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Gilgamesh, Writing and Civilization
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The Cradle of Human Civilization: Mesopotamia
Answer in your Notebooks:
1. How did the Sumerian culture address the challenges of the environment in
Mesopotamia?
2. What parts of the Epic of Gilgamesh foreshadow the Book of Genesis, which is written later?
3. One way to read the Epic of Gilgamesh is as a story of the civilizing process: Enkidu
initially represents the wilderness, the savage man, and he is tamed and civilized in the Epic. In
this reading, what qualities must a person possess to be civilized?
4. If the civilizing process begins with the seduction of Enkidu by the harlot, what does the narrative
suggest about the role of women in the civilizing process? Is there any basis for the idea that
women are more civilized than men, or is this a cultural prejudice based on different gender roles?
5. Based on a reading of the Epic of Gilgamesh, do you think it is possible to develop a
social scientific and historical concept of civilization which would be culturally neutral and
universally applicable, or do you think that ideas of civilization are necessarily culturally bound?
The Epic of Gilgamesh
From The Epic of Gilgamesh, N. K. Sandars, editor. (New York: Penguin Books, 1972. pp. 61-65.
67-69. 85-86, 89, 108-111. 116-17.)
Gilgamesh, the semi-legendary Sumerian king who ruled the city of Uruk around 2700 B.C., is the
subject of the world's first great epic poem. Gilgamesh was a roguish king whose lusty appetites were
resented by his subjects, who prayed for a deliverer. To punish Gilgamesh for his sins, the gods created
the uncivilized Enkidu and sent him to chastise Gilgamesh and spare Uruk further harm. But instead of
becoming mortal enemies, Gilgamesh and Enkidu became fast friends and set off together on a series of
adventures, detailed in the first half of this epic.
Their first adventure is to secure timber from the distant Cedar Forest, which is guarded by the ogre
Humbaba, whom they must kill. Upon their return to Uruk, the fierce lshtar, goddess of love, tries to
entice Gilgamesh into marriage; however, because Gilgarnesh and Enkidu spurn lshtar, she sends
down the Bull of Heaven to punish them. Gilgamesh and Enkidu kill this creature, thereby angering
the powerful Enlil, king of the gods, who takes his revenge by killing Enkidu. King Gilgamesh is
devastated by his friend's death and laments humanity's fate.
The second half of the epic is devoted to Gilgamesh's quest for the secret of life. He descends into the
Netherworld in search of Utnapishtim, to whom the gods had granted immortality and from whom he
hopes to learn the key to life. When the two meet, Utnapishtim introduces Gilgamesh to the story of
the Great Flood, which had killed all life save for Utnapishtim, his family, and the animals he had
placed in his great ship. At the end of the Flood tale, Utnapishtim tells Gilgamesh of a certain Plant
of Life that can give immortality. Gilgamesh is able to retrieve this plant and bring it back to the
living; yet his hopes are dashed when it is eaten by a snake. At the end of the poem, Gilgamesh can
only lament the human fate, old age and death.
I will proclaim to the world the deeds of Gilgamesh. This was the man to whom all things were
known; this was the king who knew the countries of the world, he was wise, he saw mysteries and
knew secret things, he brought us a tale of the days before the flood. He went on a long journey, was
weary, worn out with labor, returning he rested, he engraved on a stone the whole story.
When the gods created Gilgamesh they gave him a perfect body. Shamash the glorious sun endowed
him with beauty. Adad the god of the storm endowed him with courage, the great gods made his
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beauty perfect, surpassing all others, terrifying like a great wild bull. Two thirds they made him god
and one third man.
In Uruk he built walls, a great rampart, and the temple of blessed Eanna for the god of the firmament
Anu, and for Ishtar the goddess of love...
The Coming of Enkidu
Gilgarnesh went abroad in the world, but he met with none who could withstand his arms till he came
to Uruk. But the men of Uruk muttered in their houses, "Gilgamesh sounds the tocsin for his
amusement, his arrogance has no bounds by day or night. No son is left with his father, for
Gilgamesh takes them all, even the children; yet the king should be a shepherd to his people. His lust
leaves no virgin to her lover, neither the warrior's daughter nor the wife of the noble; vet this is the
shepherd of the city, wise, comely, and resolute."
The gods heard their lament, the gods of heaven cried to the Lord of Uruk, to Anu the god of Uruk...
When Anti had heard their lamentation the gods cried to Aruru, the goddess of creation, "You made
him, () Aruru, now create his equal: let it be as like him as his own reflection, his second self, stormv
heart for stormy heart. Let them contend together and leave Uruk in quiet."
