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Atlantic Climate Adaptation Solutions Association
Solutions d'adaptation aux changements climatiques pour l'Atlantique
Vulnerability of Nova Scotia's Coastal Groundwater Supplies to Climate Change
By
Grant Ferguson
and
Calvin Beebe
Department of Earth Sciences
St. Francis Xavier University
Antigonish, Nova Scotia
May 2012
Report commissioned by the Atlantic Climate Solutions Association (ACASA), a non-profit organization
formed to coordinate project management and planning for climate change adaptation initiatives in Nova
Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island and Newfoundland and Labrador and supported through the
Regional Adaptation Collaborative, a joint undertaking between the Atlantic provinces, Natural Resources
Canada and regional municipalities and other partners.
Project management:
Climate Change Directorate, Nova Scotia Department of Environment
Disclaimer: This publication is not to be used without permission, and any unauthorized use is strictly
prohibited. ACASA, the authors, the provinces of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island,
Newfoundland and Labrador, and the Regional Adaptation Collaborative are not responsible for any
unauthorized use that may be made of the information contained therein. The opinions expressed in this
publication do not necessarily reflect those of ACASA, its associated provinces, or other partners of the
Regional Adaptation Collaborative.
This report is also available for download from the ACASA website at: www.atlanticadaptation.ca
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to sincerely thank Gavin Kennedy of the Nova Scotia Department of Natural Resources for
his assistance with this project. He was instrumental in securing the field sites for this study and provided
valuable insight into many aspects of this study. The authors also wish to thank John Drage of Nova Scotia
Environment for his advice during this project. Hugo Beltrami of St. Francis Xavier University and Tom
Gleeson of McGill University provided a great deal of assistance to Calvin Beebe during the completion of
this thesis. This study would not have been possible without the support of the Town of Wolfville, Gregg
Morrison, the Pugwash Park Commission, and the Eaton Family. Financial support from the Atlantic Climate
Adaptation Solutions Project (ACAS) is acknowledged.
Executive Summary
Approximately 50% of Nova Scotians rely on groundwater for their drinking water supply, including 40%
who depend on private wells. In other similar settings, rising sea levels and changes in precipitation have
raised concerns about the sustainability of coastal groundwater supplies. However, a range of responses
to climate change are possible and there have been few if any documented cases of climate change
seriously affecting groundwater to date. The bulk of work in other regions has been based on predictive
modeling, which has shown a wide range of possible responses depending on the magnitude of sea level
rise, shifts in precipitation patterns, hydrogeological conditions. Hydrogeological setting and current
conditions are of particular importance in determining the importance of climate change to managing
groundwater.
Assessment of hydrogeological conditions were undertaken at field sites in Wolfville and Pugwash, two
areas where groundwater salinity has been an issue in the past. Field results from Pugwash demonstrated
that water quality problems in the area are geologic in origin and related to dissolution of gypsum.
Furthermore, a low permeability layer that overlies the sandstone in the area provides a measure of
protection from saltwater intrusion, pushing the freshwater-saltwater interface offshore. Such low
permeability units are common in Nova Scotia, either as bedrock or glacial sediments, and are likely a
reason for the relatively low incidence of saltwater intrusion problems in the Province.
Salinity problems in Wolfville were not likely of marine origin. Isotopic analysis of water from
monitoring wells installed at the Town of Wolfville Public Works yard indicated little if any mixing with
seawater. Water quality problems likely have a geologic origin or arise from infiltration of water
contaminated with road salt. Age dating techniques indicated that the water at this site was greater than
60 years old. The hydrogeologic response of this system should be fairly slow, which will provide a
measure of protection to any shifts in climate, assuming there are no improperly abandoned wells that
would allow seawater a direct pathway into the underlying aquifer in the case of an inundation event.
This study was unable to find strong evidence of saltwater intrusion in either field site. Both field
investigations were planned with a typical simple model of saltwater intrusion in mind, indicating that
these simple models are not sufficient to characterize these problems. In particular, the presence of
significant groundwater flow towards the coast and associated offshore discharge and overlying low
permeability zones appear to be important factors that result in diminished saltwater intrusion.
