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AN ENCYCLOPEDIA FOR STUDENTS
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AN ENCYCLOPEDIA FOR STUDENTS
Paul F. Grendler, Editor in Chief
PUBLISHED IN ASSOCIATION WITH THE RENAISSANCE SOCIETY OF AMERICA
Volume 4
PRINTING AND PUBLISHING—WRITING
The Renaissance An Encyclopedia for Students
Paul F. Grendler, Editor in Chief
Copyright © 2004 Charles Scribner’s Sons.
Developed for Charles Scribner’s Sons by
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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOG-IN-PUBLICATION DATA
The Renaissance : an encyclopedia for students / Paul F. Grendler.
p. cm
Summary: An encyclopedia of the Renaissance with articles on various
aspects of social, cultural, and political history such as literature, government, warfare, and technology, plus maps, charts, definitions, and
chronology.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-684-31281-6 (set hardcover : alk. paper) — ISBN 0-684-31282-4
(v. 1) — ISBN 0-684-31283-2 (v. 2) — ISBN 0-684-31285-9 (v. 3) — ISBN
0-684-31284-0 (v. 4) — ISBN 0-684-31424-X (e-book)
1. Renaissance—Encyclopedias, Juvenile. [1. Renaissance—
Encyclopedias.] I. Grendler, Paul F. II. Encyclopedia of the Renaissance.
III. Title.
CB361.R25 2003
940.2’1’03—dc22
This title is also available as an e-book
ISBN 0-684-31424-X (set)
Contact your Gale sale representative for ordering information
Printed in the United States of America
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Table of Contentse
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VOLUME 1
Academies—Cromwell
VOLUME 2
Daily Life—Julius II
VOLUME 3
Kepler—Princes and Princedoms
VOLUME 4
Printing and Publishing—Writing
Maps
Volume 1
Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
The Americas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Asia and the Indian Ocean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Volume 2
City of Florence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Habsburg Lands. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Holy Roman Empire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Italy, 1500 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
THE RENAISSANCE
Volume 3
London . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
The Netherlands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
The Ottoman Empire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
The Papal States in Italy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Volume 4
Rome. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Russia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
The Scandinavian Kingdoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Spanish Kingdoms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Universities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Venetian Territories in the Eatern
Mediterranean. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Genealogical Charts
Volume 2
Tudor Dynasty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Habsburg Dynasty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Volume 4
Spanish Monarchs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Valois Dynasty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Volume 3
House of Medici . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Color Plates
Volume 1
Art and Architecture
Volume 3
The Renaissance City
Volume 2
Daily Life
Volume 4
New Frontiers
vi
THE RENAISSANCE
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PRINTING AND PUBLISHING
Printing ande
Publishing
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Printing and Publishing
T
he development of printing was one of the most important events
of the Renaissance, with a major impact on many aspects of society.
Printing promoted literacy by making the written word available to a
larger public. It was also a key element in the spread of religious, social,
and artistic ideas throughout northern Europe.
ORIGINS OF PRINTING
* secular nonreligious; connected with
everyday life
Before the invention of printing, books were produced and copied by
hand, which made them both rare and expensive. In addition, the earliest books in Europe had pages of parchment—an expensive material
made from animal skins. As a result, book ownership was largely limited to very wealthy individuals and institutions such as monasteries.
In the early 1100s, the Islamic world introduced paper to Europe.
Although paper was less durable than parchment, it was much cheaper.
Paper quickly became popular because it helped meet a large demand for
books in universities. By the late 1300s, a growing interest in books
among powerful secular* individuals created a demand for books outside universities.
Early Printing. Three different individuals claimed credit for the
invention of printing around the same time. A 1499 text names Laurens
Coster, from the Dutch city of Harlem, as the inventor of printing.
Another document states that Procopius Waldvogel of Prague owned
molds for printing in 1444. However, no printed books have ever been
traced to either of these figures. Most historians give the credit to
Johann GUTENBERG, who formed a printing company in Strasbourg in the
late 1430s. He moved to Mainz and formed another company with
Johann Fust in 1450, and by 1454 the printing technique he used was
well developed.
The printing press combined several existing technologies. A steel
punch, like that used to make coins, impressed the image of a letter into
a soft metal. A metalworker then turned this imprint into a mold to create forms, or units of type, for this letter. A compositor arranged the type
inside two frames to create the text. The letters in these frames made up
the text for two sides of the same page. An inker set the frames in the
press, one above the other. He smeared ink on the letters and placed a
sheet of paper between the frames. The press operator then swung a
lever that brought the frames together to make the print. This type of
mechanism, known as a screw press, had long been used for making
wine, linen, and paper.
