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PESTICIDAL PLANT LEAFLET
Aloe ferox Mill.
ROYAL BOTANIC GARDENS
Taxonomy and nomenclature
Family: Xanthorrhoeaceae (formerly Asphodelaceae)
Synonym(s): Aloe candelabrum A. Berger (1906)
Vernacular/ common names :
(English): Red aloe, bitter aloe, cape aloe
(French): Aloes du Cap
Distribution and habitat
A. ferox is indigenous to South Africa and Lesotho,
growing in the semi-arid open plains to rocky mountain
slopes. In Kenya it is commonly cultivated in Nairobi
gardens and its environs. It is distributed throughout the
tropics and sub tropics where it grows as an ornamental
or medicinal plant. It grows in a wide range of climatic
conditions, but abundant on arid, rocky hillsides up to
1000 m
altitude, where mean temperature ranges from
o
27-31 C and annual rainfall is 50-300 mm.
Uses
There are two main useful products obtained from A.
ferox. Aloe gel comes from the leaf parenchyma, the
white inner fleshy part. It drains from the leaf when cut
and is used for its cleansing, antiseptic, moisturizing
and anti-inflamatory properties. Aloe bitters, the dark
sap comes from between the green peel and the white
jelly and are used as a laxative and to treat arthritis.
A. ferox has more vitamins, minerals, amino acids and
polysaccharides than A. vera.
Insecticidal - It repels insects when planted as a live
fence. The leaf ash is also used as an insect repellent
and can be dusted onto stored maize or cowpea at
a concentration of about 5% w/w as reported for A.
marlothii.
Medicinal - In humans it regenerates injured nerves
and new skin cells, soothes sunburn, wounds, insect
bites, eczema, ringworm, rashes, acne, reduces pain
and swelling of arthritis and rheumatism and is used to
treat opthalmia and syphilis. In cattle, it is used to treat
jaundice, red water and expels worms.
Botanical description
A. ferox is a single-stemmed plant growing up to 2-5 m
tall. The crown is a dense rosette of green to red-brown
succulent leaves up to 1 m long and the stem is covered
in persistent dried leaves. Each leaf has brown spines
along the margins and often on the surfaces. The flowers
are bisexual, about 10 cylindrical racemes on a branched
panicle, long with dark orange stamens protruding from
the mouth. Some forms can have bright red, yellow or
white flowers.
Note: Always verify your plant specimen and deposit a
voucher in a verified herbarium.
Fruit and Seed description
Fruit is an ovoid capsule up to 3 cm long, many seeded.
The seeds are about 9 mm long, broadly winged. The
seeds storage of A. ferox is orthodox. The dry seeds
survive without significant reduction in their viability
and thus can be stored by long-term freezing.
Flowering and fruiting habit
In South Africa the striking flowers are seen in winter
from May to October.
Seed storage behaviour
Seed storage is orthodox. The seeds of A. ferox survive
being dried without significantly reducing their viability,
and are therefore amenable to long-term cold storage.
Growth and development
The flower morphology suggests pollination by birds
and honey bees. It is self-incompatible and only a
few flowers per raceme flower simultaneously. The
stamens produce pollen in the morning and wither in
the afternoon.
Propagation
A. ferox is easy to cultivate. It grows best in free draining
compost which should be soaked and allowed to dry
out between watering and light watering in winter. It
grows well in a cool/ warm glasshouse and put outside
in summer. It can be propagated by seed and planting of
the tops of old plants. It can also regenerate from root
and embryo tissue.
Harvesting
Harvesting of leaves is sustainable by cutting older
ones and leaving younger ones and growing tips. The
leaves are cut off transversely and exudates allowed to
drain for 4-5 hours. Squeezing the leaves by warm or
cold water retting will also drain the exudates. There
are more exudates in wet rather than dry months. The
gel is obtained by removing the outer tissues and/ or
by scraping it from the leaf blade cut lengthwise. Two
tonnes of A. ferox yield about 1 kg of gel powder, which
is higher than for A. vera.
Conservation status
Aloe ferox is common throughout its range in South
Africa. Most of the material used in commercial products
is wild-harvested; there are concerns that increasing
demands will threaten the sustainability of this resource.
Safety measure
Always use gloves, protective clothing and caution
when handling and applying plant materials to field
crops or stored commodities and minimise exposure
of consumers. Avoid contact with the skin. In case of
accidental contact, immediately wash the affected area
with clean running water.
Selected readings
www.kew.org.
www.sanbi.org/biodiversity/reddata.07/10/2009. www.database.prota.org.
www.seedaholic.com.
Grace, O.M., Simmonds, M.S.J., Smith, G.F. & Van
Wyk, A.E. (2009). Documented utility and biocultural
value of Aloe L. (Asphodelaceae): a review. Economic
Botany, 64, 167-178.
Achiano, K.A., Giliomee, J.H., Pringle, K.L. 1999. The
use of ash from Aloe marlothii Berger for the control
of maize weevil, Sitophilus zeamais Motschulsky
(Coleoptera: Curculionidae), in stored maize. African
Entomology, 7, 169-172 Fourie, J.J., Fourie, L. J., Horak, I. G. (2005). Efficacy
of orally administered powdered aloe juice (Aloe ferox)
against ticks on cattle and ticks and fleas on dogs. Jls.
Afri. Vet. Ass. 76 (4), 193-196.
Jellin, J.M., Gregory, P.J., et al. (2008). Pharmacist’s
Letter/Prescriber’s
Letter
Natural
Medicines
Comprehensive Database. 10th Ed. Therapeutic
Research Faculty, Stockton.
Reynolds, G.W. (1950). The Aloes of South Africa.
Aloes Book Fund, Johannesburg.
Threatened Species Programme (2009). South African
National Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria.
Authors: P. Anjarwalla, L. Mwaura, D. A. Ofori, R.
Jamnadass, P. C. Stevenson, P. Smith.
ISBN 978-92-9059-340-9
Pesticidal plant leaflets are a series of species wise extension leaflets on botanical pesticides. Leaflets are compiled from
existing literature and research available at the time of writing. In order to currently improve recommendations, ICRAF,
MSBP and the University of Greenwich encourage feedback from users and researchers who have experience with the
species. Comments, corrections, improvements and amendments will be incorporated into future edited leaflets.
Please write your comments to: [email protected] or [email protected]
PESTICIDAL PLANT LEAFLET
Dysphania ambrosioides L.