Furthermore, concurrent research done on the situation in the United States revealed that climate change
will be a minor factor in the management of most coastal aquifers when compared to groundwater use
even when submarine groundwater discharge and overlying low permeability zones are not considered.
Better protection of groundwater resources and overall water resource planning in Nova Scotia will be
best served by devoting more resources to groundwater resource assessments. Prediction of responses of
hydrogeologic systems to development are highly uncertain due to geologic variability. Climate change
may have an impact on the availability of groundwater in some areas but our current level of monitoring
and understanding of this resource would likely prevent attribution of such impacts to climate change as
opposed to other factors. Future efforts should be placed on understanding groundwater flow systems
rather than intensive monitoring of the freshwater-saltwater interface.
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Table of Contents
iii
Executive Summary
Introduction
1
Rationale and Objectives
2
Methodology and Approach
2
Results and Findings
3
General Discussion
6
Conclusions and Recommendations
7
Bibliography
8
List of Tables and Figures
11
Annexes
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Beebe, C., Ferguson, G. and Kennedy, G.W. 2011. Analytical modeling of saltwater intrusion: tests from
Nova Scotia and the eastern United States. GeoHydro2011, Quebec City, Quebec, August 28-31, 2011.
Beebe, C. 2011. Investigation of Occurrence and Assessment of Risk of Saltwater Intrusion in Nova
Scotia, Canada. M.Sc. Thesis, St. Francis Xavier University, Antigonish, NS, Canada.
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Introduction
Coastal groundwater supplies are particularly important in Nova Scotia. Roughly 50% of Nova Scotia’s population is
reliant on groundwater (Kennedy 2008), 40% are reliant on private wells, and 70% live within 20 km of the coast
(Government of Nova Scotia 2005). Many small coastal communities are in rural areas that are not serviced by
municipal water supplies. In these locations simple, cost effective tools are favored for sustainable management of
resources, which is crucial to ensuring their availability. Population in urban areas of Nova Scotia is increasing and
leading to new development, which is causing concerns over water resources in these areas as well. The Population of
Halifax rose 4.6% from 1996 to 2001 (Vasseur 2007). Increasing urban population means increasing density of
withdrawal from groundwater, and increases the risk of SWI in urban areas, which could have severe ramifications.
Stress on fresh groundwater supplies and risk of SWI will be compounded in coastal regions over the next century due
to sea-level rise (Melloul and Collin 2006). The IPCC (2007) estimates that global eustatic sea-level rise by A.D. 2100
will be between 18 cm to 59 cm depending on the rate at which global warming progresses. Some more recent
estimates have been as high as 120 cm (Rhamsdorf 2007). Peltier (2004) estimates that present day regional crustal
subsidence due to postglacial isostasy in Nova Scotia varies from south to north across the Province, and is between 8
and 20 cm per century. Evidence for local subsidence in Nova Scotia is supported by Sella et al. (2007) using GPS
observations, and by observations from the tide gauge at Halifax Harbour. The combined effect of eustatic and isostatic
sea-level rise will be an average increase of approximately 70 cm across Nova Scotia by A. D. 2100 (Forbes et al. 2009;
CBCL 2009).
Climate change may have additional effects on coastal groundwater resources. Vasseur (2007) reports that increasing
intensity of storms, such as hurricanes and winter cyclones, will increase storm surges flooding coastal areas with
seawater. Coastal flooding can speed up the salinization of coastal aquifers. Vasseur (2007) also reports that, although
precipitation is expected to remain the same or increase over the same period of time, more precipitation falling in
briefer, more intense storms, more precipitation falling as rain during the winter months while the ground is frozen and
running off, and higher temperatures year round are likely to all contribute to a decrease in total recharge in Nova
Scotia. This would result in a decrease in the availability of coastal groundwater and, along with increased demand
especially during the summer months when aquifers are at their lowest, further increase the risk of SWI in coastal
aquifers. Additional work by Werner and Simmons (2009) and Webb and Howard (2011) have suggested that saltwater
could move landward by 10s to 100s of metres due to the increase in sea level.