A good press team could print 1,000 sheets a day, but training a good
team and purchasing equipment could be very expensive. In addition, it
took time for a publisher to make money from his books. Many early
printers went bankrupt; even Gutenberg had to sell his business. In its
first years, the printing industry was restricted to a small region along
the Rhine River in Germany. Printers closely guarded the secrets of their
trade, limiting the spread of the business. In 1462, however, attackers
THE RENAISSANCE
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PRINTING AND PUBLISHING
Each member of a Renaissance printing
shop was responsible for a specific task.
One person set the letters in two frames,
another covered them with ink, and the
third swung a lever that brought the
frames together to make a print, as shown
in this 1520 engraving.
* sack
to loot a captured city
sacked* the Rhine city of Mainz, and some of the city’s printers fled to
Italy and France, bringing their knowledge with them.
Spread of Printing. In 1465 two printers established a press near
Rome. Over the next three years the price of books in that city dropped
80 percent. By 1480 printers had established themselves in 50 Italian
cities, outstripping the 30 printing centers in Germany. Paris had a press
by 1470, but only eight other French towns followed its lead in the next
10 years. Spain and England also set up their first presses in the 1470s.
Book prices continued to drop steadily over the next two decades. In
Venice, the price of a basic reading textbook fell by 75 percent between
1484 and 1488, making it affordable to most people. Wealthy collectors
and average citizens joined schools and monasteries as large consumers
of books.
Despite the number of presses, a small number of cities dominated
publishing in each country. The leading publishing centers of the late
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PRINTING AND PUBLISHING
1400s and early 1500s were Venice in Italy, Paris and Lyon in France,
Basel in Switzerland, and Cologne, Augsburg, and Nürnberg in
Germany. Within those cities, two or three publishers usually controlled
40 to 60 percent of the business with several smaller ones competing for
the rest.
GROWTH OF RENAISSANCE PRINTING
By the late 1400s, merchants and investors had financial interests in the
publishing industry. However, the second generation of printers faced
new challenges and problems. One major concern for publishers was
protecting their financial interest in a book. Printers often made illegal
copies of other printers’ works, and these pirated copies took money out
of the pocket of the original publisher. In Germany, cheap imported
copies drove locally produced books out of profitable academic markets.
* woodcut print made from a block of
wood with an image carved into it
* humanist referring to a Renaissance
cultural movement promoting the study
of the humanities (the languages,
literature, and history of ancient Greece
and Rome) as a guide to living
THE RENAISSANCE
Words and Images. Most early printed works used the Latin alphabet, but printers soon began publishing in other languages. By 1475
there was a small but steady market for Hebrew language works. In the
early 1500s, the Aldine Press in Venice concentrated heavily on Greek
texts. It built a reputation as a leading publisher of works in Greek,
including grammars and texts for the study of the New Testament in its
original language. Other publishers printed works in Slavonic, Cyrillic,
and Arabic.
As printing became more sophisticated, publishers expanded the
number and type of illustrations in their works. Books often included
woodcut* illustrations and decorative capital letters. A publisher also
might leave space in the text to be filled in by an artist hired by the customer. Combining an image with text on the same page helped to
explain a passage or to make a work accessible to those who could not
read. However, illustrated books were difficult and expensive to produce. From 1490 to 1499 only 26 illustrated books went to press in
Strasbourg, but from 1500 to 1509 the total was 91.
The printing of music posed other technical challenges for printers.
Combining notes, staffs, and text on the same page was very complex.
In many cases one of these elements had to be added by hand. It was
not until the 1490s that printers designed moveable type that fit accurately enough to set all elements of music with the press.
Renaissance Publishers. Various publishers of the Renaissance specialized in certain types of books. Humanist* publishers joined forces
with intellectuals in the effort to revive the culture of ancient Greece
and Rome. Other presses focused on religious works, a more reliable
source of income. Two of the most important publishers of the
Renaissance were the Froben and Aldine presses.
