Download ART HISTORY AP ETRUSCAN AND ROMAN ART • THE

ART HISTORY AP ETRUSCAN AND ROMAN ART
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THE ETRUSCANS o
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boot shaped Italian peninsula end of the Bronze Age (about 1000 BCE) central European people known as the Villanovans occupied the northern and western regions of the peninsula central area was home to a variety of people who spoke a closely related group of Italic languages (Latin), beginning about 750 BCE Etruscan, probably related to the Villanovans, later gained control of the area wealth came from fertile soil and an abundance of metal ore sailors and merchants artists know and drew inspiration from Greek and Near Eastern sources distinctive Etruscan style organized into a loose federation of a dozen cities height of their power about the 6th century Etruscan Architecture ƒ used the plans and post‐and‐lintel structure seen in Greece and elsewhere ƒ pattern of building was later adopted by the Romans ƒ cities laid out in a grid plan ƒ two main streets, east‐west and north‐south: intersection was towns business center ƒ created house‐shaped funerary urns, decorated the interiors of tombs to resemble houses ƒ central courtyards (atriums), pool or cistern fed by rainwater ƒ surrounded the cities ƒ city gate of Perugia called the Porta Augusta: tunnel like passageway between 2 huge towers, anticipated the Roman use of the round arch ƒ round arch was not an Etruscan or Roman invention, but the Etruscans and Romans were the first to make widespread use of arches and vaults ƒ unlike the corbel arch‐ round arch is formed by precisely cut, wedge‐shaped stone blocks called voussoirs ƒ decorative section is filled with a row of circular panels, or roundels, alternating with rectangular column like uprights called pilasters: effect reminiscent of the Greek Doric frieze Etruscan Temples and Their Decoration ƒ incorporated Greek deities and heroes into their pantheon ƒ divination to predict future events from the ancient Mesopotamians ƒ knowledge of temples’ appearance‐ Roman architect Vitruvius ƒ between 33 and 23 CE, Vitruvius compiled descriptions of Etruscan and Roman architecture • built on a platform called a podium • flight of steps leading up to a front porch • columns and entablature supported the section of roof that projected over the porch • plan was almost square • divided equally between porch and interior 3 rooms that probably housed cult statues • mud‐brick wall construction • columns and entablatures were made of wood or a quarried volcanic rock called tufa •
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• could resemble those of Greek Doric or Ionic orders ƒ Tuscan order: variation that resembled the Doric order, with an unfluted shaft and a simplified base, capital, and entablature • simple in form ƒ embellished with dazzling displays of painting and terra‐cotta sculpture ƒ temple roof, rather than the pediment, served as a base for large statue groups o Tomb Chambers ƒ Etruscan thought of tombs as homes for the dead ƒ tomb chambers were partially or entirely excavated below the ground ƒ were roofed over ƒ brightly colored painting of scenes of feasting, dancing, musical performances, athletic contests, hunting, fishing, and other pleasures decorated the tomb walls o Bronze Work ƒ large‐scale she‐wolf ƒ created items for both funerary and domestic use ƒ mirror=almost magical ƒ Calchas: accompanied the Greek army under Agamemnon to Troy ƒ Greeks, Etruscans, and Romans all believed that the appearance of animal entrails could reveal the future ƒ held in high regard by Roman patrons THE ROMANS o 509 BCE the Romans overthrew the kings and formed a republic centered in Rome o greatest extent: 2nd century CE o reached from the Euphrates River in the south and west Asia to Scotland o absorbed the peoples they conquered, they imposed on them a legal, administrative, and cultural structure that endured for some 5 centuries o Origins of Rome ƒ Romulus and Remus, twin sons of Mars ƒ Virgil (70‐19 BCE) in the Aeneid: Aeneas a Trojan who was the mortal son of Venus, escaped from Troy to the Italian peninsula ƒ fulfillment of a promise by Jupiter to Venus, were destined to rule the world ƒ Neolithic times, people settled in permanent villages on the plains of Latium, south of the Tiber o Roman Religion ƒ adopted the Greek gods and myths as well as Greek art and temple forms, beliefs, and practices into their state religion ƒ to the Greek pantheon they later added their own deified emperors ƒ many Romans adopted the more personal religious beliefs of the people they had conquered, the so‐called mystery religions • worship of Osiris from Egypt • Cybele (the Great Mother) from Anatolia • hero‐god Mithras from Persia • single and all powerful God of Judaism • Christianity from Palestine challenged the Roman establishment THE REPUBLIC o governed by kings and a advisory body: called the Senate o 2 classes: wealthy and powerful upper class (patricians) and lower class (plebeians) o