So the goddess conceived an image in her mind, and it was of the stuff of Anu of the firmament. She
dipped her hands in water and pinched off clay, she let it fall in the wilderness, and noble Enkidu was
created. There was virtue in him of the god of war, oNinurta himself. His body was rough, he had long
hair like a woman's; it waved like the hair of Nisaba, the goddess of corn. His body was covered with
matted hair like Samuqan‘s the god of cattle. He was innocent of mankind; he knew nothing of the
cultivated land.
Enkidu ate grass in the hills with the gazelle and lurked with wild beasts at the water- holes; he had
joy of the water with the herds of wild game. But there was a trapper who met him one day face to
face at the drinking-hole, for the wild game had entered his territory. On three days he met him face
to face, and the trapper was frozen with fear. He went back to his house with the game that he had
caught, and he was dumb, benumbed with terror. His face was altered like that of one who has made a
long journey...
So the trapper set out on his journey to Uruk and addressed himself to Gilgamesh saving, "A man
unlike any other is roaming now in the pastures: he is as strong as a star from heaven and I am afraid
to approach him. He helps the wild game to escape; he fills in my pits and pulls up my traps."
Gilgamesh said, "Trapper, go back, take with you a harlot, a child of pleasure. At the drinking-hole
she will strip, and when he sees her beckoning he will embrace her and the game of the wilderness
will surely reject him."
Now the trapper returned, taking the harlot with him. After a three days journey they came to the
drinking-hole, and there they sat down; the harlot and the trapper sat facing one another and waited for
the game to come. For the first day and for the second day the two sat waiting, but on the third day the
herds came; they came down to drink and Enkidu was with them. The small wild creatures of the
plains were glad of the water,
and Enkidu with them, who ate grass with the gazelle and was born in the hills: and she saw him, the
savage man, come from far-off in the hills. The trapper spoke to her: "There he is. Now, woman,
make your breasts bare, have no shame, do not delay but welcome his love. Let him see you naked, let
him possess your body. When he comes near uncover yourself and lie with him: teach him, the savage
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man, your woman's art, for when he murmurs love to you the wild beasts that shared his life in the
hills will reject him."
She was not ashamed to take him, she made herself naked and welcomed his eagerness: as he lay on
her murmuring love she taught him the woman's art. For six days and seven nights they lay together,
for Enkidu had forgotten his home in the hills; but when he was satisfied he went back to the wild
beasts. Then, when the gazelle saw him, they bolted away; when the wild creatures saw him they fled.
Enkidu would have followed, but his body was bound as though with a cord, his knees gave way
when he started to run, his swiftness was gone. And now the wild creatures had all fled away; Enkidu
was grown weak, for wisdom was in him, and the thoughts of a man were in his heart. So he returned
and sat down at the woman‘s feet, and listened intently to what she said, "You are wise, Enkidu, and
now you have become like a god. Why do you want to run wild with the beasts in the hills? Come
with me. I will take you to strong walled Uruk, to the blessed temple of Ishtar and of Ann, of love and
heaven; there Gilgamesh lives, who is very strong, and like a wild bull he lords it over men."
And now she said to Enkidu ―When I look at you you have become like a god. Why do you yearn to
run wild again with the beasts in the hills? Get up from the ground, the bed of a shepherd." He listened
to her words with care. It was good advice that she gave. She divided her clothing in two and with the
one half she clothed him and with the other herself: and holding his hand she led him like a child to
the sheepfolds, into the shepherds' tents. There all the shepherds crowded round to see him, they put
down bread in front of him, but Enkidu could only suck the milk of wild animals. He fumbled and
gaped, at a loss what to do or how he should eat the bread and drink the strong wine. Then the woman
said, "Enkidu eat bread, it is the staff of life; drink the wine, it is the custom of the land." So he ate till
he was full and drank strong wine, seven goblets. He became merry, his heart exulted and his face
shone. He rubbed down the matted hair of his body and anointed himself with oil. Enkidu had become
a man: but when lie had put on man's clothing he appeared like a bridegroom.
Now Enkidu strode in front and the woman followed behind. He entered Uruk that great market, and
all the folk thronged round him where he stood in the street in strong-walled Uruk. The people jostled;
speaking of him they said, "He is the spit of Gilgamesh." "He is shorter." "He is bigger of bone." "This
is the one who was reared on the milk of wild beasts. His is the greatest strength." The men rejoiced:
―Now Gilgamesh has met his match. This great one, this hero whose beauty is like a god, he is a match
even for Gilgamesh."