Few investigations of saltwater intrusion in Atlantic Canada occur in literature, and this lack of baseline information
makes assessment of the impacts of climate change difficult. One of the earliest such studies was conducted by Carr
(1968), who studied of layered saltwater intrusion, which at the time was due primarily to large withdrawals from
canning and food processing plants in New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island. Later Carr (1969), Tremblay et al.
(1973), and van der Kamp (1981) found evidence saltwater intrusion at York Point and Summerside, PEI.
Documentation of SWI in Nova Scotia is limited to a handful of reports by the government and by private consultants
(H.J. Porter & Associates 1979; H. J Porter & Associates 1980; H. J Porter & Associates 1982).
This study attempts to develop better background and understanding on the occurrence and nature of saltwater intrusion
(SWI) in Nova Scotia in the interest of developing tools for managing the risk of SWI, and creating awareness to the
problem. A focused hydrologic investigation at two sites in Nova Scotia was conducted in an effort help to broadly
define factors that may be associated with increased risk of SWI throughout the province. Data from these investigations
will be subjected to further analysis, and comparison to other sites outside the province to develop tools to assist in
identification of “high vulnerability” sites. These tools will be used to direct further investigation and to inform policy
for management of coastal groundwater resources. Sites selection was based on pre-existing concern of the threat of
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saltwater intrusion. Two field sites, the Village of Pugwash and the Town of Wolfville, Nova Scotia were selected for a
focused investigation of seawater intrusion. A combination of methods was used for this study including: evaluation of
pre-existing data, installation and assessment of monitoring wells, and geochemical analysis.
Rationale and Objectives of the Project
The objective of this project is to provide context and direction for the management of coastal aquifers in Nova Scotia.
The water resources in these aquifers will be affected by both climate change and development but the importance of
these two drivers was not well understood at the outset of this project. Water management necessitated by demand for
water will imply a greater need for involvement of hydrogeologists in a more traditional sense, whereas climate change
driven problems will necessitate a coordinated effort between hydrogeologists, climatologists and oceanographers.
Regardless of the type of scientific expertise required, the results of this study will be of use to municipalities, either
through their role a water utility managers or through ability to control the development in coastal areas. It should be
recognized that due to the complexities of groundwater resources, it is unlikely that municipal governments will have
the expertise to utilise the results of this study without advice from appropriate professional engineers or geoscientists
from provincial government agencies or the consulting community. As a result, the results of this study are presented in
such a way that they will be useful to these professionals.
Methodology and Approach
A lack of detailed studies in Nova Scotia necessitated collection of baseline data in selected areas as part of this study.
Of the municipalities participating in the ACAS study, the Village of Pugwash, and the Town of Wolfville were
selected, due to their historical concerns with water quality. The Village of Pugwash offered an opportunity to study an
area of Nova Scotia where groundwater usage is diffuse, mainly from small private supplies. The Town of Wolfville
offered an opportunity to examine an area where groundwater was used for the municipal supply in addition to other
larger users. Although these two sites do not cover a wide range of geologic environments in Nova Scotia, or even a
significant subset of them, they do occur in different groundwater regions (Figure 1) and may provide some insight into
the variability and complexity of assessing saltwater intrusion problems.
Figure 1: Location of study sites on a map of the Groundwater Regions of Nova Scotia (Kennedy and Drage, 2008).
In both of these municipalities, monitoring wells were installed at locations near the coast in an attempt to determine the
current position of the interface between saltwater and freshwater. The position of this interface is controlled by the
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densities of freshwater and saltwater and the distribution of hydraulic head. In many situations this results in an
interface that is located at depth below sea level 40 times the elevation of the water table above sea level (Ghyben 1888;
Herzberg 1901; Figure 2). This metric along with estimated water table elevations was used to determine drilling
locations and depths.
Figure 2: Distribution of fresh and saline groundwater as described by the Ghyben-Herzberg relationship.
