Download Women`s Monumental Mark on Ancient Egypt

Women's Monumental Mark on Ancient Egypt
Author(s): Barbara S. Lesko
Source: The Biblical Archaeologist, Vol. 54, No. 1 (Mar., 1991), pp. 4-15
Published by: The American Schools of Oriental Research
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3210327 .
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|_
-P9 usually
are
nently
Even
withusually
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grace
in
figures
tomb
portrayed
workers
andscenes
promi-
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on
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andcolossalstatuesbear
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manyreminders
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Ancient
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aIlcientqueensandfebutevencommon
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malepharaohs,
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pursuitsas well as entertainment
womenlefta monumental
andsports.The svelte,attractively
Thislegacyconsistsoftombchapels
porbyBarbaraS.Lesko
groomedsnd fetchinglygarbed
withextensivewalldecoration,
Egyptianwoman
traitstatues,funerary
cuts a strikingfigure
_
andvotivestelae,and _
_
in almostall scenes.
offeringtables,all
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I will cut rockthat couldbe usedas build- wife in such a waythat she appears
ratedbyphysicalmonuments.
on thesemonuments, ingblocksor hollowedinto,depend- to be takinga positionbehindher
concentrate
husbandwhen in fact,she is meant
ing on the preferenceof the age.
asa
bothartisticandarchitectural,
theindependence, Vastexpansesof wall decoration to be seen as sittingor standingbewayofillustrating
positionsandself-respect datingfromthe laterOldKingdom sidehim, as in sculpturedgroups
responsible
that survivefromthe threemajor
byvariousclassesofwomen andsubsequentMiddleandNew
enjoyed
Kingdomperiods{seeaccompanying earlyperiods.
society.
in ancientEgyptian
4
Biblical Archaeologist, March 1991
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A; t
ThroughoutEgyptianhistory
womenprominentin tombscenesare
most oftendepictedas companions
of the men beingcommemorated.
Theirattainments,such as literacy,
or theirmost prestigiouspublicactivities areusuallyonly subtly
hintedat in theseportraits(through
the ornamentstheyhold)andare
mentionedverybriefly,if at all, in
the accompanyinginscriptions.We
canalso wonderwhy moredetailed
descriptionsof a man'scareer,
whetherin the military,the civil
service,or the templehierarchy,are
not shown,whereasin OldKingdom
tombsandsome tombsdatingto
laterperiodsthe supervisingof work
on estatesandworkshopsis emphasized.It is likely thatreligiousmotivationwasbehindthe choiceof
tombscenes.Perhapsthe perpetual
abundanceof foodandwaterin the
beyond,eventhe renewalof the life
cycle,is beingassuredandnot the
continuationof earthlyconcerns
andidentities.Thustombscenesare
only of limitedvaluein reconstructingpeoples'lives,offeringa partial
andbiasedlook at the Egyptian
familyandsociety.
Neverthelessit is obviousfrom
these tombscenesthat ancient
Egyptianwomenwererespectedand
that theyfully mingledin society,
playingmanyroles,whetherin the
household,the templecults,or the
economicrealm.Peasantwomenare
depictedas helpingwith the harvest
andtrappingbirds;townswomenare
shownas professionalmourners,
musiciansanddancers,membersof
a templestaffandpartyguests.Rare,
thoughextant,arescenesof a woman
commandinga boatorbuyingand
sellinggoodsin the marketplace
'
if_
_
X
Thisscenefromthe tombof Nakhtat Thebes,
datingto theEighteenthDynasty,shows
femalemusiciansentertainingat a banquet.
Scenessuchas thisindicatethatancient
Egyptianwomenfullymingledin society.
PhotobyLeonardH. Lesko.
Egyptian
Throughout
history
women
promillent
in
scenes
often
are
most
depicted
companions
men
tomb
as
of
the
commemorated.
bearingthetitleMistressof theHouse
Iyt-hotep,
andChantressofAmon,is picturedin thiswall
decorationfromtombnumber96 at Thebes.
Noticesheis carryingan ankhandothercult
implements.Photoby LeonardH. Lesko.
(Fischer1989:21).This givesus a
strongindicationthatwomenwielded
the family'spurchasingpower,a
prestigiousanddefinitelynot universalposition.Also significantis
evidencethat in the earliesthistorical periodsweavingworkshopswere
filledexclusivelybywomen,whereas
men didnot moveinto this importantindustryforseveralcenturies.
In the OldKingdom,titles denotingpositionsof responsibility
andauthoritybelongedto womenof
the elite class,who generallywere
closelytied bybloodor marriageto
the royalfamily.Tombinscriptions
of some womenprovidestartling
evidenceof theirprofessionalinvolvements.Onewomantells of being an overseerof femalephysicians
(Ghalioungui1975).Anotherused
the importanttitles of judgeand
vizier,althoughtheymayhavebeen
purelyhonorific(Fischer1976:7475).Thereis, however,an abundance
of titles forwomenin positionsof
authority,such as Directorof the
DiningHall,Overseerof Funerary
PriestsandOverseerof the Weavers'
House,to namea few (Fischer1976:
70-71).It wouldseem thatfewrestrictionswereplacedon womenof
abilityandhighsocialstatusin the
OldKingdom.It is interestingto
note thatreligiouspositionswere
not limitedto noblewomen,forwe
havefoundpriestessesof majorgoddesseswho bearhumbletitles such
as tenantfarmer.
honorific
Manyadministrative,
andpriestlytitles forwomenhave
beenrecoveredfromOldKingdom
monuments;fewerhavebeenfound
fromthe MiddleKingdom,which
followedthe FirstIntermediate
Period,a time of socialandeconomic
BiblicalArchaeologistsMarch1991
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5
Throughout
Egyptianhistoryprominent
womenin tombscenesaremostoftendepicted
as companionsof themen beingcommemorated.HereareRenutet,priestessof EIathor,
andherhusband,Yuny.ThisNew Kingdom
portraitdatesto theNineteenthDynasty.