In Uruk the bridal bed was made, fit for the goddess of love. The bride waited for the bridegroom,
but in the night Gilgamesh got up and came to the house. Then Enkidu stepped out, he stood in the
street and blocked the way. Mighty Gilgamesh came on and Enkidu met him at the gate. He put
out his foot and prevented Gilgamesh from entering the house, so they grappled, holding each
other like bulls. They broke the doorposts and the walls shook. Gilgamesh bent his knee with his
foot planted on the ground and with a turn Enkidu was thrown. Then immediately his fury died.
When Eukidu was thrown he said to Gilgamesh, "There is not another like you in the world.
Ninsun, who is as strong as a wild ox in the byre, she was the mother who bore you, and now you
are raised above all men, and Enlil has given you the kingship, for your
strength surpasses the strength of men." So Enkidu and Gilgamesh embraced and their friendship was
sealed.
[After they had become good friends, Gilgamesh and Enkidu set out for the Cedar Forest
(possibly southern Turkey or Phoenicia) in order to secure wood for the city. Before they got to
the wood, however, they had to kill a fire-breathing ogre called Humbaba. Succeeding in this
mission, they returned to Uruk, where Gilgamesh was offered marriage by the goddess of love,
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Ishtar (or Inanna).]
Gilgamesh opened his mouth and answered glorious Ishtar, ―If I take you in marriage, what gifts can I
give in return? What ointments and clothing for your body? I would gladly give you bread and all
sorts of food fit for a god. I would give you wine to drink fit for a queen. I would pour out barley to
stuff our granary: bitt as for making you my wife – that I will not. How would it go with me? Your
lovers have found you like a brazier which srnoulders in the cold, a backdoor which keeps out
neither squall of wind nor storm, a castle which crushes the garrison, pitch that blackens the bearer, a
water-skin that chains the carrier, a stone which falls front the parapet, a battering ram turned back
from the enemy, a sandal that trips the wearer. Which of your lovers did you ever love for ever?
What shepherd of yours has pleased you for all time?"
[Gravely insulted by the king's words, Ishtar asked her father, Anu, to punish Gilgamesh by sending
the Bull of Heaven to ravage the land. Gilgamesh and Enkidu managed to
kill the bull, whose hind leg Enkidu tore off and flung at the goddess. Such a serious offense against
the gods demanded immediate punishment; thus did Enkidu fall ill and die.]
So Enkidu lay stretched out before Gilgamesh: his tears ran down in streams and he said to
Gilgamesh, "O my brother so dear as you are to me, brother, yet they will take me from you,"
Again he said, "I must sit down on the threshold of the dead and never again will I see my dear
brother with my eyes."
[Gilgarnesh was unreconciled to the death of his beloved friend Enkidu. He decided to make a long
and difficult journey to the Netherworld in order to search for the secret of immortality. There he
encountered the Sumerian Akkadian Noah called Utnapishtim (or Ziusudra). Utnapishtim tells
Gilgamesh of a Flood that had been sent by the gods to destroy all life except for Utnapishtim and his
family.]
"In those days the world teemed, the people multiplied, the world bellowed like a wild bull, and the
great god was aroused by the clamor. Enlil heard the clamor and he said to the gods in council, ―The
uproar of mankind is intolerable and sleep is no longer possible by reason of the babel.‖ So the gods
agreed to exterminate mankind. Enlil did this, but Ea because of his oath warned me in a dream. He
whispered their words to my house of reeds, ―Reed-house, reed-house! Wall, O wall, hearken reedhouse, wall reflect; O man of Shurrupak, son of Ubara-Tutu; tear down your house and build a boat,
abandon possessions and look for life, despise worldly goods and save your soul alive. Tear down your
house, I say, and build a boat. These are the measurements of the barque as you shall build her: let her
beam equal her length, let her deck be roofed like the vault that covers the abyss: then take up into the
boat the seed of all living creatures.‖
"In the first light of dawn all my household gathered round me, the children brought pitch and the men
whatever was necessary. On the fifth day I laid the keel and the ribs, then I made fast the planking. The
ground-space was one acre, each side of the deck measured one hundred and twenty cubits, making a
square. I built six decks below, seven in all. I divided them into nine sections with bulkheads between.