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oligarchy: a government by the aristocrats, lasted about 450 years 275 BCE: Rome controlled the entire Italian peninsula 146 BCE: defeated great rival Carthage Mid‐2nd century BCE: Rome had taken Macedonia and Greece 44 BCE: conquered most of Gaul (present day France) Egypt remained independent until Octavian defeated Mar Anthony and Cleopatra in the Battle of Actium in 31 BCE used Greek designs and Greek orders in their architecture stripped the Greek city of Corinth of its art treasure an shipped them back to Rome Sculpture During the Republic ƒ sought to create believable images based on careful observation of their surroundings ƒ render accurate and faithful portraits of individuals ƒ Roman ancestor veneration and the practice of making death masks of deceased relatives Architecture and Engineering ƒ had to satisfy the wishes of wealthy and politically powerful patrons as well as ordinary people ƒ Construction Techniques • round arch and vault • during the empire, concrete • invention to supply water was the aqueduct, built with arches using concrete o carried the water channel of an aqueduct across the river on a bridge of arches o water from springs 30 miles to the north using gravity flow o provided about 100 gallons of water a day for every person in Nimes o balance, proportion, rhythmic harmony o consideration of fitting into the landscape ƒ The Use of Concrete • innovation dates to about 1st century BCE • stone‐ expensive and difficult to quarry and transport • concrete‐ cheap, relatively light and easily transported • building stone structure required highly skilled mason, but a large, semi skilled work force directed by experienced supervisors could construct brick‐faced concrete buildings • concrete: powdered lime, sand (volcanic sand called pozzolana), various types of rubble (i.e. small rocks and broken pottery) • mixing in water, blended the materials which hardened as they dried into strong, solid masses • typically poured for foundations‐ became indispensable for the construction of walls, arches, and vaults for ever‐larger buildings • opus reticulatum‐ framework is a diagonal web of smallish bricks set in a cross pattern • freed the Romans from the limits of right‐angle forms and comparatively short spans • large and highly original spaces, many based on the curve • weakness: absorbed moisture • exposed surface was covered with a veneer (such as marble, stone, stucco, or painted plaster) • Greek building reveal the building materials itself, whereas Roman building show only the externally applied surface ƒ The Roman Temple • followed the pattern of Etruscan and Greek buildings •
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commercial centers as well as special sanctuaries small rectangular temple stands on its raised platform (podium) Julius Caesar emerged victorious over his rivals, assumed autocrative powers (ruled until his assassination 2 years later) THE EARLY EMPIRE 27 BCE‐96 CE ƒ 1ST Roman emperor was born Octavious, when he was 18 he was adopted as son and heir by his great‐uncle Julius Caesar ƒ general, politician, statesman and public relations genius ƒ vanquished warring internal faction and brought peace to provinces ƒ 27 BCE gained the title of Augustus (meaning exalted, or sacred) ƒ 12 CE was given the title Ponifex Maximus (High Priest) ƒ led the state and empire for nearly 60 years ƒ incomparable administrator who established efficient rule throughout the empire ƒ period of stability, internal peace, and economic prosperity known as the Pax Romanus, which lasted over 200 years ƒ died in 14 CE ƒ system of law, governmental and administrative structure and sophisticated civil engineering and architecture ƒ mandating the construction of central administrative and legal centers (forums and basilicas); recreational facilities (racetracks and stadiums), theaters, public baths, road, bridged, aqueducts, middle‐class housing and even entire ne towns ƒ Vitruvius described the accomplishments in the 10 Books of Architecture ƒ complex networks of bridges and roads to move their armies ƒ Augustan Art • new style‐ Roman form of idealism that is grounded in the appearance of the everyday world • portraiture in both official images and representation of private individuals • recorded contemporary historical events on arches, column, and mausoleums erected in public places • imperial propaganda ƒ The Julio‐Claudians • Augusts’ successor: Tiberius (ruled 14‐37 CE) • rule was marked by suspicion, intrigue and terror • dynasty ended with the reign of the Nero • Vespasian seized control of the government in 69 CE ƒ The Roman City and the Roman Home • tried to live a decent or even comfortable life with adequate shelter food, and clothing • liked to portray themselves as simple country fold • middle class: enjoyed gardens • wealthy city‐dwellers: maintained rural estates • emperors: had country villas • brought nature indoors by commissioning artists to paint landscapes on the interior all of their homes • Roman Cities o based the urban plan on the layout of the army camp grid design, but unlike Greek cities such as Miletos, 2 main street crossed at the center of the camp dividing it into quarters o apartment blocks: insulae ƒ internal courtyards, multiple floor joined by narrow staircases and occasionally overhanging balconies o women enjoyed a public life outside of the home= contrasts Greek life o emphasized the interior rather than the exterior in their domestic architecture The Roman House o small rooms laid out around one or two open courts o atrium: large space with a pool or cistern for catching rainwater o peristyle was a planted interior court enclosed by columns o formal reception room ƒ tablinim: office ƒ portrait busts of the family’s ancestors displayed o rooms arranged symmetrically The Urban Garden o beautifully designed and planted gardens ƒ fruit and nut bearing trees ƒ olive trees ƒ irregular rows o only the