Photocourtesyof theMetropolitan
Museum
of Art,New York(15.2.1,RogersFund).
piece as beingunmistakablyfrom
the OldKingdom.
A moreattractivefemaleportrait
is the MiddleKingdomstatueof
LadySentluwy,wife of the Nomarch
Hapdjefi.OriginallyfromAsslutand
now in the Museumof FineArtsin
Boston,this statueis a supremeexampleof lifesized Egyptianportraiturecarvedin granite.The graceof
the femalefigureis enhancedbythe
unknownsculptor'sdisperlsirlg
with
the backpillar,which too oftenmars
Egyptiansculpturein the round.A
veryfull coiffurelendsnecessary
supportforthe head,resultingin a
instability.MiddleKingdomtitles
forwomenseldomreflectpositions
of authority(Ward1989:34-391,
which suggestspoliticalandeconomic changes.Instead,they reveal
a rangeof jobsin the serviceindustries,fromscribeto hairdresser,
gardenerto miller (Ward1986:8-171.
Duringthe prosperousempireof
the New Kingdom,the civil service
andtemplehierarchiesbecameeven
moreprofessionalizedt
yet thereis
evidencethatwomenagainservedin
the cults of majoras well as minor
templesandthat theyfilled some
administrativepositions,such as
controllingaccessto templestores
(Lesko1987a:211.Numeroustexts
havesurvivedfromthis period,includingcourtdocumentsandprivate
lettersrevealingthatwomenhad
theirown independentlegalidentity
on a parwith men andthatthey
couldinheritorpurchaseproperty
anddisposeof it without a malecosignatoryor legalguardian.Indeedt
womenwereheadsof households,
testifiedin court,witnesseddocuments,actedas executorsof their
familyestatesandassumedthe obligationsof a citizenvis-a-visthe State.
6
Numerousrecordsshowthis was
trueof freewomenin generaltnot
justthose of the gentry(Allam1985:
14-221.On a personalleveltit is
clearthat womenenjoyedfreedom
of movementandassociation,that
they couldmarryanddivorceat will,
that they engagedin commerceand
that theywereableto exercise
authorityoverothersin the workplaceor temple.
Statuaryof women.In additionto
wall scenes,tombsandtemplescontainedprivatestatuaryofbothwomen
andmen. Privatemonumentsfrom
ancientEgypttendto be diminutivet
especiallyif carvedout of stone.
Formuch of its history,the pair
statueshowinga husbandandwife
(sometimesa son andmother)seated
side by sidewaspopular.A woman
wasnot only portrayedin the companyof herhusbandor son, however,
as individualportraitsof womenare
foundfromthroughoutthe centuries.
Oneexampleis the Mitr.t-priestess
fromGizadiscoveredearlierthis
centuryby an excavationteamfrom
the Universityof California.The
simpledress,stockybuildandbold
planesof the statuecharacterizethis
Thepairstatuewas verypopular,
but women
werenot onlyportrayed
in the companyof
theirhusbandsorsons.Individualfemale
portraitshavebeenfoundfromthroughout
the centuries.Oneexampleis thisMitr.tpriestessfromGiza,discoveredearlierthis
centurybyan excavationteamfromthe
Universityof Californiaat Berkeley.The
simpledress,stockybuildand boldplanesof
thestatuecharacterize
it as belongingto the
OldKingdom.Photocourtesyof theLowie
MuseumofAnthropology,
the Universityof
Californiaat Berkeley(619802).
Biblical Archaeologist, March 1991
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Artin New York,wasfoundat Adana
in AsiaMinor.
Egypt'sempirecontinuedto
expandin the New Kingdom,resulting in greatercosmopolitansophistzcation.Duringthis periodportraits
of womerlwerecreatedin all media
andsizes,with the womarSssocial
statusor wealthgenerallyreflected
in the size of the statue.The wife of
a high officialmightbe commemoratedin a life-sizedsculpture,while
womenof morehumblestations
hadto be contentwith statuettes
measuringonly a foot ortwo in
height.Althougha womanwas
believed
Egyptians
when
that
their
it
tombs
perpetuate
into
put
were
depictions
in
eternal
thanstatues,presumablybecause
theywereeasierto produceandcost
less,arestelaededicatedto preserving
the memoryof individuals.These
stelaedepictthe deceased,and
sometimesfamilymembers,seated
at a tableloadedwith foodanddrinl<.
Theyareinscribedwith the names
andtitles of the ownerlandusually
familymembersJtogetherwith an
invocationthat wasmeanteither
magicallyto perpetuatethe offerings
of "athousandeachof bread,beer,
would
them
life.
usuallypairedwith a male relative,
thereareseveralstatuesin which a
womanis pairedwith a femalerelative (usuallya motheranddaughter),
andthereareindividualportrait
sculpturesas well. Typicallyin this
morevoluptuousagethe artisttook
This Middle Kingdomportraitof Lady
Sennuwy of Assiut, wife of the Nomarch
greatcareto delineatethe curls
Hapdjefisis a supremeexample of life-sized
of the wigs andthe textureof the
Egyptianportraiturecarvedin granite.Note
that the unknown sculptorused a full coiffure dresses.Someof the most enchantinstead of the usual back pillar to support
ing individualportraitsof women
the head, resulting in a graceful,more lifelike
are
donein woodandcomefromthe
portrayal.Photo courtesy of the Museum of
Ramessideage.The lines of their
Fine Arts) Boston (14.720).