For almost a century—from 1491 to 1587—the Froben press in Basel,
Switzerland, was among the leading printing and publishing establishments of Europe. It produced over 900 titles. Its founder, Johannes
Froben, began his career publishing religious works. Although Froben
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PRINTING AND PUBLISHING
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Publishing and the Arts
Many Renaissance artists took a
strong interest in books, creating
an overlap between the fields of
publishing and the arts. In the
early 1500s, for instance, Italian
artist Michelangelo Buonarroti
turned to an illustrated Italian
Bible for some of the images that
he painted onto the ceiling of the
Sistine Chapel. German artist
Albrecht Dürer included a section
on the design of letters for printing in his book Manual for
Painters (1525). Dürer saw the art
of letter design as part of a lost
tradition from ancient Greece
and Rome.
was not a scholar, he knew enough to look for quality manuscripts. He
also took great care with the appearance of his books. Known for its
variety of elegant type, the Froben press set the technical standards for
other printers.
During the 1510s and 1520s, Froben’s workshop became a meeting
place for young humanist scholars. They brought the printer manuscripts, gave editorial advice, provided translations, and acted as proofreaders. Froben printed a great deal of humanist literature, including
most of the writings of the Dutch scholar Desiderius ERASMUS, who
became his close friend. Erasmus wrote of Froben’s press, “No workshop
can serve the interests of the great authors better than his.”
The Aldine Press was an Italian publishing company, active in Venice
and Rome from 1495 to 1597. Aldo Manuzio, a scholar and printer,
established the press in Venice with the help of other investors. The
press was the first to print the bulk of the classics of ancient Greece.
During the early years of the 1500s, when Greek studies were spreading
throughout Europe, it was the only press that produced Greek texts.
Like Froben, Aldo was concerned with the appearance of his books.
He set his Greek books in type that resembled script. This type helped
to blur the lines between print, a new form of communication, and
manuscripts, a more highly regarded form. In 1501 Aldo introduced two
important new ideas in printing books—he made books more convenient by reducing their height to about seven inches, and he pioneered a
cursive, or “italic,” type for the Latin alphabet. He also experimented
with his use of illustrations and page designs.
PRINTING AND SOCIETY
* Protestant Reformation religious
movement that began in the 1500s as a
protest against certain practices of the
Roman Catholic Church and eventually
led to the establishment of a variety of
Protestant churches
4
Printing had a profound effect on cultural and religious movements in
the Renaissance. It played a particularly important role in the success of
the Protestant Reformation*.
Religion and Publishing. Printing helped spread the ideas of
Protestant reformer Martin LUTHER throughout Europe. In a single
month—August 1520—one publisher in the city of Wittenberg distributed 4,000 copies of Luther’s Address to the Christian Nobility of the
German Nation. Two years later the first printing of his German New
Testament sold out in three months. In 1523, 418 of 498 texts printed
in German were either Luther’s works or works about his ideas. Modern
scholars claim that the use of woodcut illustrations in these books greatly increased the impact of Luther’s words. Many works in support of
Protestant ideas included woodcuts borrowed from other works.
Originally designed as monsters, these images appeared in Protestant
works as demonic monks or cardinals.
Protestant reformers in France and Switzerland also had a close relationship with the press. Some French reformers were scholars who had
worked with humanist publishers in Paris since about 1500. In 1534 the
publication of an anti-Catholic pamphlet turned the king against the
Protestants and the printers who aided them. Several publishers fled
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PROFESSIONS
* hierarchy organization of a group
into higher and lower levels
* papacy
pope
office and authority of the
France and settled in Geneva, Switzerland, eventually turning it into a
major center of Protestant publishing. Religious reformer John CALVIN
aided in this effort. Between 1525 and 1550 six presses operated in the
city and published 42 titles. Between 1550 and 1564, the number of
presses grew to 40. Over the course of this period Geneva’s presses produced 527 books, 160 of which were works by Calvin.
The Catholic Church hierarchy* seems to have treated printing with
suspicion from almost the beginning. When Pope Paul III established
the Roman INQUISITION in 1542, one of its main duties was to draw up
lists of forbidden books. These lists had a dramatic effect on Italian publishing. For example, before 1560 over half of the books published by
the Giolito press in Venice were secular works. However, during the
1570s more than 70 percent of its titles were religious.
Catholic and Protestant leaders competed with one another for the
services of leading publishers. Catholic officials entertained French
printer Henri Estienne II when he visited Italy in the 1550s. In 1560
Pope Pius IV asked Paolo Manuzio, the son of Aldo, to become the official printer to the papacy*. Manuzio used an earlier offer from a
Protestant leader to improve his bargaining position with the pope.