Information on subsurface geology was collected during the drilling required to install these wells. Water levels were
monitored in these wells and water samples were collected to determine the quality of the water and the origin of
dissolved solids.
Results and Findings
Drilling at Thinker's Lodge in Pugwash (Figure 3) revealed glacial till, underlain by mudstone and then a sandstone
aquifer in three wells drilled to depths between 56 and 70 m below ground surface. All three wells were quite
productive, producing a few hundred L/min during the drilling process. The wells were cased with 12.5 cm steel casing
a depth of 13m, with the remainder of the hole left open. Hydraulic head measurements revealed a gradient towards the
northwest, with hydraulic head of 4 m above sea level at the well closest to the coast. Analyses of water samples from
these wells indicated that the total dissolved solids level was nearly 800 mg/L, which is considered elevated but still
fresh. The anion in the brackish water was sulfate and not chloride, which is typical of seawater. Instead, the water
chemistry is indicative of a geologic origin for the salinity present in these waters. Further investigation of the
distribution of salinity in the Pugwash area show that salinity increases with proximity to the Windsor Group, which is
composed of evaporite minerals such as gypsum and halite.
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Figure 3: Location of wells drilled in the Village of Pugwash.
Figure 4: Chloride (Cl) concentrations at wells in the Pugwash area. Higher concentrations are associated with
proximity to the evaporites of the Windsor Group.
Two wells were installed at the Town of Wolfville Public Works Yard (Figure 5) with a final depth of 92 m below
ground surface. Stratigraphy encountered during drilling were roughly in accordance with previous investigations and
found glacial till overlying red sandstone conglomerate bedrock. In one of the wells, a notably harder fine- grained grey
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bedrock was encountered between 80 m and 90 m interpreted as Halifax formation slate. Both wells were cased with 7.5
cm diameter PVC, screened over the bottom 3 metres of the sandstone unit.
Salinities of 870 mg/L and 1360 mg/L were found in these wells, with the well furthest from the coast unexpectedly
having the higher salinity. Analysis of the major and trace ions in water samples collected from both wells were unable
to discern whether salinity was of geologic, anthropogenic or marine origin. Analysis of stable isotopes of the water
molecules themselves as δD and δ180 (Figure 6) showed that the water was likely of terrestrial origin. Water from the
two wells installed during this study fell within the range expected for groundwater originating from terrestrial
infiltration. No evidence of mixing with water of marine origin was found, implying that salinity was either geologic or
anthropogenic in origin. Water samples were also tested for tritium, which is found in waters less than approximately
60 years in age as a result of nuclear weapons testing in the middle of the 20th century. Tritium was not detected in
these water samples, indicating that these are older waters which will be relatively slow to respond to climate change.
The water level in the Nova Scotia Department of Environment’s observation well was 1.1 m above sea level in 1969
(NS Environment 2009) giving a hydraulic gradient of slightly more than 0.001. Since that time, the water level has
dropped to approximately 0.4 m above sea level by 2008 but has since returned to a level of approximately 1.3 m.
However, this area falls within the area affected by pumping. Hydraulic head measurements in the wells installed in
this study, which do not appear to be as affected by pumping, suggest a hydraulic gradient closer to 0.005.
Figure 5: Location map of wells in the Wolfville study site and surrounding area. Wells 1 and 2 were installed as part
of this study.
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Figure 6: Distribution of stable isotopes in precipitation, groundwater and seawater in the Wolfville area (precipitation
and groundwater data other than coastal wells from Rivard et al. 2007).
General Discussion
Nova Scotia's groundwater resources are not overly susceptible to saltwater intrusion. Site investigations in the
Pugwash and Wolfville areas were unable to find strong evidence of the presence of seawater. These studies both
examined areas that were closer to the coast and deeper than would normally be exploited for domestic, industrial or
agricultural water supplies. The presence of groundwater in these areas can be attributed to the geology, topography
and climate of Nova Scotia.