slim andalwaysyouthfulbodiesare
shownthroughdiaphanouslinen
morelifelikeportrayal.Still, one
wishes formoreautobiographical robeswith foldsandpleatsthat are
informationfromthese monuments. especiallyeasyto portrayin this
this statuewasfound softermedium.Idealisticportrayals
Mysteriously,
wereverycommonapparentlybefarfromherhome in the Dongola
causethe Egyptiansbelievedthat
regionof the UpperNile, partof a
when such depictionswereplacedin
barbaricburial.Determininghow,
when andwhy it got thereis prob- tombstheywouldperpetuatethem
lematic.Similarly,a much smaller into eternallife.Afterall, who would
statueof an Egyptianfemalenurse, not lilneto remainyoungforever?
nowin the MetropolitanMuseumof Privatestelae.Evenmorecommon
As Egypt'sempirecontinued to expand during
the New Kingdom,a greatercosmopolitan
sophistication resulted. Typicallyin this
more voluptuousage sculptorstook great care
to delineate the curls of women's wigs and
the texture of their dresses, as exemplified by
this wooden statuette of Lady Teyedating to
the EighteenthDynasty. Photo courtesy of
the MetropolitanMuseum of Art, New York
(41.2.10,RogersPund).
BiblicalArchaeologist,March1991
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7
oxen,andfowl"or at
least-provide
a text for
l l
passersbyto reciteand
|
I
thus ensuresustenance
|
!
to the deceasedland
|
|
family).
l |
The majorityof stel
lae depicthusbandsand
|
wives,but some women
l
hadstelaeexclusivelyof
l!
theirown or shared
l
them with femalerelal
tives.Stelaedonatedby
l
daughtersto commemoratetheirmothershave
|
beenfound.In anycase,
|
the namesof the women
|
areoftenaccompanied
by theirtitles, whether
|
secularor religious.
|
Manyfemalemembers
X
of the OldKingdomelite
borethe title of King's
Acquaintance,also
knownfrommonuments
|
of men. Later,the most
|
commontitle, regardless
1]
of socialstatus,was
11
Mistressof the House.A
womanwho couldclaim
a clericaltitle wassure
i
to mentionit on her
tomb,statue,or stela.
Suchmonumentstell of
the roleswomenplayedin ancient
Egyptiansociety,which,when
comparedwith datesof the source
materials,changedovertime. For
instance,morewomenheldhighrankingpriestesspositionsin the
OldKingdomthanin the centuries
immediatelyfollowingit (Galvin
1989:26)
Up until the TwelfthDynasty
(MiddleKingdom),stelaeweremade
forfunerarypurposesonly,but
abouthalfthe piecesdatingto the
MiddleKingdomseemto havebeen
dedicatedduringa persoWs
life as
votivesforgods.Similarly,small
stoneofferingtablesbearingthe
namesandtitles of the dedicators
werea favoriteformof commemoration as well as an expressionof a
persontspiety.A groupof 14offering
Iconographic
changes
in scenesdepictedon
stelaehavebeenstudied,
andit is interestingto
note that as the Twelfth
Dynastyprogressedthe
motherseemsincreasingly to displacethe wife in
.
prommence
|
8
Evenmorecommonthanstatuesarestelae
dedicatedtopreservingthememoryof individuals.Thesestelaedepictthe deceased,
andsometimesfamilymembers,sittingat a
tableloadedwith foodanddrink.Theyare
inscribedwith thenamesand titlesof the
ownertogetherwith an invocationdesigned
to ensuresustenanceto the deceasedand
family.Themajorityofstelaedepicthusbands
andwives,butsomewomenhadstelaeof
theirownorsharedthemwithfemalerelatives.Thispaintedlimestonestelafromthe
MiddleKingdomis dedicatedto two women,
InyotefanAh
andMeswet-NetretteXh,
byfour
otherwomen,presumablyof modestmeans.
Photocourtesyof theMetropolitan
Museum
ofArtJNew York(36.3.270).
tablesdedicatedby womenwere
foundtogetherat Lisht.Theywere
apparentlydedicatedby womenof
modestmeans,with titles ranging
fromhall keeperto housemaidand,
possibly,cleaninglady(Ward1989:
33-34).
.
m
.
taml.
..
.y
sceneson stelaeowned
by men. Evenwhen the
fatheris depicted,he is
neverportrayed
asprominentlyas the mother
(Pfluger1947:128-29).
The importanceof the
motherin the Egyptian
familyis reflectedin the
literatureof all periods
as well as in the factthat
Egyptianmen,eventhose
of the highestsocialclass
andin highestranlQs
of
the civil serviceor the
military,oftenplaced
only theirmothers'
nameson theirmonuments andotherdocuments.Familygroups
predominateon stelae
fromall periods.As with
stelaedepictingonlymen,
the numberof stelae
designedexclusivelyfor
womenseems to be small. Sceneson
funerarystelaeusuallyshowa male
figure,probablya son, performing
ritesbeforehis parents,but occasionallya femalefigureofficiates.
Femalevotivestelae,on which only
the womendedicatoris depicted
worshipingherfavoritedeities,have
beenfoundin numeroustownand
cemeterycontexts,such as at Deir
el-MedinehandAbydos.
Nineteenth-centuryarchaeologistAugusteMariettefound23
LatePeriodstelaeof womenbearing
the religioustitle chantresstogether
in one partof the greatnational
shrineandnecropolisof Abydos,
which wassacredto Osiris,a godof
the dead(Mariette1880:numbers
1173-94).Ofthe 23 stelae,only five
includeda husband's
figureandname,
BiblicalArchaeologist, March 1991
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whereas18belongedto womenalone.