Printer Christophe Plantin worked for Philip II, the Catholic king of
Spain, from 1568 to 1576—but nine years later he took a job as printer
to the Protestant University of Leiden in the Netherlands.
Effects on Society. With the growth of printing, book production
became concentrated in a few cities and in the hands of a few publishers.
This small group of people had considerable power over what the public
read. Their influence created new cultural divisions in Europe. During
the Middle Ages, all types of people had had access to the main sources
of culture—markets, festivals, and wandering entertainers. Printing
changed this, widening the gap between city and country as well as
between literary and popular culture. As printing spread, professionals
and intellectuals turned to solitary reading instead of public lectures or
presentations. Over time they shared less and less with the majority
of illiterate or semi-literate people. (See also Bible; Books and
Manuscripts; Catholic Reformation and Counter-Reformation;
Censorship; Humanism; Ideas, Spread of; Index of Prohibited
Books; Literacy; Protestant Reformation.)
e Professions
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THE RENAISSANCE
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Professions
I
n Renaissance Europe, the word “profession” referred not to a career
in general, but to a career in one of several high-prestige fields, such
as law, medicine, the church, civil service, or teaching. Those who
entered the professions earned more than most nonprofessionals, aside
from nobles and wealthy merchants. Most professionals also held high
social positions.
All professionals needed to be able to read, write, and speak Latin.
Boys preparing for the professions began studying the language around
age six or seven. Future lawyers and some physicians continued their
education at universities. In southern Europe, boys entered universities
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PROTESTANT REFORMATION
* theology study of the nature of God
and of religion
* guild association of craft and trade
owners and workers that set standards
for and represented the interests of its
members
* hierarchy organization of a group
into higher and lower levels
* apprenticeship system under which
a person is bound by legal agreement
to work for another for a specified
period of time in return for instruction
in a trade or craft
Protestant Reformation
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Protestant Reformation
at age 17 or 18 and received a doctorate in law or medicine after five to
seven years of study. In northern Europe, boys of 13 or 14 received
instruction from masters and older students. After four years they
received a bachelor’s degree and could continue on to earn a doctorate
in law, medicine, or theology*.
After completing this formal training, a person had to be accepted
into a professional organization, such as a guild* or college, in order to
practice. Guilds were more likely to accept locals—especially those with
male relatives in the guild—than strangers. Most professionals came
from families in which several generations of men had entered the same
profession.
Levels of training varied within each profession. For example, only
some medical professionals held university degrees. Others took up
practice as surgeons and empirics (practical doctors who treated wounds
or fractures). These doctors could enter a medical guild after passing an
examination, but they did not enjoy the status or income of universitytrained physicians. Similarly, teachers needed a degree to instruct students in a university or even a secondary school. However, teaching
elementary school did not require a degree. This position offered little
in the way of pay or prestige. It was also the only profession open to
women.
The church gave boys from poor or nonprofessional families more
opportunities than other professions. For example, Pope Pius V (reigned
1566–1572) was the son of a peasant. The church offered a variety of
positions for priests, secretaries (who served popes and bishops), and
lawyers for religious courts. These different positions called for varying
levels of training. Parish priests needed little formal schooling. However,
those who wished to rise in the church hierarchy* needed a university
degree—usually in the field of law. Most of the Italian popes, cardinals,
and bishops during the Renaissance had degrees either in church law or
in both church and civil law.
The professions of law and civil service expanded throughout the
Renaissance. As Renaissance states grew, so did the demand for civil servants such as judges and secretaries. Some states established special
schools to train boys for government careers. Professionals who recorded legal agreements, known as notaries, were also essential. Most notaries
learned their profession through apprenticeship*. (See also Clergy;
Education; Guilds; Law; Medicine; Notaries; Universities.)
T
he Protestant Reformation was a religious movement that began in
Germany in the 1500s and eventually spread throughout western
and central Europe. Before the Reformation, the Roman Catholic
Church was the center of Christianity in Europe. By the end of the
1500s, however, various rival churches had formed to challenge its dominance. These changes in religion had profound effects on political,
social, economic, and intellectual life. They also contributed to the outbreak of civil wars in Germany, France, the Netherlands, and Scotland.