I drove in wedges where needed, I saw to the punt-poles, and laid in supplies. The carriers brought oil
in baskets, I poured pitch into the furnace and asphalt and oil; more oil was consumed in caulking, and
more again the master of the boat took into his stores. I slaughtered bullocks for the people and every
day I killed sheep. I gave the shipwrights wine to drink as though it were river water, raw wine and red
wine and oil and white wine. There was feasting then as there is at the time of the New Year's festival
I myself anointed my head. On the seventh clay the boat was complete.
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"Then was the launching full of difficulty: there was shifting of ballast above and below till two thirds
was submerged. I loaded into her all that I had of gold and of living things, my family, my kin, the
beast of the field both wild and tame, and all the craftsmen. I sent them on board, for the time that
Shamash had ordained was already fulfilled when he said, ‗In the evening, when the rider of the storm
sends down the destroying rain, enter the boat and batten her down.‘ The time was fulfilled, the
evening came, the rider of the storm sent down the rain. I looked out at the weather and it was terrible,
so I too boarded the boat and battened her down. All was now complete, the battening and the
caulking; so I handed the tiller to Puzur-Amurri the steersman, with the navigation and the care of the
whole boat...‖
"For six days and six nights the winds blew, torrent and tempest and flood overwhelmed the world,
tempest and flood raged together like warring hosts. When the seventh day dawned the storm from the
south subsided, the sea grew calm, the flood was stilled; I looked at the face of the world there was
silence, all mankind was turned to clay. The surface of the sea stretched as flat as a roof-top: I opened
a hatch and the light fell on my face. Then I bowed low, I sat down and I wept, the tears streamed
down my face, for on every side was the waste of water. I looked for land in vain, but fourteen leagues
distant there appeared a mountain, and there the boat grounded; on the mountain of Nisir the boat held
fast, she held fast and did not budge. One day she held, and a second day on the mountain of Nisir she
held fast and did not budge. A third day, and a fourth day she held fast on the mountain and did not
budge; a fifth day and a sixth day she held fast on the mountain. When the seventh day dawned I
loosed a dove and let her go. She flew away, but finding no resting place she returned. Then I loosed a
swallow, and she flew away but finding no resting place she returned. I loosed a raven, she saw that
the waters had retreated, she ate, she flew around, she cawed, and she did not come back. Then I threw
everything open to the four winds, I made a sacrifice and poured out a libation on the mountain top.
Seven and again seven cauldrons I set up on their stands, I heaped up wood cane and cedar and
myrtle. When the gods smelled the sweet savor, they gathered like flies over the sacrifice."
[Utnapishtim then revealed to Gilgarnesh the secret of immortality. With the aid of his ferryman,
Urshanabi, King Gilgamesh secured this mysterious prickly plant, but his hopes for future
rejuvenation were not to be.]
"Gilgamesh, I shall reveal a secret thing, it is a mystery of the gods that I am telling you. There is a
plant that grows under the water, it has a prickle like a thorn, like a rose; it will wound your hands, but
if you succeed in taking it, then your hands will hold that which restores his lost youth to a man."
When Gilgamesh heard this he opened the sluices so that a sweet-water current might carry him out to
the deepest channel; he tied heavy stones to his feet and they dragged him down to the water-bed.
There he saw the plant growing; although it pricked him he took it in his hands; then he cut the heavy
stones from his feet, and the sea carried him
and threw him on to the shore. Gilgamesh said to Urshanabi the ferryman, "Come here, and see this
marvelous plant. By its virtue a man may win back all his former strength. I will take it to Uruk of the
strong walls: there I will give it to time old men to eat. Its name shall be 'The Old Men Are Young
Again'; and at last I shall eat it myself and have back all my lost youth." So Gilgamesh returned by the
gate through which he had come, Gilgamesh and Urshanabi went together. They traveled their twenty
leagues and then they broke their fast; after thirty leagues they stopped for the night.
Gilgamesh saw a well of cool water and lie went down and bathed but deep in the pool there was lying
a serpent, and the serpent sensed the sweetness of the flower. It rose out of the water and snatched it
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away and immediately it sloughed its skin and returned to the well. Then Gilgamesh sat down and
wept, the tears ran down his face, and he took the hand of Urshanabi: "O Urshanabi, was it for this that
I toiled with my hands, is it for this I have wrung out my heart's blood? For myself I have gained
nothing; not I, but the beast of the earth has joy of it now. Already the stream has carried it twenty
leagues back to the channels where I found it. I found a sign and now I have lost it. Let us leave the
boat on the bank and go."