Mostof these werechantressesof
Osiris,but threeservedIsis andtwo
servedAmon.This groupof stelae
suggeststhat womencouldexercise
freedomof choicewhen it cameto
theirfunerarymonuments;it also
furthersthe possibilitythatwives
depictedin limitedrolesin what
appearsto havebeentheirhusbands'
tombchapelartmaynot alwayshave
beenburiedwith theirhusbands.
Theycouldhavemaintainedtheir
ownreligiousfunerarymonuments
at cemeteriesandholy shrinesof
theirchoosing.Becausefunerary
andotherreligiousmonumentscontainlittle biographicalinformation
-anddo not focuson the concernsof
everydaylife, it is fortunatethat
Egyptiantextsin the formof personal
documents
lettersandadministrative
abound.Fromthese documentsa
muchclearerpictureof the lives led
by ordinaryEgyptianscanbe reconstructed(compareJames1962,1984;
Cerny1973;Bierbrier1982;Romer
1984;Lesko1987a,1987b).
Monumentsof EgyptianQueens
Tombsbelongingexclusivelyto
womenhavesurvivedfromthe beginningof Egyptianhistory.Some
queensof the earlydynastieswere
commemoratedwith tombsas large
as those of kings,testimonyto their
all-importantheiresspositionandto
theirreligioussignificanceas daughtersandwives of god-kings.However,
the best preservedevidenceforthe
statusof noblewomenin the initial
stagesof pharaonicEgyptsurvives
fromthe FourthDynasty(OldKingdom)necropolisat Giza.The wives
builder
andmotherof Khufu(Cheops),
of the GreatPyramid,sharedwith
him the royalpyramidstyle tomb,
its magicalqualitiesandthe royal
funeraryreligiousliteraturelEdwards
1986:189-96,296-302),a privilege
not grantedevento the maleheir
apparent.Laterin the dynastyother
royalwomenhadtheirlarge,flattopped(mastaba)tombsintermingledwith those of theirbrothers
in the royalEasternCemetery.For
instance,QueenMersyankhIII,who
diedbeforeherhusbandKingKhafre
andhermotherQueenHetepheresII,
waslaidto restin a largemastaba
chapelsinside
with above-ground
as
andoutsidethe superstructure
set
well as an elaboratesubterranean
evidenceforthestatusof of roomshewn in the rockandbeauThebestpreserved
noblewomenin theinitialstagesofpharaonic
tifully decoratedwith wall reliefs
EgyptsurvivesfromtheFourthDynasty
necropolisat Giza.Above:Thequeens'
andsculpturehewnfromthe living
picpyramidsat thepyramidof Menkaure,
rock(DunhamandSimpson19741.
turedhere,show thatwomensharedthe
royalpyramidstyle tomb.Photoby
pharaoh's
LeonardH. Lesko.Below:Laterin theFourth
Dynastyotherroyalwomenhad theirflattombsintermixedwith
topped(mastaba)
thoseof theirbrothersin theroyalEastern
III,who died
Cemetery.QueenMersyanAh
beforeherhusbandKingKhafreandher
II,waslaid to rest
motherQueenHetepheres
chapels
in a largemastabawith above-ground
as well
insideandoutsidethesuperstructure
as an elaborate,beautifullydecoratedsubset of roomshewnin therock.
terranean
in
areportrayed
andMersyanAh
Hetepheres
thispairstatue.Photocourtesyof the
Museumof FineArts,Boston(30.1456).
Thisimpressivetombbuiltby QueenKhentkaweslies betweenthecausewaysof thesecondandthirdpyramidsat Giza.Livingat the
is
endof theFourthDynasty,KhentRawes
believedto havebeenthedynasticlink to the
FifthDynastybecausehermostsignificant
title translatesas Motherof TwoKingsof
UpperandLowerEgypt.Oneof thesons
who built
musthavebeenKingNeferirkare,
on thesouthside of his pyramidtombat Abu
Sira smallerpyramidtombforKhentkawes.
PhotobyLeonardH. Lesko.
Betweenthe causewaysof the
secondandthirdpyramidsat Giza
lies an impressivetombbuilt by
QueenKhentkawes.Livingat the
endof the FourthDynasty,she is
believedto havebeenthe dynastic
link to the FifthDynastybecause
her most significanttitle translates
as Motherof TwoKingsof Upper
andLowerEgypt.One of the sons
musthavebeenKingNeferirkare,
who built his pyramidtombat nearbyAbuSir;therehe provided,on the
south side,a smallerpyramidtomb
forKhentkawes,thus restoringto
herthe benefitsof sucha tombstyle.
Heroriginallargetombmaynot
haveseemedso inferiorto the queen
mother,however,becauseKing
Shepseskhaf,who ruledat the end of
March1991
BiblicalArchaeologisto
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9
Thiscolossalfigureof QueenNefertari,
flankedby thoseof herhusband}Ramesses
theGreat,arecutintothefacadeof Nefertari's
templeat AbuSimbel,locatedseveralhundred
yardsto thenorthof themaintemple Largerthan-lifestatuesof queensappearedin the
OldKingdomandcontinuedinto theMiddle
Kingdom}
butit wasduringtheNewKingdom
thatthemost dazzlingarrayof monuments
commemoratinggreat
womenwasproduced.
PhotobyLeonardH. Lesko.
becomewell-knownfromanother
portraitthat recentlytraveledthe
worldas partof the Rarnessesthe
Greatexhibition.