ROYAL BOTANIC GARDENS
Distribution and habitat
Taxonomy and nomenclature
It is found throughout the tropical and subtropical regions
of the world, but mostly polymorphic in South America.
It is found in a variety of disturbed habitats, gardens,
cultivated fields, waste ground but most often on sand
by rivers. Preferred altitude ranges between 550-1620
m. In Kenya, it is found in Tsavo East National Park, in
Nyeri, Limuru, Thika, Machakos and Laikipia.
Family: Chenopodiaceae
Synonym: Chenopodium ambrosioides (L.) Mosyakin
& Clemants
Vernacular/ common names:
(English): Wormseed, Mexican tea
(Maa): Ngaingunudero
(Kipsigis): Kibirosit
(Kamba): Muanzo/ Mwianzo
Uses
Pesticidal - Leaf decoction is used as a fumigant against
mosquitoes and flies and kills snails. Also used as a
fungi toxicant in post harvest grain protection. Added
to fertilizers to inhibit insect larvae. Oil used as postharvest grain protection as a fungi toxicant. Powdered
leaves can be added to stored grain at around 0.5%
w/w to control Bruchids in bean or up to 5% w/w for
the control of maize storage pests including Sitophilus
zeamais. Consumption of the leaf powder should be
avoided on account of the potential harmful effects of
the active ingredient ascaridole although this compound
is volatile and will naturally escape stored products.
Regular agitation of stored bags may help to reinvigorate
the effects of the plant material. Winnowing off plant
material before use will reduce risk.
Food - Leaves used as condiments in soups or tea.
Soaked and cooked seeds are consumed in moderation.
Medicinal - Tea drunk to expel parasitic worms from
the body of humans and livestock. Used as remedy for
stomach pains, used to clean haemorrhoids, detoxify
snakebites and other poisons, clean wounds. Oil used to
treat athletes foot and insect bites.
Photograph B T Wursten
Botanical description
D. ambrosioides is a hermaphroditic herb, usually
annual, up to 180 cm high, upright, much branched,
green. Leaves are mostly lanceolate (up to 4 cm long
and 1 cm wide) and toothed. Flowers are small, green, in
an elongated, dense, terminal cluster, petals none.
Note: Always verify your plant specimen and deposit a
voucher in a verified herbarium.
Fruits and seed description
The bracts of the fruits are green or brown, often
enclosed in infolded perianth. The fruit odour is strong,
the taste pungent and bitter. Seeds are horizontal or
vertical (rarely oblique), lenticular to subglobose, seed
coat black, brown or reddish brown, embryo annular
or horseshoe-shaped, surrounding copious farinaceous
perisperm.
Flowering and fruiting habit
In Kenya, it flowers in July-August and the fruits are
ripe in September.
Harvesting
The plant can be harvested by cutting the centre stem
first, to encourage bushing. The plant can be pruned
frequently to prevent flowering and assure continuing
supply of leaves. Plants are cut for oil or dried for liquid
extracts and powder. Leaves are also picked and used as
required fresh.
Propagation and cultivation
It grows easily in most soils but prefers sandy loam and
sunny dry zones and soil pH 5.2-8.3. Seeds germinate
easily when sown fresh. Germination rates are good and
seedlings appear within a few days of sowing the seed.
Safety measure
Always use gloves, protective clothing and caution
when handling and applying plant materials to field
crops or stored commodities and minimise exposure
of consumers. Avoid contact with the skin. In case of
accidental contact, immediately wash the affected area
with clean running water
Caution: This plant can be invasive
Selected readings
USDA Plants database. (http://plants.usda.gov).
Hammouda, F.M., Ismail, S.I., Abdel-Azim N.S., Shams
K.A. and Batanouny K.H., (2005). A Guide to Medicinal
Plants in North Africa. IUCN Centre for Mediterranean
Cooperation, Malaga, Spain.
Tapondjou, L.A., Adler, C.; Bouda, H. & Fontem,
D.A. (2002). Efficacy of powder and essential oil from
Chenopodium ambrosioides leaves as post-harvest grain
protectants against six-stored product beetle. Journal of
stored products research, 38, 395-402.
Selase, A.G. & Getu, E. (2009). Evaluation of botanical
plants powders against Zabrotes haricot beans under
laboratory condition. African journal of Agricultural
Research, 4 (10), 1073-1079.
Sousa, Z.L., de Oliveira, F., da Conceiçã, A., Alberto,
L., Silva ,M., Rossi, M., da S Santos, J. and Andrioli,
J.(2012). Biological activities of extracts from
Chenopodium ambrosioides lineu and Kiel meyera
neglecta saddi. Annals of Clinical microbiology and
antimicrobials, 11, 20.
Raintree’s Tropical Plant Database. (rain-tree.com).
Authors: P. Anjarwalla, D. A. Ofori, R. Jamnadass, P. C.
Stevenson, P. Smith.
ISBN 978-92-9059-341-6
Pesticidal plant leaflets are a series of species wise extension leaflets on botanical pesticides. Leaflets are compiled from
existing literature and research available at the time of writing. In order to currently improve recommendations, ICRAF,
MSBP and the University of Greenwich encourage feedback from users and researchers who have experience with the
species. Comments, corrections, improvements and amendments will be incorporated into future edited leaflets.
Please write your comments to: [email protected] or [email protected]
PESTICIDAL PLANT LEAFLET
Euphorbia tirucalli
ROYAL BOTANIC GARDENS
Taxonomy and nomenclature
Family: Euphorbiaceae
Vernacular/ common names :
(English): Firesticks plants, Naked lady, Pencil tree,
Milk bush
(Maa): Oloilei
(Kipsigis): Lechuangit
(Kamba): Ndau
(Swahili): Mtupa mwitu, Mwasi, Utupa
Distribution and habitat
E. tirucalli is the most widespread of all the Euphorbia
species. It is native in Angola, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya,
Malawi, Mauritius, Rwanda, Senegal, Sudan, Tanzania,
Uganda, and Zanzibar and can survive in a wide range
of habitats. It can grow in tropical arid areas with low
rainfall, on poor eroded soils, saline soils and high
altitudes up to 2000 m but cannot survive frost. It grows
wild, often in abandoned sites of homesteads. In Kenya
for instance, it is found in Ruaka on the highway to
Thikka and in Jilore forest station in Kilifi, in Baringo,
Sigor, Makueni and Kitui.