After twenty leagues they broke their fast, after thirty leagues they stopped for the night; in three days
they had walked as much as a journey of a month and fifteen days. When the journey was
accomplished they arrived at Uruk, the strong-walled city. Gilgamesh spoke to him, to Urshanabi the
ferrvman, "Urshanabi, climb up on to the wall of Uruk, inspect its foundation terrace, and examine
well the brickwork; see if it is not of burnt bricks; and did not the seven wise men lay these
foundations? One third of the whole is city, one third is garden, and one third is field, with the precinct
of the goddess Ishtar. These parts and the precinct are all Uruk."
This too was the work of Gilgamesh, the king, who knew the countries of the world. He was wise, he
saw mysteries and knew secret things, he brought us a tale of the days before the flood. He went on a
long journey, was weary, worn out with labour, and returning engraved on a stone the whole story.
The Birth of Writing
Read and answer in your Notebooks:
1. What are the first things a society would want to record in writing?
2. For most of human history, literacy has been limited to a small elite within society.
Why do you think this might be the case?
3. Do you agree with the claim that literate persons have more power than non-literate persons?
Explain your reasoning.
4. Often in modern history, one sees movements which target the most literate people in society, the
intellectuals. Why do you think this might happen?
5. Based on the school boy text, which groups in Sumerian society were most likely to be literate?
6. How does Sumerian school compare to school today? How do you explain the differences?
7. What are the different theories on the origin of cuneiform? Which do you find more convincing?
When No One Read, Who Started to Write?
By JOHN NOBLE WILFORD
From New York Times: April 6, 1999
The Sumerians had a story to explain their invention of writing more than 5,000 years ago. It seems a
messenger of the king of Uruk arrived at the court of a distant ruler so exhausted from the journey that
he was unable to deliver the oral message. So the king, being clever, came up with a solution. He
patted some clay and set down the words of his next messages on a tablet.
A Sumerian epic celebrates the achievement: Before that time
writing on clay had not yet existed, But now, as the sun rose,
so it was!
The king of Kullaba [Uruk] had set words on a tablet, so it was!
A charming just-so, or so-it-was, story, its retelling at a recent symposium on the origins or writing,
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held here at the University of Pennsylvania, both amused and frustrated scholars. It reminded them
that they could expect little help – only a myth – from the Sumerians themselves, presumably the first
writing people, in understanding how and why the invention responsible for the great divide in human
culture between prehistory and history had come about.
The archeologists, historians and other scholars at the meeting smiled at the absurdity of a king's
writing a letter that its recipient could not read. They also doubted that the earliest writing was a
direct rendering of speech. Writing more than likely began as a separate and distinct symbolic
system of communication, like painting, sculpture and oral storytelling, and only later merged with
spoken language.
Yet in the story, the Sumerians, who lived in Mesopotamia, the lower valley of the Tigris and
Euphrates Rivers in what is now southern Iraq, seemed to understand writing's transforming function.
As Dr. Holly Pittman, director of the university's Center for
Ancient Studies and organizer of the symposium, observed, writing ―arose out of the need to store
information and transmit information outside of human memory and over time and over space.‖
In exchanging interpretations and new information, the scholars acknowledged that they still had no
fully satisfying answers to the most important questions of exactly how and why writing was
developed. Many of them favored a broad explanation of writing's origins in the visual arts, pictograms
of things being transformed into increasingly abstract symbols for things, names and eventually words
in speech. Their views clashed with a widely held theory among archeologists that writing grew out of
the pieces of clay in assorted sizes and shapes that Sumerian accountants had used as tokens to keep
track of livestock and stores of grain.
The scholars at the meeting also conceded that they had no definitive answer to the question of
whether writing was invented only once and spread elsewhere or arose independently several times in
several places, like Egypt, the Indus Valley, China and among the Olmecs and Maya of Mexico and
Central America. But they criticized recent findings suggesting that writing might have developed
earlier in Egypt than in Mesopotamia.
In December, Dr. Gunter Dreyer, director of the German Archeological Institute in Egypt, announced
new radiocarbon dates for tombs at Abydos, on the Nile about 250 miles south of Cairo. The dates
indicated that some hieroglyphic inscriptions on pots, bone and ivory in the tombs were made at least
as early as 3200 B.C., possibly 3400. It was now an ―open question,‖ Dr. Dreyer said, whether writing
appeared first in Egypt or Mesopotamia.
At the symposium, Dr. John Baines, an Oxford University Egyptologist who had just visited Dr.