If the wife andfamilyof Ramesses IIarelilliputiansnext to his four
colossi at AbuSimbel'sgreater
temple,so too is the supremegod
Re,depictedon his perchabovethe
entrancedoor.The factthatthe
king'sfamilywereoftendepictedat
the levelof the legs of his colossal
figureshouldnot blindus to the importanceof the greatroyalwife in
Egyptianhistory.Thequeenwasoften
of purerroyalbloodthanherhusband,whose claimto the throneshe
legitimized.In religiousterms,the
queenwasthe embodimentof the
goddessesHathor(wifeof Re)and
Dualityof rulershipseemsto be expressedby
thispowerfulFourthDynastyportraitgroup
of KingMenkaure
andQueenKhamerernebty,
as thefiguresareof equalsizeandstance.
Photoby LeonardH. Lesko,courtesyof the
Museumof FineArtsJBoston.
the FourthDynasty,hadalso elected lDuell 1938).Suchwerethe biasesof
to havethis samestyle of tomb,
male researchersin the 1930s.
Themonumentsof ancientEgypwhichloolredlilrea giantsarcophagus
tian queensor greatroyalwives las
mountedon a highpodium.However,the practiceof providinga pyra- they werecalled)aretoo numerous
mid tombforqueenscontinuedinto to recounthere.Manyarefamiliar
the SixthDynastyandthe Twelfth to everyone,however,such as the
paintedportraitbustof QueenNeferDynasty,afterwhich time royal
pyramidswereabandonedin favorof titi, wife of the controversial
pharaoh
morehidden,rock-hewnsepulchres. Alrhenaten,or the colossalfigureof
Duringthe OldKingdom,prin- Nefertari,wifeof Ramessesthe Great,
cesses andwives of powerfulmen
sculptedintothe facadeof the smaller
wereoftenprovidedwith stelaeand templeof AbuSimbel.Larger-thanlife statuesof queensappearedin the
statuaryfortheirtombsfromthe
royalworkshops.In time their
OldKingdomandcontinuedinto
mastabatombchapels,like those of the MiddleKingdom,but it wasduring the EighteenthandNineteenth
theirhusbands,becamemoreand
moreelaborate.Wholesuites of
Dynastiesthat the most dazzling
roomsinvadedthe massof the
arrayof monumentscommemoratmastaba,theirwallscoveredentire- ing greatwomenwasproduced.The
ly with depictionsof the owners,
colossalpairstatueof AmenhotepIII
theirretinues,andactivitieson their andhis common-bornwife Queen
estates.It is unfortunatethat the
Tiy dominatesthe maincourtof the
publlcationof one of the most sigCairoMuseum,anda colossus131
nificanttombsof the SixthDynasty, feet tall)of the daughterof Ramesses
thatofPrinceMereruka,
neglectedthe the Greatoncestoodbesidehis colosroomsdevotedto his wife, Princess sus that still standsat a templein
Watetkhet-Hor,
andconcentratedon Akhmim.The attractivefeaturesof
only the husband'spartof the tomb this princess,Meryetamun,have
10
BiblicalArchaeologistJ
March1991
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Mut (wifeof Amon);in earlierages
she was closelyassociatedwith the
goddessNeit. The famouspairstatue in the Museumof FineArts in
BostondepictingKingMenkauref
builderof the thirdGizapyramid,
is
andhis queenfKhamerernebtyf
the epitomeof equalityin size and
strength.The two figuressharethe
traditionalmasculinestanceof left
footforward.The queensfeaturesare
repeatedon statuesof the goddess
Hathorfoundnearbyin this temple.
Somedaughtersof the godJas
full-bloodedroyalprincesseswere
calledfnot only legitimizeda halfbrotheror an unrelatedcandidateJs
claimto rulefthey actuallytook the
reinsof government.Thebestknown
exampleof this wasHatshepsutin
the EighteenthDynasty.Hermagnificentmortuarytempleat Deir elBahriis the greatestmonumentto
a womansurvivingfromantiquity.
Numerousstatuesof her havebeen
uncoveredby excavations,most of
which areon displayat the MetropolitanMuseumof Artin New York.
Theyincludeleoninesphinxesand
all bearing
toweringOsiridestatuesZ
the queenfsdelicatelyfeminineface.
SomesculpturesshowHatshepsut
in garbtraditionallywornbymale
pharaohs;othersshowherin a dress.
NewKingdompharaohswereapt
to providechapelsfortheirpredecessorswithin theirownmortuary
but Hatshepsut,instead
templesZ
of dedicatinga chapelforher late
husband,turnedit overto services
forherfather.Inscriptionsin the
templepurportto quoteThutmoseI
as pronouncinghis daughterhis heir
andaskingthe chiefmenof the realm
to supporther (Naville1898:plates
Not contentwith this paLXI-LXII).
ternalpoliticalsupportfHatshepsut
also clarifiedherdivinerightto rule
byrecordingthe miracleof herbirth
on the wallsof the secondterrace,
northendfwith vastanddetailed
scenes-ofherdivineconceptionand
birth(Naville1896:platesXLVIIXLIX; LIII-LIV).Also illustratedare
howAmonfking of the gods}desigmotherto be his
natedHatshepsutJs
bride;howshe conceivedHatshepsut;
how all the greatancestralgoddesses
aidedherbirthandsuckledher;andJ
laterfhow the greatgodarrangedand
presidedoverhercoronation.To
celebrate15yearson the thronef
Hatshepsuthelda jubileeanderected
obeliskssheathedin goldalloy;they
weretallerthanherfatherfsand
loomedabovethe roofline of the
Rarnaktemple.
Above: The terracedmortuarytemple of
Queen Hatshepsut at Deir el-Bahrion the
west bank at Luxoris the greatest monument
to a woman survivingfrom antiquity. Left:
Thereare numerous statues of this Eighteenth Dynasty queenJwho reignedd7uringan
age of prosperity,sophistication and relative
peace. This sphinx emphasizes Hatshepsutts
kingly role by presentingher as a lion, an ageold motif regardedas the prerogativeof kings.
