense of community and common values.
Centuries ago, the Asante
people of Ghana developed
a colorful, intricately
designed cloth called kente.
Once the apparel of Asante
royalty, today kente designs
represent the philosophy,
moral values, and code of
conduct in Ghanaian culture.
Some designs symbolize
good omens and spiritual
rebirth, while others may
represent family unity,
cooperation, or sharing.
In recent years, many
Americans have begun
wearing kente cloth as a
celebration of their African
heritage. Traditionally the
garb of joyous occasions,
imported kente is used in a
wide variety of items, from
shirts to neckties to
backpacks.