great luxury villas had the formal landscaping and topiary work o aqueducts‐ eliminated Pompeii’s dependence on wells and rainwater basins and allowed residents to add pools, fountains, and flowering plants o evidence of topiary work Wall Painting o interior walls ƒ plain smooth plaster surfaces with few architectural features ƒ pigments‐ solution of lime and soap, sometimes with a little wax ƒ polished the surfaces with metal, glass, or stone burnished ad then buffed the surface with a wet cloth o earliest paintings (200‐80 BCE) ƒ illusion of thin slabs of colored marble covering the walls ƒ by 80 BCE, shallow “stage” or with a landscape or cityscape. Architectural details such as columns were painted rather than made of molded plaster o Roman Realism o Elegant Fantasies ƒ later 1st century CE ƒ surfaces seem to dissolve behind columns and lintels ƒ visual effects, like the backdrops of a stage ƒ satyr: ½ man ½ goat follower of Bacchus ƒ intuitive perspective‐ architectural details follow diagonal lines that the eye interprets as parallel lines receding into the distance (objects meant to be perceived as far away from the surface are show slightly smaller than those intended to be close) o Roman Realism in Details o
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art include historical and mythological scenes, as well as still‐life and portrait domestic objects‐ still green peaches composition clarity and balance clear light floods‐ casting shadows and picking up highlights The Flavians • Julio‐Claudian dynasty ended with the suicide of Nero in 68 CE • Flavians: practical military men restored confidence and rule • Portrait Sculpture o continued to demand likeness in portraits THE HIGH IMPERIAL ART OF TRAJAN AND HADRIAN ƒ Domitian as assassinated in 96 CE • senator Nerva (96‐98) designated as his successor Trajan • Trajan was a general born in Spain and commander of troops in Germany ƒ Nerva (96‐96) ƒ Trajan (98‐117) ƒ Hadrian (117‐138) ƒ Anotninus Pius (138‐161) ƒ Marcus Aurelius (161‐180): only one to NOT designate an heir/”adopted” successor ƒ under their ruled, provinces flourished, and official and private patronage of the arts increased ƒ under Trajan‐ empire reached its greatest extent: 106 CE Romans conquered Dacia (present day Romania) ƒ imposed far reaching social, governmental, and military reforms ƒ new building programs and art patronage ƒ Commodus destroyed the government his predecessors built after assuming power from his father Aurelius ƒ Imperial Architecture ƒ Architecture Throughout the Empire • finished temple of Olympian Zeus • built a library, a stoa, and an aqueduct form the Athenians • defensive wall: Hadrian’s Wall o 73 miles long o stone and turf o symbolic as well as a physical boundary between Roman territory and the barbarian Picts and Scots to the north • Mosaics o covered the floors of fine houses, villas, and public buildings throughout the empire ƒ tesserae o fine mosaic image panels= emblemata ƒ set into a larger area already bordered by geometric patterns in mosaic o usually reflected purpose of the room • Sculpture o large, circular reliefs (roundels) o some reused on the Arch of Constantine ƒ demonstrates courage and physical prowess in a boar hunt ƒ confronting a bear and a lion o
ƒ piety and appreciation ƒ elements of natural landscape setting • Imperial Portraits THE LATE EMPIRE, 3RD AND 4TH CENTURIES ƒ reign of Commodus marked the beginning of a period of political and economic decline ƒ The Severan Dynasty • Severan emperors (193‐235) succeeded Commodus • Septimius Serverus (193‐211) born in Africa o restored public buildings, commissioned official portraits and made additions to the old Republican Forum o House of the Vestal Virgins o Geta and Caracall succeeded as co‐emperors (sons) Caracall murdered Geta • The Family of Septimius Severus o highly formal style of the Fayum region in northwestern Egypt o Geta was removed from all images o rather hard drawing style: broadly brushed‐in colors, contrasts rd
• 3 Century: Soldier Emperors o more than 2 dzn or so o Engraved Gold‐Glass ƒ turmoil ƒ emphasized the symbolic or general qualities of their subjects and expressed them in increasingly simplified geometric forms ƒ slightly idealized but realistic portraiture o Funerary Sculpture ƒ shift from cementation led to growing demand for funerary sculpture ƒ elegant marble sarcophagi o Constantine the Great and His Legacy ƒ 305 CE, Diocletian abdicated and forced his fellow Augustus Maximian to do the same ƒ western empire: Maximian’s son ƒ 312 Constantine defeated Maxentius at the Milvian Bridge at the entrance of Rome • flaming cross: “In this sign you shall conquer” • monogram XP placed on shields (chi, rho= Christos) • ended prosecution of the Christians: lawful religion • Edict of Milan (313) model of religious toleration o freedom to all religious groups • ruled as sole emperor until his death in 337 • port city of Byzantium the new Rome and renamed it Constantinople (Istanbul) ƒ Portraiture • imperial propaganda • colossal 30 ft statue of himself for his new basilica • marble head, chest, arms and legs • sheets of bronze for drapery • supported by a wooden frame o
• permanent stand‐in for the emperor • abstract qualities evident • heavy jaw, hooked nose and jutting chin • rigid, symmetrical pattern • eye, eyebrows • simplified into repeated geometric arcs • not hint of human fragility or imperfections Roman Art After Constantine ƒ baptized on his deathbed in 337 ƒ tried to revive Classical culture