Photo courtesy of the MetropolitanM7useum
of 24rtJNew York(31.3.94).
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Ael
Hatshepsutreignedin an ageof
prosperityZ
sophisticationandrelative peaceZ
which she claimedto
havekeptherselfbyjoiningher
troopsacrossEgyptZs
southernboundaryill displaysof militaryforce.
Hatshepsutwasfollowedon the
thronebyhernephewZ
the highly
capablerulerThutmoseIIIIwho has
been calledthe Napoleonof Egypt
forhis empirebuilding(althoughhe
wasreallyrepeatingexploitsof
HatshepsutZs
father).ThlltmoseIIIis
believedto havebeenresponsiblefor
the eventualdestructionof HatshepsutZsmonumexlts.If so, we must suspect that the memoryof this strong
femalepharaohlingeredin the
mindsof herpeopleandwasviewed
as a threatbyher male successors.
Hatshepsutcamefroma longline
of dynamicwomen.Amongthese
was QueenAhmose-Nefertaril
wife
ofAhmoseZ
founderof theEighteenth
Dynasty.Ahmose-Nefextari
was
givenconsiderableauthorityixlthe
cult of the Kingof the Godswhexl
she wasmadeGodJsWifeof AmonZ
a positionthatheld a chief roleas a
priestessin the nationalcult center
andwasprovidedwith goodsand
propertylegallydocumexlted
and
publishedforall to see on a monumentalstela set up in the templeof
Amonat Karnak(Robins1983:7073).Thereis no questionthat
Ahmose-Nefertari
functionedactively as a priestessin the Amoncult
andthat she wieldedconsiderable
economicpowerandcontrolledbuildingprojectsat severalcult sites
throughoutthe country.Evenbeyond
thistherroyaltitles includedthe exceptionalFemaleChieftainof Upper
andLowerEgypt,which malnesit
lilrelythat afterherhusbanddied
she ruledas regentforher sont
AmenhotepI. New Kingdomqueens
generallyhadto be contentwith
havingtheirfunerarycult place
within the mortuarytempleof their
husbandstbut Amerlhoteperecteda
mortuarytempleforher.AhmoseNefertarioutlivedAmenhotepand
washonoredas well byhis picked
12
fth
Dynasty
1991
1786
successorlThutmoseIZwhen he set
up a colossalstatueof the old quee.n
in the courthe built at Karnak.It
wasThutmose'sdaughterZ
HatshepsutSwho latersucceededto the
GodlsWifeposition.
Wallpaintixlgsin manyprivate
tombsmemorializethe greatqueen.
Majormonumentsof another
EighteenthDynastyqueencameunexpectedlyto lightwhena University
of Torontoexcavationteamled by
DonaldB.Redfordset out to recover
templesthat the heretickingAmenDuring
the
last
hotepIV(Akhexlaten)
built at Karnak
anddedicatedto his new god,the
10 dynasties
solardiscJAten. Suchstructures
were
knownto exist becauseof the
private
statuary
thousandsof looseZsmall stone
blocks(ta1atat) thathadlain unmarkedly
decreased.
assembledformanyyears,like misplacedpiecesof a jigsawpussleZin
AfterherdeathJAhmosethe shadowsof the Karnaktemple.
Nefertariwas deifiedZ
andhername WhenCanadianandEgyptianarchaewasevokedin prayersalongside
ologistsbeganto studythe blocks
those of the Thebanholy triad.Her anduncovermoxefromthe interior
cult waspopularin Egyptformany of the secondandtenthpylons(where
centuriesZ
particularlyamongthe
the blockshadbeenreusedafter
Akhenaten/stempleshadbeentorn
down)the excavators
wereastonished
Ancient EgyptianChronology
to
find
that
the
predominant
royal
3100-30B.C.E.
figure
in
the
cult
of
the
god
was
FirstDynasty
3100-2890
Second Dynasty
2890-2686
QueenNefertiti.
The largestof the two Aten
OldKtngdom
temples
at Karnak(theGemPaAten)
Third Dynasty
26862613
PourthDynasty
2613-2494
hadmanyrowsof piexsdecorated
Fifth Dynasty
2494-2345
with largescenesof Nefertitiandher
Sixth DyIlasty
2345-2181
eldestdaughter,MeretatenZ
sacrific1stIntermediatePeriod2181-2050
ing to the sun disk at the highaltar.
Axlothertemple,the Maxlsionof the
MiddleKingdom
BenbenStone(theage-oldsacred
EleventhDynasty
2134-1991
totemof the sun goditwasawholly
given
overto the use of the queenZ'
2ndIntermediatePeriod1786-1567
(Redford1984:138).ItspylonedgateNew Kingdom
waysalso hadlargescenes showing
EighteenthDynasty
1567-1320 the queenandhereldestdaughters
Nineteenth Dynasty
1320-1200
TwentiethDynasty
1200-1085 as celebrantsin the cult. The queen
appearstwice as oftenasherhusband
3rdIntexmediate
Period1085-747
in the talatat scenesandsometimes
in otherpharaonicroles,such as in
LatePeriod
Rushite (Twenty-fifih}Dynasty 747-664
the guiseof a warriorbrandishinga
Saite (Twenty-sisth}Dynasty
664-52S
scimitarZ
readyto smite a captive
PersianConquest
525
(Redford1984:78).
AlexanderJsConquest
332
Egyptologistshaveyet to resolve
Ptolemaic Rule 305-30
the questionof why Nefertitiis so
muchmoreprominentthanAkhenatombworkersof the pharaohswho ten in scenesat Thebes.Wasshe asthoughtof herandher son as their signedto the sacredcity as a represpecialpatronsbecauseunderthem sentativeof the kingrulingfromthe
old capltalof Memphisin the north?
the workersZ
villagein the great
Sucha rolelaterfell to the daughters
Thebannecropoliswasfounded.