THE RENAISSANCE
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PROTESTANT REFORMATION
* humanist Renaissance expert in the
humanities (the languages, literature,
history, and speech and writing
techniques of ancient Greece and
Rome)
* classical in the tradition of ancient
Greece and Rome
* theology study of the nature of God
and of religion
* heresy belief that is contrary to the
doctrine of an established church
* excommunicate to exclude from
the church and its rituals
* Holy Roman Emperor ruler of the
Holy Roman Empire, a political body in
central Europe composed of several
states that existed until 1806
See color
plate 12,
vol. 4
Roots of the Movement. The Protestant Reformation grew out of the
religious conditions of the late Middle Ages. Historians disagree about
the state of the Catholic Church during this period. Some believe that
the church was in a period of spiritual decline, while others claim that
most Christians were satisfied with it. In any case, it is clear that there
were problems in the Catholic Church at this time. For example, the
popes of the period often focused on politics and neglected important
religious matters.
Many Catholics sought reforms within the church. Some of the most
powerful voices for reform belonged to the humanists* of the early
Renaissance. In the early 1500s, Christian humanists such as Desiderius
ERASMUS of the Netherlands and Jacques Lefèvre d’Etaples of France
hoped to renew religion by returning to the original sources of
Christianity. Their interest in classical* thought led many humanists to
produce new translations of ancient texts, including the Scriptures.
Lutheran Reforms. Martin LUTHER (1483–1546), a German monk,
brought these tensions to a head in the early 1500s. A biblical scholar,
Luther developed a new theology* that challenged many Catholic
beliefs. In 1517 he issued a series of statements, known as the Ninetyfive Theses, which questioned certain practices of the Roman Catholic
Church. Humanist scholars soon adopted Luther’s ideas and helped
spread them. Publishers distributed his works throughout Germany,
bringing him wide fame. The Catholic Church, however, accused Luther
of heresy*. In 1521 the pope excommunicated* him and Holy Roman
Emperor* Charles V declared him an outlaw. To avoid arrest, Luther
went into hiding.
Meanwhile, Luther’s followers were debating ways to put his ideas
into practice. Eventually, they proposed a series of moderate changes in
religious ritual and belief. Many German states and independent cities
accepted these reforms. Close cultural and economic ties between
Germany and the Scandinavian countries helped spread Lutheran ideas
in northern Europe. At first, students and preachers played an influential role in the reform movement there. Later, the kings of Denmark and
Sweden adopted the new faith as a way to weaken the power of Catholic
bishops and to create state churches under their own control.
The Lutheran reforms caused a significant amount of social upheaval
in Germany. Tension developed between supporters and opponents of
the new movement. In 1524 the PEASANTS’ WAR broke out, with farmers
and townspeople protesting the policies of local lords and church leaders and demanding various rights. Troubled by these events and by the
possibility of a permanent split in the church, a number of writers who
had once supported Luther drew back. In 1524 Erasmus published an
attack on one of Luther’s major religious ideas. Many other humanists
also turned against the Reformation, although some became preachers
of the new faith.
Movements in Switzerland. Former humanists also took up the
cause of reform in Switzerland. Between 1520 and 1525, Swiss preacher
THE RENAISSANCE
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PROTESTANT REFORMATION
Huldrych Zwingli persuaded the city of Zurich to adopt drastic religious
reforms. Other Swiss cities followed a few years later. However, Zwingli
disagreed with Luther on certain central religious ideas, causing a split
between the groups led by the two reformers. Protestantism remained
divided from this point forward.
The pace of change in Zurich was not rapid enough to satisfy some of
Zwingli’s followers. One group, known as the Anabaptists, organized its
own rival churches. In 1534, Anabaptist extremists seized control of the
German city of Münster. They established an authoritarian* government, banned all books except the Bible, and expelled or massacred all
people whom they considered “godless.” Eventually, Catholics and
Lutherans who had been exiled by the Anabaptists stormed the city and
regained control. Thereafter, the Anabaptist movement all but disappeared.
German monk Martin Luther, shown here
in a 1533 portrait by Lucas Cranach the
Elder, led the Protestant Reformation that
began in 1517. His ideas challenged the
traditional beliefs and practices of the
Roman Catholic Church.
* authoritarian referring to strong
leadership with unrestricted powers
See color
plate 11,
vol. 4
8
Calvinism. Beginning in the 1520s, humanists known as evangelicals
helped bring about a reformation movement in France. They drew their
beliefs from the writings of French reformer John CALVIN. In 1536 Calvin
published Institutes of the Christian Religion, a powerful statement of religious ideas drawn from Luther, Zwingli, and other writers.