Uses
Pesticidal uses - The plant’s latex can be used against
aphids, mosquitoes, some bacteria and molluscs.
However it is also toxic, due to phorbol based
diterpenoids causing severe irritation from contact,
emesis and purgation from ingestion.
Used as a hunter’s tool in local fishing and arrow
poisoning in tropical Africa. Dose-dependant latex
toxicity to parasitic nematodes such as Haplolaimus
indicus, Helicolylenchus indicus and Tylenchus filiformis
in vitro.
Medicinal uses - In east Africa, latex used against sexual
impotence, warts, epilepsy, toothache, hemorrhoids,
snake bites, extraction of ecto-parasites and cough. In
Malaysia, a poultice of roots and stems can be applied
to nose ulceration, haemorrhoids and swellings. In
India, it is a remedy for spleen enlargement, asthma,
dropsy, leprosy, biliousness, leucorrhea, dyspepsia,
jaundice, colic, tumours and bladder stones. Branch and
root decoction used for colic. Ashes applied on open
abscesses.
Use as an energy source - Latex of E. tirucalli is
composed of petroleum-like hydrocarbons, largely
C30 triterpenoids which on cracking yield high octane
gasoline. Potential source of biodiesel as high biomass
and growth in marginal areas unfit for other crops. Ease
of fermentation implies potential source of methane and
biogas. Can be used as compost, charcoal and fuelwood,
particularly in semi-arid areas devoid of forests and
due to its fast growth rate, high productivity and quick
acclimatization to an area and ease of drying.
Fruit and Seed description
Use for rubber - It contains hydrocarbon polymers which
can be used for manufacturing of rubber substitutes.
Its latex is an emulsion of terpenes and resins in
water, which can easily be transformed into rubber at
low cost. Used at the east African coast in local gum
manufacture, for fastening knife blades to wood handles
and spearheads to shafts. Can be used as wood-based
glue and adhesives.
Propagation
Use in conservation and Agroforestry - Its favourable
feature of drought resistance makes E. tirucalli a good
species to use in semi-arid areas for afforestation and
reforestation for soil conservation- Success in Tanzania,
Kenya and Sri Lanka. Used as hedge plant owing to
the irritant properties of the latex to potential invasive
animals of homesteads and fields, as an intercrop, as
boundary demarcation and as a windbreak.
Use as ornamental - Popular as ornamental plants in
pots or in lawns rendering favourable trade.
Botanical description
It is a deciduous shrub or small tree which can reach
4-12 m high with brittle, succulent branches 7 mm
thick, often in whorls, green with whitish latex. Leaves
are few, fleshy and linear-lanceolate, 1.5-2 mm, present
only at tip of branchlets. Cymes 2-6, congested at apices
of branchlets, forking 2-4 times producing cluster
of cyathia developing only male flowers, sometimes
female.
Note: Always verify your plant specimen and deposit a
voucher in a verified herbarium.
Fruit a glabrescent capsule, exerted on a tomentose
pedicel to 1 cm long, subglobose, 8 x 8.5 mm. Seed
ovoid, 3.5 x 2.8 mm, smooth, buff speckled with brown
and dark brown ventral line; caruncle 1 mm across.
Stem cuttings grow fast forming dense bushes which
become naturalized and forms a small tree. Seed
germination is epigeous.
Safety measure
Always use gloves, protective clothing and caution
when handling and applying plant materials to field
crops or stored commodities and minimise exposure
of consumers. Avoid contact with the skin. In case of
accidental contact, immediately wash the affected area
with clean running water.
Selected readings
www.nri.org/projects/adappt.
Orwa et. al., 2009, world agroforestry database.
Mwine Tedson Julius, PhD thesis, 2011- Evaluation
of pesticidal properties of Euphorbia tirucalli L.
(Euphorbiaceae) against selected pests. University of
Gent.
Authors: P. Anjarwalla, L. Mwaura, D. A. Ofori, R.
Jamnadass, P. C. Stevenson, P. Smith.
ISBN 978-92-9059-342-3
Pesticidal plant leaflets are a series of species wise extension leaflets on botanical pesticides. Leaflets are compiled from
existing literature and research available at the time of writing. In order to currently improve recommendations, ICRAF,
MSBP and the University of Greenwich encourage feedback from users and researchers who have experience with the
species. Comments, corrections, improvements and amendments will be incorporated into future edited leaflets.
Please write your comments to: [email protected] or [email protected]
PESTICIDAL PLANT LEAFLET
Solanum incanum L.
ROYAL BOTANIC GARDENS
Taxonomy and nomenclature
Family: Solanaceae.
Synonym: Solanum panduriforme E.Mey, Solanum
bojeri Dunal, Solanum campylacanthum Hochst,
Solanum delagoense Dunal, Solanum lichtensteinii Willd,
Vernacular/common names: (English) Bitter apple,
snake apple, Sodom apple, thorn apple (Ndebele) Intume,
umdulukwa Munhomboro (Shona) Munhundurwa.
Distribution and habitat
Solanum incanum is abundant and common as a
weed, around houses, in overgrazed grassland and on
roadsides. It is also found at forest edges and in bushland
and grassland, from sea-level up to 2500 m altitude. It is
considered an indicator for low-fertility soils.
Uses
Pesticidal - S. incanum is effective for control of cattle
ticks when used as water extracted concoction. The
whole dry ripe fruits are crushed and extracted in water
at 5% w/v for 24 h and this is then sprayed onto cattle
(5L/animal). However it has shown acute toxicity when
applied at high concentrations so users need to wear
appropriate protective clothing, gloves and face mask
when applying.
Botanical description
Solanum incanum is a herb or soft wooded shrub up
to 1.8 m in height with spines on the stem, /stalks and
calyces and with velvet hairs on the leaves. Flowers pale
to deep blue, mauve or purple. The leaves are alternate,
egg-shaped in outline with broad end at base (ovate)
with slightly wavy margins (especially on young leaves),
with a grey-green upper surface and a green-white lower
surface.
Note: Always verify your plant specimen and deposit a
voucher in a verified herbarium.
Medicinal - The fruit of S. incanum are used in Kenya
for treatment of skin mycotic infections.
Fruit and Seed description
Other - The leaves and stems are used in compost.
Fruit are mottled or striped green and light green, yellow
when ripe.
Seed: On average, there are 131,000 seeds/kg, depending
on the provenance and the climatic conditions.