BiblicalArchaeologistJ March 1991
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of the monarchsof the ThirdInterpredemediatePeriod.Akhenaterl's
cessor,AmenhotepIII,seemsto have
favoredThebesas his residence,and
he mayhavehada closerrelationshipwith Nefertitithanis usually
thought,possiblyas the surrogate
fatherof her children.If medical
expertsarecorrectandAkhenaten
sufferedfromFroehliclissyndrome
(amalfunctionof the pituitarythat
causes,amongotherconditions,
sterilityl,he couldnot havefathered
Nefertiti'ssix daughters(Harrisand
Hussien 1988:126;Aldred1988:
however,
231-321.Herfather-in-law,
hadalreadysiredseveraldaughters
andwouldhavebeenthe only reasonableanswerto the youngcouple's
desireforheirs.Scenesdepicting
AmenhotepIIIas a corpulentold
manwerefoundat the site of Tell
el-Amarna,whereAkhenatenand
fighthe controversial
Aboveright:Nefertitiwas the wifeofAmenhotepIV(Akhenaten),
teenthDynastypharaohwho worshipedthe solardisc,Aten,aboveall othergods.In this
Nefertitiandherdaughterareshown
scenefromoneAtentempleat Karnak(nowdestroyed),
offeringsacrificesat thealtarofAten,whoseraysshinedownuponthem.Courtesyof Donald
Above:OnsometalatatscenesfrornKarnak,Nefertitiis shownin pharaonicroles,
B.Redford.
as in thisimageof herboatthatincludesa kiosk(topblock,farlefi)in whichsheis portrayed
as a warriorreadyto strikean enerny.Photocourtesyof theMuseumof FineArts,Boston
(63.260,64.521).
Nefertitididnot resideuntil yearsis
reign.It is possible,
of Akhenaterl's
as CyrilAldredhas suggested,that
these andotherscenesindicate
AmenhotepIIIwasstill aliveat the
time (Aldred1988:176-821.Thushe
couldhavefatheredNefertiti'schildrenas well as beena strongbaclrer
of herleadershiproleto the disadvantageof his sickly anddeformed
son. It is alsopossiblethat Nefertiti,
beingmoreobviouslyphysicallyfit
thanherhusband,maysimplyhave
to herselfpoliticaland
arrogated
religiouspower.OnceAmenhotepIII
died,however,Nefertitiseems to
havegraduallylost out to hereldest
daughter,whosepresencein inscriptions beganto increaseandwho
apparentlybecameherfather'snew
favorite(Redford1984:187-88).
Somescholarshavearguedfora
namechangeandevengreaterpoliticalpowerforNefertitiin the guiseof
KingSmenkhkare(Sampson1985:
83-99),but recentresearchon the
royalmummyfoundin tomb55 in
the Valleyof the Kings(Harris1989)
seemsto confirmthatanotheryoung
royalman,verylikely a brotherof
precededTuton the
Tutankhamun,
throneof the pharaohs.Possibly
Nefertitihadbecomeill orblindby
middleage-blindness is a distinct
possibilityforanyonewho stares
directlyinto the sunfsrays,especially
on numerousoccasions-but, in any
case,herdaysof gloryseem to have
beenin heryouth
Duringthe last 10dynastiesprivatestatuarynoticeablydecreased,
perhapsas a resultof economicuncertainties,but numerousmonuments of varioustypes-statues,
tombs,templeshrinesandmonumentalinscriptions-belongto
womenof rankin Egypt'spostempire
dynasties,the ThirdIntermediate
Periodandthe LatePeriod.Pharaohs
to Twenty-third
of the Twenty-first
Dynastiesruledfromthe northbut
felt the needto havea familyrepresentativebasedin the south,a position which, afterthe New Kingdom,
becamepoliticallyindependent
underthe highpriestsof Amon.
Duringthis periodpharaohsturned
to theirdaughtersandnot theirsons
to representtheirinterestsin the
south.Thus a royalprincesswascustomarilymarriedto a Thebanhigh
priestandbecamea chiefconcubine
of Amon-Re.The daughterof such a
unionwouldassumethe old sacerdotaltitle of God'sWifeof Amon.As
previouslydiscussed,numerousbenthis title. Decrees
eficesaccompanied
in the nameof the R;ingof the Gods
werecarvedon the walls of Karnak's
seventhandtenthpylons,confirming
rightsof these royal
the proprietary
womenandextendingdeificationto
them posthumously.Withestates
andofficialsto servethem,the God's
Wiveslivedlike monarchsandcarriedout the officialreligiousfunctions hithertoreservedforthe king.
BiblicalArchaeologist,March1991
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13
Indeed,laterpharaohsinstalledtheir
daughtersin this importantpost.
andinsecurity
Impoverishment
markedthe postempireperiod,and
Dynastywas
the Twenty-second
markedby nearcivil warbetween
UpperandLowerEgypt,leavingthe
dooropento invasionfromthe south.
A Kushite(Nubian)invasionin the
Dynastybroughtpeace
Twenty-fifth
pontiffmaintainedherpresenceas
the chiefsacerdotalauthorityin
Thebes.Indeed,most scholarswho
havewrittenaboutthis phenomenon
believethat the God'sWifewas a
veritablesovereignof the Theban
areaandareasto the south.Certainly
the royalwomenwho functionedin
this officedominatedthe officialart
of the period.