Dreyer, expressed skepticism in polite terms. ―I'm suspicious of the dates,‖ he said in an interview. ―I
think he's being very bold in his readings of these things.‖
The preponderance of archeological evidence has shown that the urbanizing Sumerians were the first
to develop writing, in 3200 or 3300 B.C. These are the dates for many clay tablets with a protocuneiform script found at the site of the ancient city of Uruk. The tablets bore pictorial symbols for the
names of people, places and things for governing and commerce. The Sumerian script gradually
evolved from the pictorial to the abstract, but it was probably at least five centuries before the writing
came to represent recorded spoken language.
Egyptian hieroglyphics are so different from Sumerian cuneiform, Dr. Baines said, that they were
probably invented independently not long after Sumerian writing. If anything, the Egyptians may
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have gotten the idea of writing from the Sumerians, with whom they had contacts in Syria, but
nothing more.
In any event, the writing idea became more widespread at the beginning of the third millennium B.C.
The Elamites of southern Iran developed a proto-writing system then, perhaps influenced by the
proto-cuneiform of their Sumerian neighbors, and before the millennium was out, writing appeared in
the Indus River Valley of what is now Pakistan and western India, then in Syria and Crete and parts
of Turkey. Writing in China dates back to the Shang period toward the end of the second millennium
B.C., and it dates to the first millennium B.C. in Mesoamerica.
Archeologists have thought that the undeciphered Indus script, which seemed to appear first around
2500 B.C., may have been inspired in part from trade contacts with Mesopotamia. But new
excavations in the ruins of the ancient city of Harappa suggest an earlier and presumably independent
origin of Indus writing.
In a report from the field, distributed on the Internet, Dr. Jonathan Mark Kenoyer of the University of
Wisconsin and Dr. Richard H. Meadow of Harvard University showed pictures of marks incised on
potshards that they interpreted as evidence for the use of writing signs by Indus people as early as 3300
B.C. If these are indeed proto-writing examples, the discovery indicates an independent origin of Indus
writing contemporary with the Sumerian and Egyptian inventions.
Dr. Meadow, using E-mail, the electronic age's version of the king of Uruk's clay tablet, confirmed
that the inscribed marks were ―similar in some respects to those later used in the Indus script.‖ The
current excavations, he added, were uncovering ―very significant findings at Harappa with respect to
the Indus script.‖
At the symposium, though, Dr. Gregory L. Possehl, a Pennsylvania archeologist who specializes in
the Indus civilization and had examined the pictures, cautioned against jumping to such
conclusions. One had to be careful, he said, not to confuse potter's marks, graffiti and fingernail
marks with symbols of nascent writing.
Of the earliest writing systems, scholars said, only the Sumerian, Chinese and Mesoamerican ones
seemed clearly to be independent inventions. Reviewing the relationship between early Chinese
bronze art, ―oracle bones‖ and writing, Dr. Louisa Huber, a researcher at Harvard's Fairbanks Center
for East Asian Research, concluded,
―Chinese writing looks to be pristine.‖
But few pronouncements about early writing go undisputed. Dr. Victor Mair, a professor of Chinese
language at Penn, offered evidence indicating, he said, that ―the Chinese writing system may well
have received vital inputs from West Asian and European systems of writing and proto-writing.‖
Dr. Mair cited an intriguing correspondence between the Chinese script and 22 Phoenician letters and
also Western-like symbols on pottery and the bodies of mummies found in the western desert of China.
The recent discoveries of the mummies, wearing garments of Western weaves and having Caucasoid
facial features, have prompted theories of foreign influences on Chinese culture in the first and second
millennia B.C. It had already been established that the chariot and bronze metallurgy reached China
from the West.
Though no one seemed ready to endorse his thesis, Dr. Mair said, ―We simply do not know for
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certain whether the Chinese script was or was not independently created.‖
Dr. Peter Damerow, a specialist in Sumerian cuneiform at the Max Planck Institute for the History
of Science in Berlin, said, ―Whatever the mutual influences of writing systems of different cultures
may be, their great variety shows, at least, that the development of writing, once it is initiated, attains
a considerable degree of independence and flexibility to adapt a coding system to specific
characteristics of the language to be represented.‖
Not that he accepted the conventional view that writing necessarily started as some kind of
representation of words by pictures. New studies of Sumerian proto-cuneiform, he said, challenge this
intepretation. The structures of this earliest writing, for example, did
not match the syntax of a language. Proto-cuneiform seemed severely restricted, compared
with spoken language, dealing mainly in lists and categories, not in sentences and narrative.
This presumably reflects writing's origins and first applications in economic administration in a
growing, increasingly complex society, scholars said. Most of the Uruk tablets were documents about
property, inventory and, even then, taxes. The only texts that do not concern administrative activities,
Dr. Damerow said, were cuneiform lexicons that were apparently written as school exercises by
scribes in training.