Flowering and fruiting habit
The flowers are often borne in the leaf axils, sometimes
solitary or in clusters of a few flowers. The yellow or
white calyx is fused, the purple corolla regular, bell- or
wheel shaped with 5 stamens. The globular fruits are
yellow at the beginning, becoming black later on. In
Kenya, the species flowers from November to March.
Harvesting and extraction of seeds
Ripe yellow fruits are hand collected from the tree
branches using secateurs.o Fruits
are dried under shade
o
at a temperature of 30 C-35 C for two days. Seed
extraction is done as soon as the fruit turns brown. Fruits
are squeezed between the fingers, crushed and seeds
removed, the seeds are washed in running water to clear
off the pulp and spread on open trays to dry for two to
three days.
Storage and viability
Seed storage behaviour is orthodox; viability can be
maintained
for over 1 year in air-dry hermetic storage at
o
5 C at a moisture content of 6-8%.
Propagation and pre-treatment
Ideally, the seeds should be soaked for 24 hours before
sowing as this will increase germination rate to above
75%. (unpublished data, ICRAF 2012).
accidental contact, immediately wash the affected area
with clean running water.
Caution: This plant can be invasive.
Selected readings
Kamanula, J., Sileshi, G.W., Belmain, S.R., Sola P.,
Mvumi, B.M., Nyirenda, G.K., Nyirenda, S.P and
Stevenson, P.C. (2011). Farmers insect Pest management
practices and pesticidal plant use in the protection of
stored maize and beans in South Africa, Int. J. Pest
Manage, 57, 41-49.
Madzimure, J., Nyahangare, E.T., Hamudikuwanda,
H., Hove, T., Belmain, S.R., Stevenson, P.C., Mvumi,
B.M. (2013) Efficacy of Strychnos spinosa (Lam.) and
Solanum incanum L. aqueous fruit extracts against
cattle ticks. Tropical Animal Health and Production. (in
press).
Henderson, L. (2002). Problem plants in Ngorongoro
Conservation Area. Final Report to the NCAA.
Fukuhara, K. and Kubo, I. (1991). Isolation of steroidal
glycoalkaloids from Solanum incanum by two counter
current chromatographic methods. Phytochemistry
30(2), 685-687.
Safety measure
Always use gloves, protective clothing and caution
when handling and applying plant materials to field
crops or stored commodities and minimise exposure
of consumers. Avoid contact with the skin. In case of
Authors: L. Mwaura, P. Anjarwalla, D. A. Ofori, P. C.
Stevenson, P. Smith and R. Jamnadass.
ISBN 978-92-9059-343-0
Pesticidal plant leaflets are a series of species wise extension leaflets on botanical pesticides. Leaflets are compiled from
existing literature and research available at the time of writing. In order to currently improve recommendations, ICRAF,
MSBP and the University of Greenwich encourage feedback from users and researchers who have experience with the
species. Comments, corrections, improvements and amendments will be incorporated into future edited leaflets.
Please write your comments to: [email protected] or [email protected]
PESTICIDAL PLANT LEAFLET
Strychnos spinosa Lam.
ROYAL BOTANIC GARDENS
Taxonomy and nomenclature
Family: Loganiaceae
Vernacular/common names: (English): elephant orange,
kaffir orange, monkey ball, monkey orange, Natal
orange, spiny monkey ball, spiny monkey orange.
(Swahili): mtonga, mpapa.
edible and often sun dried as a food preserve. There is
no evidence of the occurrence of strychnine in the plant
although the chemistry of seeds has not been reported
so they should be avoided as they may be poisonous or
could have purgative effects.
Distribution and habitat
S. spinosa occurs in savannah forests all over tropical
Africa and grows in open woodland and riverine fringes.
Native: Ethiopia, Kenya, Madagascar, Mali, Mauritius,
Seychelles, Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia.
Exotic to: South Africa, United States of America.
The tree can be found growing singly in well-drained
soils. It is found in bushveld, riverine fringes, sand
forest and coastal bush from the Eastern Cape, to
Kwazulu-Natal, Mozambique and inland to Swaziland,
Zimbabwe, northern Botswana and northern Namibia,
north to tropical Africa. This tree prefers sandy soils and
grows fast in rocky areas. Prefers full sun and requires
moderate amount of water.
Uses
Pesticidal - S. spinosa is among plant species commonly
used as pesticides in Southern Africa. Aqueous extracts
of S. spinosa show potential as alternatives to synthetic
pesticides but little is known about their level of
toxicity. The unripe fruit pulp can be extracted and
diluted in water to about 10% w/v and after filtering
through muslin sprayed onto cattle (5L/animal).
Medicinal - Compounds from the tree have
been shown to have anti-trypanocidal activity.
Other uses - The wood can be used for general carpentry.
Timber from S. spinosa produces handles, fighting sticks
and hut poles. It is also used for carving. Dried fruit,
after the seeds are removed, are often used as soundingboxes for musical instruments such as the marimba.
They are also carved and sold as curios. The fruit is
Botanical description
S. spinosa is a small to medium sized, spiny deciduous
tree with leaves turning yellow in autumn. The canopy
is flattish and irregular and the tree is heavily branched.
Leaves simple, opposite, elliptic- ovate to almost
circular, 1.5-9 x 1.2-7.5 cm, light to dark green and
glossy at the base; veins pale green and curving along the
margin; apex tapering to rounded, sometimes notched;
base tapering, rounded or slightly lobed; margin entire,
inclined to be wavy; petiole 2-10 mm long.
Note: Always verify your plant specimen and deposit a
voucher in a verified herbarium.
Fruit and flower description
Fruit spherical, woody shelled, 5-12 cm in diameter,
deep yellow to yellow-brown when mature, contains
many tightly packed flat seeds surrounded by a fleshy,
edible covering pulp.
Flowers creamy green, up to 6 mm long, in compact
heads about 3.5-4 cm, terminal on short lateral twigs,
densely crowded together on short stalks about 10 mm
long (September-February/Spring - summer).
Conservation status
The species is not selected or highlighted as potential
taxa for conservation concern for detailed assessment
and hence given an automated status as Least Concern
in the red list of South African plants.
Safety measure
Always use gloves, protective clothing and caution
when handling and applying plant materials to field
crops or stored commodities and minimise exposure
of consumers. Avoid contact with the skin. In case of
accidental contact, immediately wash the affected area
with clean running water.