Calvin settled in the Swiss city of Geneva, where he developed a
church organization that became a model for Protestants throughout
Europe. His plan depended on cooperation between church and state.
Calvin also emphasized the importance of education in reformed
Christianity. At his urging, Geneva founded an academy that provided
a humanist education and training in theology to future ministers.
Many individuals who studied there went on to play leading roles in the
Reformation.
As Calvinism spread into Catholic societies, it became a source of
both political and religious conflict. In France, the Netherlands, and
Scotland, independent Calvinist churches were linked together in a
tightly woven structure. As a group, they tended to oppose royal policy
and often found themselves in conflict with Catholic monarchs. In
1562, the first of a series of WARS OF RELIGION between Catholics and
Protestants broke out in France. The wars continued until 1598, when
the Edict of Nantes legalized the French Reformed Church.
Meanwhile, the Netherlands was under Spanish rule. In 1572, the
Dutch rebelled and began to fight for their independence. Although the
war began as a political struggle, it soon became a religious one as well.
The Calvinist northern provinces won their independence, but the
southern provinces remained under the control of the Catholic king of
Spain.
In Scotland, Protestants led by preacher John KNOX opposed the
Catholic queen, MARY STUART. In the 1560s, they forced the queen into
exile, rejected the authority of the pope and bishops, and established
the Calvinist church as a major force in Scottish life. Calvinism also
gained a following in eastern Europe, especially in Poland, Bohemia,
and Hungary.
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PTOLEMY
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The Reformation had a significant
impact on the arts. For example,
Lutheran reformers altered the
use of music in church, switching
to songs with lyrics written in
German rather than Latin. The
followers of Zwingli and Calvin
made even more drastic changes.
They restricted the use of music,
avoided colorful ceremony, and
eliminated religious images they
saw as idolatrous. The arts continued to flourish in countries
that adopted the Reformed
Church, but they moved from
the church to the home and
focused more on nonreligious
subjects.
* succession determination of person
who will inherit the throne
* annulment formal declaration that a
marriage is legally invalid
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Ptolemy
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ca. 100–170
Egyptian scientific scholar
Ptolemy
* astrology study of the supposed
influences of the stars and planets on
earthly events
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The Reformation in England. The Protestant movement triumphed in England partly as a result of problems with the royal succession*. In the late 1520s, HENRY VIII sought an annulment* from his first
wife, CATHERINE OF ARAGON, who had failed to produce a male heir. When
the pope denied his request, England dissolved its ties with the Catholic
Church. The doctrine of the new English church remained officially
Catholic for the rest of Henry’s life. However, two of Henry’s close advisers, Thomas CRANMER (the archbishop of Canterbury) and Thomas
CROMWELL (the chief minister), were influenced by Lutheran ideas.
Under EDWARD VI (ruled 1547–1553), England made further progress
toward becoming a Protestant nation. Archbishop Cranmer oversaw the
publication of an English-language prayer book that kept the outer
forms of Catholic worship but was based on Protestant theology. When
MARY I took the throne in 1553, she attempted to restore Catholicism.
However, because she reigned only briefly and failed to produce an heir,
the change did not last.
In 1558 ELIZABETH I came to power and took a moderate position favoring Protestants. The following year, she approved the Act of Supremacy,
which denied the authority of the pope and recognized the queen as head
of the English church. Most people accepted Elizabeth’s policies and began
to use the new English prayer book. However, some Protestants, known as
Puritans, objected to Elizabeth’s control of the church. They formed an
active minority and continued to seek additional reforms into the 1600s.
(See also Bible; Catholic Reformation and Counter-Reformation;
Christianity; Humanism; Preaching and Sermons; Puritanism;
Religious Thought.)
T
he ancient Egyptian scientist Claudius Ptolemy wrote works on a
wide range of topics, including ASTRONOMY, geography, mathematics,
and music. Although Ptolemy’s writings were over a thousand years old
by the time the Renaissance began, they had a great influence on the scientific thought of the time.
Modern scholars know little about Ptolemy’s life. He appears to have
spent his whole life in Alexandria, a city in Egypt, which was then part
of Roman territory. His first name is Roman in form and his last name
Egyptian, suggesting that he came from a mixed family.
Ptolemy believed that the study of the skies was more than a science.