ShepenupetI, daughterof the
last nativeruler,wasforcedto adopt
AmenirdisI, the daughterof the
KushiterulerKashta,an ardentfollowerof Amon.AmenirdisI ruled
joirltlywith ShepenupetI forat least
13years.As the God'sWife,Amenirdis I left manymonuments,including some finely sculpturedportraits
of herself.Oneportrait,now in the
JoslynArtMuseumin Omaha,Nebraska,is not the most flatteringof
Amenirdis(althoughit playsdown
herforeignfeatureslandharlnens
backto much olderartistictraditions.Moreinnovativeandaliveis
the faiencestatuettein Cairoof the
sameGod'sWifeshownin the lapof
the godAmon;theyarein a closeembrace,with theirarmsflungaround
eachother.No productof Egyptian
artistshas everbetterdisplayedsuch
passionbetweenlovers.
In additionto monumentalinAmenirdisI, daughterof the Kushiteruler
scriptionsandindividualportraits,
I,
Kashta,ruledjointlywith Shepenupet
royalwomenbearingthe title of
daughterof thelast nativeruler,forat least
God'sWifeleft funerarymonuments
Dynasty.
13yearsduringthe Twenty-fifth
As the God'sWife,Amenirdisleft many
andtombs.Alongthe southeastern
monuments,includingsomefinelysculpcornerof the greatouterwall of the
turedportraits,suchas thispiecenowin the
mortuarytempleof RamessesIIIat
JoslynArtMuseumin Omaha,Nebraska
(1953.80).Thestyleof the wigharkensback
MedinetHabu,locatedon the southto MiddleKingdomandevenOldKingdom ernendof the west bankat Luxor,is
butthe crownis moresuggestive
coiffures7
a seriesof elegantfuneralchapels
of theNew Kingdom.Photocourtesyof the
JoslynArtMuseum.
(Hoelscher1954:17-29).Amongthe
bestpreservedis thesandstonechapel
of AmenirdisI with its fine,raised
only at the cost of manylives,and
decorationandfiguresdrawn
relief
this peacewas once againbrokenby
proportionsandpurityof
in
"classic
attacksfromthe east.Not only did
1980:222).Amenirdis's
(Aldred
line"
mightyAssyriainvadeEgypttwice,
like
those of others
inscriptions,
but Assyriantroopsextendedtheir
of God'sWife,detitle
held
the
who
rampageas farup the riveras Thebes,
of Upperand
Mistress
her
as
scribe
wherethey desecratedthe great
she was
at
death
and
Egypt,
Lower
much
templesandstrippedthem of
deified.
treasure.Throughit all, in unbroken
Lessthana centuryafterthe
successionby adoption,the female
14
reignof Amenirdis,a northernEgyptian leaderwhosepowerbasewas
the city-ofSaisin the Nile Delta
cameto the forewith Assyrianhelp
andfoundedthe Twenty-sixthDynasty.This ruler,Psamtik,hadhis
youngdaughter,Nitocris,adopted
intotheCollegeofDivineAdoratrices
at Thebes,althoughshe hadto wait
herturnduringthe reignsof ShepenupetIIandher adopteddaughter
(andactualniece)AmenirdisEI.A
hugegranitestelaset up at Karnak's
westenddocumentsPsamtik'sformal
entranceinto Thebesandthe endowment to be givento Nitocrisafter
the deathof those holdingthe title
of God'sWife(Caminos1964:74 76).
Nitocrislivedfor70 yearsbeyond
the dateof her adoptioninto the
priestlyhierarchy.Sheadoptedher
owngreatniece,AnkhesNeferibres
In additionto monumentalinscriptionsand
royalwomenbearing
individualportraits,
the title of God'sWifeleft funerarymonumentsandtombs.Alongthesoutheastern
cornerof thegreatouterwall of themortuary
templeof RamessesIIIat MedinetHabuis a
pictured
seriesof elegantfuneralchapelsJ
is thesandhere.Amongthe bestpreserved
stonechapelofAmenirdisI. Photocourtesy
of TheOrientalInstituteof TheUniversityof
Chicago.
who becamethe last God'sWifebut
lost herpowerin 525 B.C.E. as a result
of the Persianconquestof Egypt.
Spacedoesnot allowfora review
of the manymonumentsdatingto
the PtolemaicPeriodandits famous
queens(mostnotedlyArsinoeIIand
CleopatraVII).Sufficeit to saythat
althoughEgypt'slast independent
rulerswereforeignborntheyfound
Biblical Archaeologist, March 1991
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woulduse (Pomeroy
1984: 119 20).
muchto emulatefromearlierEgyptianculture,the politicalimportance
of the royalwomenas well as the
grandtemples.Theserulersalso rspectedthe age-oldlegaltraditions
of independenceandgreaterrights
forwomenbyallowingtwo lawcodes
to coexistso that women-Egyptian
orHellene-would not haveto suffer
the constraintsof Greeklawsbut
wouldhavea choiceas to which they
Duringthe classicalage,wellreadauthorswerethe best publicists
forthe independenceof the Egyptian
woman,whichtheyfoundquiteshocking.The GreekhistorianHerodotus,
forexample,commented:
As the Egyptianshavea climate
peculiarto themselves. . . so
havetheymadeall theircustoms
andlawsof a kindcontraryfor
the mostpartto thoseof all other
men.Amongthem,the women
buy andsell, the men abideat
homeandweave;andwhereas
in weavingall otherspushthe
woofupwards,the Egyptians
pushit downwards.
Mencarry
burdenson theirheads,women
on theirshoulders{Histozy,
book2, chapter35; see Godley
1966:315-16).
Conclusion
As these monumentsshow,modern
archaeologyhas uncoveredconcrete
evidencethat ancientEgyptian
womenled full lives.Although
monumentsleft by commonersare
not as largein scaleor as fine as
those of royalwomentthey aremost
eloquent,forthey speakof independenceandself-respecton the partof
manywomenwho livedin Egypt
morethan3,000yearsago.
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