Selected readings
Fruit collection
Fruits are harvested when the color turns from green
to yellow brown. Harvesting is by cutting the branches
holding the fruit using a pair of secateurs. A canvas
could be spread on the ground to hold the fruits during
harvesting.
Processing and handling
After collection, fresh fruits are soaked in water to soften
the fresh pulp and are extracted by rubbing with hands
to remove the pulp; they are then squeezed to release
the seeds. Cleaned seeds are spread on open trays to dry
under-shade. These are about 1800 seeds/kg.
Propagation
The species can be regenerated from root suckers and
coppice or seeds. Seeds are soaked in hot water or the
hard coat is burned to facilitate and improve germination.
It can also be propagated vegetatively.
Madzimure, J., Nyahangare, E.T., Hamudikuwanda,
H., Hove, T., Belmain, S.R., Stevenson, P.C., Mvumi,
B.M. (2013) Efficacy of Strychnos spinosa (Lam.) and
Solanum incanum L. aqueous fruit extracts against
cattle ticks. Tropical Animal Health and Production. (in
press).
Nyahangare, E.T., Hove, T., Hamudikuwanda, H.,
Belmain, S.R., Stevenson, P.C., Mvumi, B.M. (2012)
Toxicity of the pesticidal plants Strychnos spinosa
Lam., Bobgunnia madagascariensis (Desv.) J.H.
Kirkbr. & Wiersama Vernonia amygdalina Del. and
Cissus quadrangularis L. in BALB/c mice, Journal of
Medicinal Plants Research. 6(13), 2674-2680.
Schmidt, E., Lötter, M. & McCleland, W. 2002. Trees
and shrubs of Mpumalanga and Kruger National Park.
Jacana, Johannesburg.
Authors: L. Mwaura, P. Anjarwalla, D. A. Ofori, R.
Jamnadass, P. Stevenson, and P. Smith.
Storage and viability
Seed storage behaviour is orthodox; long-term storage.
ISBN 978-92-9059-344-7
Pesticidal plant leaflets are a series of species wise extension leaflets on botanical pesticides. Leaflets are compiled from
existing literature and research available at the time of writing. In order to currently improve recommendations, ICRAF,
MSBP and the University of Greenwich encourage feedback from users and researchers who have experience with the
species. Comments, corrections, improvements and amendments will be incorporated into future edited leaflets.
Please write your comments to: [email protected] or [email protected]
PESTICIDAL PLANT LEAFLET
Tagetes minuta L.
ROYAL BOTANIC GARDENS
Taxonomy and nomenclature
Family: Asteraceae
Synonym (s): Tagetes glandulifera, Tagetes gladulosa
Vernacular/ common names :
(English): Mexican marigold, stinkweed, Khaki weed
(Maa): Ol’ bangi
(Kikuyu) : Mubangi
(Kamba) : Muvangi/ kivangi
(Luo) : Nyanjaga
(Luhya): Etakanyi
Other uses - Used in perfumery and as flavour in
beverages and food industry.
Distribution and habitat
It is an invasive weed on farms. Grows well in disturbed
areas and cultivated beds, usually found in maize farms.
Originally from South America but is now a widespread
weed in Africa, South Europe, South Asia and Australia.
In Kenya it is found in Nairobi, Taita Hills, Voi-Nairobi
road, Kaimosi, Masai Mara, Gatundu, Gathiuru Forest
in Nyeri, Machakos.
Uses
Insecticidal - Powdered plants are effective against
maize and Mexican beans weevils when mixed with
grain but require relatively high concentrations. Plant
extract is effective against aphid Brevicoryne brassicae
and red spider mites in vegatables. Essential oil is used
against ticks. Decoctions show effective control of
intestinal parasites in domestic livestock. Secretions
from roots are effective against nematodes, worms,
insects, fungi and perennial weeds.
Medicinal - It is used to treat gastritis, indigestion and
intestinal worms. Externally it is used to treat skin
infections and haemorrhoids. The essential oil treats
fungal infections like athlete’s foot and boosts the
respiratory system. It has antimicrobial, antiphlogistic,
antiseptic, antispasmodic, cytophylactic, sedative,
emollient, fungicide and hypertensive properties.
Botanical description
Strongly scented annual herb with stiff erect stems up
to 2 m tall. Leaves stalked, opposite, light green, 7-15
cm long, pinnately dissected into 4-6 pairs of pinnae.
Leaflets lanceolate, margins finely serrate. Undersurface
of leaves bears sunken oil glands with liquorice-like
aroma when ruptured. Glands also present on the stems
and involucres bracts. Inflorescences terminal with
numerous tube-like capitula of dull yellow florets.
Note: Always verify your plant specimen and deposit a
voucher in a verified herbarium.
Fruit and Seed description
Black achenes, narrowly ellipsoid and hard seeds, 6-7
mm long, pilose, pappus of 1-2 setae to 3 mm long and
3-4 scales to 1 mm long with ciliate apex.
Flowering and fruiting habit
It flowers in February, June and November. The fruits
are available in December-January, March-April and
July-September.
Harvesting
Harvesting of seeds is done in February, May and
October. Harvesting of leaves and flower parts are done
above the ground where leaves and inflorescence are
desirable.
Processing and handling
Mature fruits, black-brown in colour, are removed from
stalks. Seeds are obtained by sieving dried fruits to
remove husks. One pod has several seeds.
Propagation and cultivation
Seeds germinate readily when sown fresh, without
treatment. Seeds are sprinkled directly on soil or only
just cover with soil. Germination takes place within one
week. Seedlings can also be transplanted to pots. Grows
well in disturbed areas, in heavy clay soils or sandy soils.
Safety measure
Always use gloves, protective clothing and caution
when handling and applying plant materials to field
crops or stored commodities and minimise exposure
of consumers. Avoid contact with the skin. In case of
accidental contact, immediately wash the affected area
with clean running water.
Caution: This plant can be invasive.
Selected readings
www.pfaf.org
Weaver, D.K., Zettler, J.L., Wells, C.D., et al. (1997)
Toxicity of fractionated and degraded Mexican marigold
floral extract to adult Sitophilus zeamais (Coleoptera:
curculionidae) Journal Of Economic Entomology, 90,
1678-1683.
Tomova, B.S., Waterhouse, J.S., Doberski, J. (2005)
The effect of fractionated Tagetes oil volatiles on aphid
reproduction. Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata,
115, 153-159.