For at least two decades, in fact, Dr. Denise Schmandt-Besserat, a University of Texas archeologist,
has argued that the first writing grew directly out of a counting system practiced by Sumerian
accountants. They used molded clay ―tokens,‖ each one specially shaped to represent a jar of oil, a
large or small container of grain, or a particular kind of livestock. When the tokens were placed inside
hollow clay spheres, the number and type of tokens inside were recorded on the ball with impressions
resembling the tokens. Finally, simplifying matters, the token impressions were replaced with
inscribed signs, and writing was invented.
Though Dr. Schmandt-Besserat has won wide support, some linguists question her thesis and other
scholars, like Dr. Pittman of Penn, think it too narrow an interpretation. They emphasized that
pictorial representation and writing evolved together, part of the same cultural context that fostered
experimentation in communication through symbols.
―There's no question that the token system is a forerunner of writing, and really important,‖ Dr. Pittman
said in an interview. ―But I have an argument with her evidence for a link between tokens and signs,
and she doesn't open up the process to include picture-making and all other kinds of informationstorage practices that are as important as the tokens.‖
Dr. Schmandt-Besserat, who did not attend the symposium, vigorously defended herself in a telephone
interview. ―My colleagues say the signs on seals were a beginning of writing, but show me a single
sign on a seal that becomes a sign in writing,‖ she said.
―They say that designs on pottery were a beginning of writing, but show me a single
sign of writing you can trace back to a pot -- it doesn't exist.‖
In its first 500 years, she asserted, cuneiform writing was used almost solely for recording economic
information. ―The first information that writing gives you is only the same information the tokens
were dealing with,‖ she said. ―When you start putting more on the tablets, products plus the name of
who has delivered and received them, that is where art would enter the picture. Then writing is out of
the box, in all directions.‖
Gilgamesh, Writing and Civilization
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Dr. Damerow agreed that cuneiform writing appeared to have developed in two stages, first as a new
but limited means of recording economic information, later as a broader encoding of spoken language
for stories, arguments, descriptions or messages from one ruler to another. Even so, it was a long way
from the origin of writing to truly literate societies. At the symposium, scholars noted that the early
rulers could not write or read; they relied on scribes for their messages, record keeping and
storytelling. In Egypt, most early hieroglyphics were inscribed in places beyond the public eye, high
on monuments or deep in tombs.
In this case, said Dr. Pascal Vernus of the University of Paris, early writing was less administrative
than sacred and ideological, ―a way of creating and describing the world as a dominating elite wants
it to be.‖
Dr. Piotr Michalowski, professor of Near East civilizations at the University of Michigan, said the
Uruk proto-cuneiform writing, whatever its antecedents, was ―so radically different as to be a complete
break with the past, a system different from anything else.‖ It no doubt served to store, preserve and
communicate information, but also was a new instrument of power.
―Perhaps it's because I grew up in Stalinist Poland,‖ Dr. Michalowski said, ―but I say coercion and
control were early writing's first important purpose, a new way to control how people live.‖
A Sumerian Schoolboy Text
From Samuel Kramer, The Sumerians [Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1963. pp.
237-40.]
The ancient peoples of Mesopotamia, Egypt and China all devised writing systems. The artwork of the
New Stone Age had often featured stick figures drawn with less realism than were animals in Old
Stone Age cave drawings. People who drew these stick
figures could well have sacrificed naturalistic detail, we may suppose, in designing them for
communication in the way that simple figures on our own signs for "Reserved for Handicapped" or
"Deer Crossing" convey a message. In Egypt, such pictographs evolved into hieroglyphics, which
satisfied the Egyptians well enough as a means for recording their language that they were slow to
change them. Meanwhile, at the other end of the Eurasian continent the earliest Chinese pictographs
developed into ideographs conveying more abstract concepts. In the Sumerian part of Mesopotamia,
the people developed a different style of writing, called cuneiform. Wet clay was shaped into tablets;
then a reed was cut into a wedge shape and impressed into the clay to make the hundreds of signs used
in writing.
What follows is a schoolboy writing text from Sumer. Sumer was an area of Mesopotamia composed
of 12 major city-states which lay along and between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, in modern-day
Iraq. The fertility of the area was in creased by careful irrigation, which enabled the Sumerians to
produce excess grain, which they traded for wood, stone, and metal ore. Each city was filled with
many great temples called "Ziggurats," which served as the homes of the many gods. The cities were
controlled from about 2700 B.C.E. by chief executives called lugals or kings, who were advised on the
running of government by a council of elders.