Glacial till is present either near or at the surface in most areas of Nova Scotia. The relatively low permeability of
glacial till acts to keep the slope of the water table high and can force the interface between fresh and saltwater well off
the coast. This was particularly noticeable in the Pugwash area, where the water table was several metres above sea
level on a few metres from the coast line. The interface between fresh and saltwater is likely a few hundred metres off
the coast in this location, following the method proposed by Kooi and Groen (2001). It should be noted that even where
lower permeability geological units are not present near the surface, the interface will be pushed offshore to a certain
extent by submarine groundwater discharge (Glover 1959). To date, no detailed studies of this phenomenon have been
conducted in Nova Scotia.
Topography is an important consideration. Where there is sufficient precipitation and lower permeability materials, the
water table with usually be a subdued replica of topography (Gleeson et al. 2011). This is the case in Nova Scotia,
resulting in water tables with relatively high slopes. In work done concurrently with this study, it was found that in
areas with even moderately sloped water tables saltwater intrusion is only a concern where there is large demand for
groundwater (Ferguson and Gleeson 2012). Specifically, water tables that rise less than 0.5 m per km are at risk of
saltwater intrusion due to climate change. Even in the relatively low lying Wolfville area, the hydraulic gradient
exceeded this by a factor of approximately ten outside of areas already noticeably affected by pumping. Further
analysis of this issue by Beebe (2011) suggests that groundwater withdrawal rates in this area could increase
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substantially without significant saltwater intrusion. Furthermore, the analysis by Ferguson and Gleeson (2012)
revealed that changes in groundwater recharge rates will have a very minor impact on coastal aquifers over the range of
hydraulic gradients found in Nova Scotia.
Conclusions and Recommendations
Climate change could contribute to saltwater intrusion problems in coastal aquifers but groundwater pumping is more
likely to be a greater driver of saltwater intrusion in most environments. More emphasis should be placed on geologic
mapping and groundwater resource assessments to provide an inventory of the resource available and the consequences
of developing it. Most areas of Nova Scotia do not have comprehensive groundwater management plans. Given that
sea level rise and changes in precipitation patterns are unlikely to have a major impact on water quality, focus on
climate change without an expanded program to understand all aspects of groundwater resource management would be
misguided.
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aquifers. Hydrological Processes 15: 655–669.
Beebe, C. 2011. Investigation of Occurrence and Assessment of Risk of Saltwater Intrusion in Nova Scotia, Canada.
M.Sc. Thesis, St. Francis Xavier University, Antigonish, NS, Canada.
Carr, P.A. 1968. Salt-water intrusion studies in the Maritimes. Reports to Inland Waters Branch, Department of Energy,
Mines & Resources. Ottawa.
Carr, P.A. 1969. Salt-water intrusion of Prince Edward Island. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 6: 63-74.
CBCL Limited. 2005. Groundwater quality assessment and remedial options evaluation: final report to the Municipality
of County of Cumberland. Upper Nappan, Cumberland County, Nova Scotia, Canada.
CBCL Limited. 2009. In The State of Nova Scotia’s Coast Technical Report. ISBN: 978-1-55457-327-1.
Ferguson, G. and Gleeson, T. 2012. Vulnerability of coastal aquifers to groundwater use and climate change. Nature
Climate Change 2: 342-345.
Forbes, D.L., G.K. Manson, J. Charles, K.R. Thompson, R.B. Taylor. 2009. Halifax Harbour extreme water levels in
the context of climate change: scenarios for a 100-year planning horizon, Geological Survey of Canada, Open File
6346, 21 p.
Ghyben B.W. 1888. Nota in verband met de voorgenomen putboring nabij Amsterdam, 8 – 22 (Notes on the probable
results of a well drilling near Amsterdam). The Hague: Tijdschrift van het Koninklijk Instituut van Ingenieurs.
Gleeson, T., L. Marklund, L. Smith, and A.H. Manning. 2011. Classifying the water table at regional to continental
scales. Geophysical Research Letters 38: L05401, DOI: 10.1029/2010GL066427.
Glover, R.E. 1959. The pattern of fresh water flow in a coastal aquifer. Journal of Geophysical Research 64: 457-459.