Muzemu, S., Mvumi B.M., Nyirenda S.P.M., Sileshi,
G.W., Sola P., Kamanula J.F., Belmain S.R. & Stevenson
P.C. (2012). Pesticidal effects of indigenous plants
extracts against rape aphids and tomato red spider mites.
African Crop Sci Conf Proc, 10, 169 – 171.
Macedo, Iara T.F., Bevilaqua, Claudia M.L., de Oliveira,
Lorena M B et al., (2012) In vitro activity of Lantana
camara, Alpinia zerumbet, Mentha villosa and Tagetes
minuta decoctions on Haemonchus contortus eggs and
larvae Veterinary. Parasitology, 190, 504-509.
Tomova, B.S., Waterhouse, J.S., Doberski, J. (2005). The effect of fractionated Tagetes oil volatiles on aphid
reproduction . Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata,
115, 153-159.
Authors: D. A. Ofori, P. Anjarwalla, L. Mwaura, R.
Jamnadass, P. C. Stevenson and P. Smith.
ISBN 978-92-9059-345-4
Pesticidal plant leaflets are a series of species wise extension leaflets on botanical pesticides. Leaflets are compiled from
existing literature and research available at the time of writing. In order to currently improve recommendations, ICRAF,
MSBP and the University of Greenwich encourage feedback from users and researchers who have experience with the
species. Comments, corrections, improvements and amendments will be incorporated into future edited leaflets.
Please write your comments to: [email protected] or [email protected]
PESTICIDAL PLANT LEAFLET
Tephrosia vogelii Hook. f
ROYAL BOTANIC GARDENS
Taxonomy and nomenclature
Family: Fabaceae
Vernacular/common names: (English): fish bean, fishpoison bean, vogel’s tephrosia (Lao (Sino-Tibetan)): hu
kata (Swahili): kibaazi, kibazi, mibaazi, mtupa, utupa
wa kibaazi, utupa wa kingindo, utupa wa mrima.
Distribution and habitat
Tephrosia vogelii is native to tropical Africa. It is found
in widely varying habitats, including savanna-like
vegetation, grasslands, forest margins and shrublands,
waste lands and fallow fields. It occurs in climates
with annual rainfall of 850-2650
mm and annual mean
o
temperature of 12.5-26.2 C and is found up to 2100 m
altitude. It is encountered most abundantly where
cultivated.
Uses
Tephrosia vogelii is a known nitrogen-fixing species,
cultivated as green manure in Indonesia and many other
parts of Africa. It is also planted as a windbreak and as
a temporary shade crop. Crude extract from leaves of
Tephrosia vogelii is potentially used to control ticks and
worms in the Ugandan animal production systems. It
has also been used to control larval stages of mosquitoes
and is effective against soft bodied insects and mites
including aphids and red spider mites. Dried leaves
have the potential to protect stored legume seeds from
damage by the bruchids as used by farmers in Southern
Africa. For control of weevils (less effective) and grain
borer, mix 100-250 g powdered dry leaves to 100 kg of
beans or cowpea. Before eating beans, wash thoroughly.
Tephrosia vogelii plant extracts were once used as fish
poison but now many countries term this as illegal. To
make the insecticide, mix dry powdered leaves 10% w/v
in water containing 1% liquid soap for 24 hours. Dilute
5-10 times to give 1-2% concentration and spray in the
early evening to reduce exposure to sunlight and lessen
effects against beneficial insects.
Botanical description
Tephrosia vogelii is a soft, woody branching herb or small
tree with dense foliage, 0.5-4 m tall, with velutinous to
sericeous indumentum. Stems and branches tomentose
with long and short white or rusty-brown hairs. Leaves
arranged spirally, imparipinnate; stipules 10-22 x 3-3.5
mm, early caducous; rachis 5-25 cm long, 1.5-5 mm
long including petiolule; leaflets in 5-14 pairs, narrowly
elliptical to elliptical-oblanceolate, up to 7 x 2 cm, base
acute to obtuse, apex rounded to emarginate, venation
most distinct on lower surface, silky tomentose.
Inflorescence a terminal or axillary pseudo-raceme,
8-26 cm long, rusty tomentose; basal bracts leaf like,
peduncle stout, as long as pseudo-raceme; flower 18-26
mm long, fragrant when fresh, white, violet-purple or
blue; pedicel up to 23 mm long; bracteoles sometimes
present on calyx.
Note: Always verify your plant specimen and deposit a
voucher in a verified herbarium.
Fruit and Seed description
The pod is linear, slightly turgid, measuring 5.5-14 cm
x 0.8-1.8 cm, brown or green, woolly to sericeous and
6-18-seeded. The dark brown to black seed is ellipsoid
to kidney-shaped and measuring 5-7 mm x 3-5 mm.
Seedling is with epigeal germination. The cotyledons
are rather thin, leaf-like, green and long persistent,
where the first leaf is simple while the second is usually
3-foliolate.
Flowering and fruiting habit
The flowers are bisexual, borne in compact clusters.
The stigma is receptive when pollen is released, and
self-pollination occurs. Large carpenter bees (Xylocopa
brazilianorum) have been reported as principal
pollinators. Seed set is low.
Harvesting
Harvesting is done by shaking the branches and pulling
the pods with a hook in order to release them on canvas
spread on the ground.
Processing and handling
Pods should be dried in the sun for a few days, and
then threshed in a gunny bag by using a stick. After
extraction, the seeds are cleaned by sieving, winnowing
or using a mechanical blower. Cleaned seeds are dried
to moisture content between 6 and 10% prior to storage.
Propagation and pre-treatment
The seeds should be soaked in cold water for 24 hours
before sowing to enhance germination. For maximum
leaf yield sow 35,000 seeds per hectare.
Safety measure
Always use gloves, protective clothing and caution
when handling and applying plant materials to field
crops or stored commodities and minimise exposure
of consumers. Avoid contact with the skin. In case of
accidental contact, immediately wash the affected area
with clean running water.
Selected readings
Belmain, S.R., Amoah, B.A., Nyirenda, S.P., Kamanula,
J.F. and Stevenson, P.C. (2012) Highly variable insect
control efficacy of Tephrosia vogelii chemotypes.
Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 60(40),
10055–10063. Stevenson, P.C., Kite, G.C., Lewis, G.P., Nyirenda,
S.P., Forest, F., Belmain, S.R, Sileshi, G., and Veitch,
N.C. (2012) Distinct chemotypes of Tephrosia vogelii
and implications for their use in pest control and soil
enrichment. Phytochemistry, 78, 135-146.
World Agroforestry Centre: Species database.
Matovu, H. and Olila, D., (2007). Acaricidal Activity of
Tephrosia vogelii Extracts on Nymph and Adult Ticks.
International Journal of Tropical Medicine, 2: 83-88.
Storage and viability
Seed storage behavior is orthodox; viability can obe
maintained for several years in hermetic storage at 10 C.
Seed can also be stored for at least a year if kept dry and
insect free.
Authors: L. Mwaura, P.C. Stevenson, D.A. Ofori, P.
Anjarwalla, R. Jamnadass and P. Smith.
ISBN 978-92-9059-346-1
Pesticidal plant leaflets are a series of species wise extension leaflets on botanical pesticides. Leaflets are compiled from
existing literature and research available at the time of writing. In order to currently improve recommendations, ICRAF,
MSBP and the University of Greenwich encourage feedback from users and researchers who have experience with the
species. Comments, corrections, improvements and amendments will be incorporated into future edited leaflets.
Please write your comments to: [email protected] or [email protected]
PESTICIDAL PLANT LEAFLET
Tithonia diversifolia (Hemsley) A. Gray
ROYAL BOTANIC GARDENS
Taxonomy and nomenclature
Family: Asteraceae
Synonym: Mirasolia diversifolia Hemsl.
Vernacular/ common names:
(English): Mexican sunflower, tithonia, tree marigold
(Kisii): Amaua maroro
(Kikuyu): Maruru
(Kamba): Ilaa
(Luo): Maua makech, akech, maua madungo
(Luhya): Maua amalulu
Distribution and habitat
It is a common shrub on field boundaries, grasslands and
disturbed lands in East Africa. Initially introduced into
Kenya from Central America as an ornamental plant, it is
now found in Western and Central provinces, in coastal
regions and parts of Rift Valley. It grows in regions of
550-1950
m altitude and mean annual temperature of
o
15-31 C and mean annual rainfall of 100-2000 mm.
Uses
Pesticidal - Tithonia spp. are well known for
sesquiterpene lactones and diterpenoids – some of
which have biological activities against insects. Most
bioassays have been conducted using extracts so are
not specific about which compounds are responsible for
effects. In Uganda, farmers use it in field and storage
pest management although there is no published work
to report evidence for these effects.
Medicinal - Infusion suitable for constipation, stomach
pains, indigestion, sore throat, liver pains and to treat
malaria. Also reported activities as anti-inflammatory,
analgesic,
antimalarial,
antiviral,
antidiabetic,
antidiarrhoeal,
antimicrobial,
antispasmodic,
vasorelaxant and cancer-chemopreventive.
Fodder - Leaves, soft branches, flowers. Have high
nutritive-quality index.
Fuel - Firewood to farmers.
Botanical description
T. diversifolia is a woody herb or succulent shrub, 1.2-3
m tall. Opposite leaves (3-5), attenuate base, acute apex,
crenate margin. Leaf size is 5-17 x 5-12 cm, densely
pubescent beneath, palmate venation. Occasionally
upper leaves are unloaded.
Flowers are yellow, their ray size is 306 cm x 5-18 mm.
The flower heads are solitary on a peduncle 6-13 cm
long. Each mature stem may bear several flowers at the
top of branches.
The plant flowers and produces seeds throughout the
year. The light weight seeds can be dispersed by wind,
water and animals.
Note: Always verify your plant specimen and deposit a
voucher in a verified herbarium.
Seed description
The ‘seeds’ (achenes) are 4-8 mm long and topped with
a ring (pappus) of scales and two awns (about 5 mm
long). These ‘seeds’ are covered in close-lying hairs
(they are appressed pubescent), blackish in colour, and
are somewhat four-angled.
Flowering and fruiting habit
T. diversifolia flowers and produces seeds throughout
the year and at different times in its separate habitats
and mainly during the rainy seasons in east Africa.
Tithonia diversifolia is a prolific seeder which retains
its seeds until the plant dries in the dry season when the
seeds disperse and are spread by wind, water and the
movement of people, livestock and vehicles.
Propagation and cultivation
T. diversifolia can be propagated from seeds and cuttings.
Seeds germinate readily when sown fresh, without
treatment, all year round. Seeds are sprinkled directly
on soil or only just cover with soil. Stem cuttings of
20 to 40 cm length establish readily, regardless of the
angle at which they are inserted into the soil. Cuttings
buried horizontally in the soil will sprout, but they are
less effective than cuttings inserted either upright or at
an angle into soil. The cuttings should be planted into
moist soil immediately after collection and not allowed
to sun dry.
Safety measure
Always use gloves, protective clothing and caution
when handling and applying plant materials to field
crops or stored commodities and minimise exposure
of consumers. Avoid contact with the skin. In case of
accidental contact, immediately wash the affected area
with clean running water.
Selected readings
Adayo, F., Mukalama, J.B., Enyola, M. (1997). Using
Tithonia concoctions for termite control. ILEIA
Newsletter, 13. (4), p.24.
Gachengo, C.N., Palm, C.A., Jama, B. and Othieno, C.
(1999). Tithonia and senna green manures and inorganic
fertilizers as phosphorus sources for maize in Western
Kenya. Agroforestry Systems, 44, 21-36.
Chagas-Paula, D.A., Oliveira, R.B., Rocha, B.A.,
Da Costa, F.B. (2012). Ethnobotany, Chemistry, and
Biological Activities of the Genus Tithonia (Asteraceae).
Chemistry & Biodiversity, 9, 210-235.
Ambrosio, S.R., Arakawa, N.S. et al., (2008).
Constituents of glandular trichomes of Tithonia
diversifolia: Relationships to herbivory and antifeedant
activity Phytochemistry, 69, 2052-2060.
Mwine J.,Van Damne P., Kamoga G., Kadumba,
Nasuuna M., Jumba F. (2011). Ethnobotanical survey
of pesticidal plant used in South Uganda. Case study of
Masaka district. Journal of Medicinal Plants research.
5(7), 1155-1163.
Oyewole, I. O., Ibidapo, C. A., Moronkola, D.O., Oduola,
A. O., Adeoye, G. O., Anyasor, G. N. & Obansa, J. A.
(2008). Anti-malarial and repellent activities of TIthonia
diversifolia (Hemsl.) leaf extracts. Journal of Medicinal
Plants Research 2(8), 171-175.