Sumerian cuneiform tablets reveal much information about the economic life of the Sumerians as
they have left us thousands of lists of sheep, goats, and other material possessions. Our first great
epic myth about King Gilgamesh was created by the Sumerians and became so popular that almost
all future Mesopotamian peoples would reproduce versions of this tale in addition, we have medical
Gilgamesh, Writing and Civilization
11
texts, proverbs, fragments of legal codes, and the first mention of a schoolhouse or "edubba." The
following selection, composed around 2000 B.C.E., is thought to be by an "ummia" or experienced
(teacher) who is asked what he did when he was a boy in school.
I recited my tablet, ate my lunch, prepared my [new] tablet, wrote it, finished it, then my model
tablets were brought to me; and in the afternoon my exercise tablets were brought to me. When
school was dismissed, I went home, entered the house, and found my father sitting there. I explained
my exercise-tablets to my father, recited my tablet to him, and he was delighted, [so much so] that I
attended him [with joy].
[The author now has the schoolboy turn to the house servants (it was evidently quite a well-to-do
home) with these words:]
I am thirsty, give me water to drink; I am hungry, give me bread to eat; wash my feet, set up [my]
bed, I want to go to sleep. Wake me early in the morning, I must not be late lest my teacher cane
[me].
When I arose early in the morning, I faced my mother and said to her: "Give me my lunch, I want to
go to school!" My mother gave me two rolls, and I set out [for] school. In school the fellow in charge
of punctuality said: "Why are you late?" Afraid and with pounding heart, I entered before my teacher
and made a respectful curtsy.
My headmaster read my tablet and said: "There is something missing," [and] he caned me. (There
follow two unintelligible lines)
The fellow in charge of neatness said "You loitered in the street and did not straighten up your
clothes," [and] caned me. (There follow five unintelligible lines)
The fellow in charge of silence said: "Why did you talk without permission?" [and] caned me.
The fellow in charge of the assembly said: "Why did you 'stand at ease' without permission?"
[and] caned me.
The fellow in charge of good behavior said: "Why did you go out from [the gate] without
permission?" [and] caned me.
The fellow in charge of the whip said: "Why did you take... without permission?" [and]
caned me.
The fellow in charge of Sumerian said: "Why didn't you speak Sumerian?" [and] caned me.
My teacher ("ummia") said: "Your hand is unsatisfactory," [and] caned me, [and so] I [began to]
hate the scribal art, and began to neglect the scribal art.
My teacher took no delight in me; even stopped teaching me his skill in the scribal art; in no way
prepared me in the matters [essential to the art of being] a young scribe, [or the art of being] a "big
brother."
(He turns to his father for advice and help with his teacher.) Give him a bit extra salary let him
become more kindly; let him be free [for a time] from arithmetic; [when] he shall count up all the
school affairs of the students, let him count me, [too, among them; that is, perhaps, let him not
Gilgamesh, Writing and Civilization
12
neglect me any longer].
To that which the schoolboy said, his father gave heed. The teacher was brought from school, and
after entering the house, he was seated... The schoolboy attended and served him, and, whatever he
learned of the scribal art, he unfolded to his father. Then did the father in the joy of his heart say
joyfully to the headmaster of the school: "My little fellow has opened [wide] his hand, [and] you
made wisdom enter there; you showed him all the fine points of the scribal art; you made him see the
solutions of mathematical and arithmetical [problems], you [taught him how] to make deep the
cuneiform script.
Pour for him oil; bring it to the table for him. Make fragrant oil flow like water on his stomach [and]
back; I want to dress him in a garment; give him some extra salary; put a ring on his hand.
The servants do this, and then the teacher says to the boy: Young fellow, [because] you hated not my
words, neglected them not, [may you] complete the scribal art from beginning to end. Because you
gave me everything without stint, paid me a salary larger than my efforts [deserve], [and] have
honored me, may Nidaba, the queen of guardian angels, be your guardian angel; may your pointed
stylus write well for you; may your exercises contain no faults. Of your brothers, may you be their
leader; of your friends ma you be their chief; may you rank the highest among the school graduates,
satisfy all who walk to and from in the palaces. Little fellow, you "know" (your) father, I am second to
him; that homage be paid to you, that you be blessed - may the god of your father bring this about with
firm hand; he will bring prayer and supplication to Nidaba, your queen, as if it were a matter for your
god. Thus, when you put a kindly hand on the...