Government of Nova Scotia. 2005. Adapting to a changing climate in Nova Scotia: vulnerability assessment and
adaptation options.
http://www.gov.ns.ca/energy/AbsPage.aspx?siteid=1&lang=1&id=1392. accessed August 11, 2011.
Herzberg, A. 1901. Die Wasserversorgung einiger Nordseebaeder (The water supply of selected North Sea towns).
Journal Gabeleucht ung und Wasserversorgung ung 44: 815–819, 842–844.
Henry, H. R.1964. Effects of dispersion on salt encroachment in coastal aquifers, in Sea Water in Coastal Aquifers,
U.S. Geological Survey Water Supply Papers, 1613-C, 70–84.
H.J. Porter & Associates Limited. 1979. Report for the Cumberland District Planning Commission: Report #10 Rural
Area-Village of Pugwash. Amherst, Nova Scotia, Canada.
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H.J. Porter & Associates Limited. 1980. Report to Cumberland District Planning Commission on: Village of Pugwash
Water Quality Survey. Amherst, Nova Scotia, Canada.
H.J. Porter & Associates Limited. 1982. Report to Cumberland District Planning Commission on: Summary of results
of a drilling and testing program conducted at the Village of Pugwash. Amherst, Nova Scotia, Canada.
IPCC. 2007: Climate Change 2007: The physical science basis. Contribution of working group I to the fourth
assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change fourth assessment report.
Kennedy, G. W. 2008. in Mineral Resources Branch, Report of Activities 2007; Nova Scotia Department of Natural
Resources, Report ME 2008-1, p. 39-42.
Kennedy, G.W., and J. Drage. 2008. Groundwater regions map of Nova Scotia. Nova Scotia Department of Natural
Resources, Mineral Resources Branch: Open File Map ME 2008-3.
Kooi, H. and J. Groen. 2001. Offshore continuation of coastal groundwater systems; predictions using sharp-interface
approximations and variable-density flow modeling. Journal of Hydrology 246: 19-35.
Melloul, A., and M. Collin. 2006. Hydrogeological changes in coastal aquifers due to sea level rise. Ocean & Coastal
Management 49: 281-297.
Nova Scotia Environment and Labour. 2011. Nova Scotia Groundwater Observation Well Network - 2011 Report.
Nova Scotia Department of Environment and Labour.
Peltier, W.R. 2004. Global Glacial Isostasy and the Surface of the Ice-Age Earth: The ICE-5G (VM2) Model and
GRACE. Ann. Rev. Earth and Planet. Science 32: 111-149.
Rhamstorf, S. 2007. A semi-empirical approach to projecting future sea-level rise. Science 315, 5810: 368-370.
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Webb, M.D. and Howard, K.W.F. 2011. Modeling the Transient Response of Saline Intrusion to Rising Sea-Levels.
Ground Water 49: 560-569.
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List of Figures
Figure 1: Location of study sites on a map of the Groundwater Regions of Nova Scotia (map from Nova Scotia
Environment).
Figure 2: Distribution of fresh and saline groundwater as described by the Ghyben-Herzberg relationship.
Figure 3: Location of wells drilled in the Village of Pugwash.
Figure 4: Chloride (Cl) concentrations at wells in the Pugwash area. Higher concentrations are associated with
proximity to the evaporites of the Windsor Group.
Figure 5: Location map of wells in the Wolfville study site and surrounding area. Wells 1 and 2 were installed as part
of this study.
Figure 6: Distribution of stable isotopes in precipitation, groundwater and seawater in the Wolfville area (precipitation
and groundwater data other than coastal wells from Rivard et al., 2008).
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Annex
Beebe, C., Ferguson, G. and Kennedy, G.W. 2011. Analytical modeling of saltwater intrusion: tests from Nova Scotia
and the eastern United States. GeoHydro2011, Quebec City, Quebec, August 28-31, 2011.
Beebe, C. 2011. Investigation of Occurrence and Assessment of Risk of Saltwater Intrusion in Nova Scotia, Canada.
M.Sc. Thesis, St. Francis Xavier University, Antigonish, NS, Canada.
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