Caution: This plant is invasive.
Authors: J. Kandungu, P. Anjarwalla, L. Mwaura, D. A.
Ofori, R. Jamnadass, P. C. Stevenson and P. Smith
ISBN 978-92-9059-347-8
Pesticidal plant leaflets are a series of species wise extension leaflets on botanical pesticides. Leaflets are compiled from
existing literature and research available at the time of writing. In order to currently improve recommendations, ICRAF,
MSBP and the University of Greenwich encourage feedback from users and researchers who have experience with the
species. Comments, corrections, improvements and amendments will be incorporated into future edited leaflets.
Please write your comments to: [email protected] or [email protected]
PESTICIDAL PLANT LEAFLET
Vernonia amygdalina Del.
ROYAL BOTANIC GARDENS
Taxonomy and nomenclature
Family: Asteraceae
Synonym: Gymnanthemum
Schultz-Bip.
Vernacular/ Common names:
(English): Bitter leaf
(Luhya): Lisabakhwa
(Luo): Olusia, Omoruroria
amygdalinum
(Del.)
Distribution and habitat
V. amygdalina occurs naturally along rivers and lakes, in
forests margins, woodland and grassland up to 2800 m
altitude, in regions where mean annual rainfall is 7502000 mm. It requires full sunlight and prefers humid
environment. It grows on all soil types but prefers
humus-rich soils. In Kenya, it is found at Kona national
reserve in Tana River district (420 m), in the eastern side
of Mbololo forest in Taita (1400 m), in Narok (2100 m),
in the Nguruman escarpment (900 m) and Ol Donyo
Orok (1400 m).
Uses
Insecticidal - Essential oil from the leaves is toxic to
Sitophilus zeamais while the activity against bruchids
suggests it is effective when mixed with Ocimum spp.
Food - Bitter leaf eaten as raw vegetables and cooked in
soups. Roots and twigs chewed as appetizer.
Medicinal - It is used as a medicine for relieving fevers,
stomach disorders, to treat hepatitis, malaria, bilharzias,
spots on skin and nausea.
Fodder - Leaves and shoots used as fodder.
Fuel - The tree is used for firewood and charcoal.
Apiculture - It produces very light honey.
Timber - The termite-resistant branches are used as
stakes to line plantations or live fence.
Botanical description
V. amygdalina is a small tree up to 10 m tall; bark
light grey or brown; fissured, brittle branches. Leaves
lanceolate oblong; up to 28 x 0 cm, but usually 10-15
x 4-5 cm. Leaf, medium to dark green, with or without
sparse hairs above, with fine, soft, pale hairs below and
conspicuous red-veining; apex and base tapering, base
always almost symmetric, margin entire or very finely
toothed; petiole usually very short but may be 1-2 cm
long. Flower heads thistle like, small, creamy white, 10
mm long, grouped in dense heads, axillary and terminal,
forming large flat clusters, 15 cm in diameter, sweetly
scented.
Note: Always verify your plant specimen and deposit a
voucher in a verified herbarium.
Fruit and Seed description
Fruit, a 10-ribbed achene, 1.5-3.5 mm long, pubescent
and glandular, brown to black, crowned by the
much longer pappus bristles; seedling with epigeal
germination.
Flowering and fruiting habit
Safety measure
The tree flowers between December and March and
in July-August. Fruits ripen in April-May and AugustSeptember. Flowers are bisexual.
Always use gloves, protective clothing and caution
when handling and applying plant materials to field
crops or stored commodities and minimise exposure
of consumers. Avoid contact with the skin. In case of
accidental contact, immediately wash the affected area
with clean running water.
Harvesting
During rainy seasons, harvesting is by cutting of the
leafy shoots allowing new shoots to grow, which can
then be harvested a few weeks later. During dry seasons,
only leaves are picked.
Processing and handling
Fresh mature fruits appear yellow
and oripen in various
o
sizes. Fruits are dried at 30 C to 35 C for three to
four days, when fruit turns to brown colour, seeds are
extracted by gently rubbing the fruit between fingers to
squeeze out the mucus like paste that cushions the seeds,
the seeds are then washed in running water to separate
seeds from the pulp. Clean seeds are placed on open tray
to dry under shade for a period of two to three days.
Propagation
Propagation is possible by seed collected from dry
flowerheads but mostly stem cuttings are used as they
grow faster. Cuttings are planted erect or slanted at 450
to obtain more side shoots. Seeds can be broadcasted on
nursery beds prepared of humus-rich soil, shaded from
excessive heat or sunlight with regular supply of water
to germinate. Seedlings can be transplanted 4-6 weeks
after emergence. Commercial farmers prefer to plant
new crop at the beginning of a season or after the second
year. It can also be micropropagated in vitro.
Caution: This plant is invasive.
Selected readings
FAO- Species database.
World Agroforestry Centre- Species database.
Grubben, G.J.H., Plant Resources of Tropical Africa
(PROTA).
Mugisha-Kamateresi, M., Deng, A.L., Ogendo, J.O.,
Omolo, E.O., Buyungo and Bett, P.K. (2008). Indigenous
knowledge of field insect pests and their management
around lake Victoria basin in Uganda. African Journal
of Environmental Science and Technology, 2 (8). 342348.
Katende, A.B. (1995). Useful trees and shrubs for
Uganda. Identification, Propagation and Management
for Agricultural and Pastoral Communities. Regional
Soil Conservation Unit (RSCU), Swedish International
Development Authority (SIDA).
Aswalam, E.S., Emosairue, S.O., Hassanali, A., (2008),
Essential oil of Ocimum grattisimum as sitophilous
zeamais protectant. African Journal of Biotechnology,
7, 2957-2962.
Authors: D. A. Ofori, P. Anjarwalla, R. Jamnadass, P. C.
Stevenson and P. Smith.
ISBN 978-92-9059-348-5
Pesticidal plant leaflets are a series of species wise extension leaflets on botanical pesticides. Leaflets are compiled from
existing literature and research available at the time of writing. In order to currently improve recommendations, ICRAF,
MSBP and the University of Greenwich encourage feedback from users and researchers who have experience with the
species. Comments, corrections, improvements and amendments will be incorporated into future edited leaflets.
Please write your comments to: [email protected] or [email protected]