In his major work on astronomy, The Almagest, he argued that studying
astronomy led people to think about God, whom he considered to be
the cause of all heavenly motions. This view of astronomy was very
influential during the Renaissance. In another work, the Quadripartitum
(Four Parts), Ptolemy expressed his belief in astrology*. He claimed that
the heavenly bodies had a physical influence on all earthly matters,
including geography, climate, and even human lives.
The Almagest covered all aspects of mathematical astronomy known
to ancient scholars. It also explains Ptolemy’s vision of the universe—a
sphere with a tiny, unmoving Earth at its center. Other ancient
astronomers believed in this geocentric, or earth-centered, view of the
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PURITANISM
universe, but they had trouble making it fit with their observations of
the movements of heavenly bodies. The irregular motions of the planets, for example, did not match perfectly circular orbits around Earth.
Various astronomers came up with theories to fix this problem. Some
suggested that the orbits of the planets were not quite centered on
Earth, while others proposed more complicated adjustments. Ptolemy
cleverly combined these different schemes in a new mathematical theory that fit very well with observations of the heavens.
Ptolemy’s system defined the common view of the Earth and the
heavens for much of the Renaissance. A few Renaissance astronomers
argued with some of the points of the system, but their work was inferior to Ptolemy’s. By the early 1500s, however, the Polish astronomer
Nicolaus COPERNICUS had begun to formulate a heliocentric, or Suncentered, model of the solar system. His work sowed the seeds of a new
system that would in time destroy the Ptolemaic vision of the universe.
(See also Science.)
e Puritanism
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Puritanism
* Anglican
England
referring to the Church of
P
uritanism was a Protestant reform movement that developed within the Church of England in the 1500s. It had a major influence on
English social, political, and religious thought. Followers of the movement, known as Puritans, sought purity of heart, mind, and worship.
They viewed the Bible as the foundation of their faith and rejected any
practices that lacked scriptural authority.
Roots of the Movement. Puritanism emerged during the reign of the
Protestant king EDWARD VI (from 1547 to 1553). It began with opposition to the use of certain vestments (garments) by church officials. The
Anglican* church required members of the clergy to wear the vestments.
However, reformers objected because the use of these garments was not
based on the Bible. When MARY I, a Catholic, took the throne in 1553,
many Puritans fled to Germany, where they continued the debate over
vestments and proposed reforms to the Anglican prayer book.
ELIZABETH I became queen in 1558 and restored Protestant religious
practices in England. However, her policies did not satisfy the Puritans.
Reformers renewed their attacks on the use of traditional vestments, and
Elizabeth settled the issue by ordering all members of the clergy to wear
them. In 1566 the Puritans tried to obtain religious reforms through
Parliament, but their efforts failed.
Demands for Reform. The Puritan movement took on a new issue
in 1570, when the reformer Thomas Cartwright called for a more democratic church organization. His proposal would have eliminated the
offices of deacons, bishops, and archbishops. The following year Walter
Strickland, a Puritan member of Parliament, introduced a bill to strike
from the Anglican prayer book certain ceremonies of which Puritans did
not approve. The failure of his bill deepened the tensions within the
church. So did the decision of a church court, made around the same
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* theology study of the nature of God
and of religion
* dissent to oppose or disagree with
established belief
Queens ande
Queenship
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Queens and Queenship
time, ordering some prominent Puritans to support various beliefs and
practices of the Anglican Church.
As tensions mounted, a new debate arose over “prophesyings”—a
practice in which ministers and students of theology* met for Bible
study, followed by a sermon. In 1574 Queen Elizabeth banned prophesyings, apparently viewing them as a way for Puritans to spread their
demands for reform. Puritans responded by holding “exercises” or
“classes,” in which a minister preached a sermon, followed by a group
discussion. The archbishop of Canterbury, head of the Church of
England, put an end to the meetings by forcing clergy members to
accept the Anglican prayer book and by using the church courts to punish outspoken Puritans.
Despite these setbacks, the Puritans remained a powerful force. In the
early 1600s, they outlined a series of new demands to the new king,
JAMES I. James agreed to moderate religious reforms, including better
training and higher salaries for the clergy and a new translation of the
Bible. However, the only reform actually carried out was the publication
of the Bible.
The struggle within the Church of England reached a crisis in the
1630s. William Laud, the bishop of London and, later, archbishop of
Canterbury, reinforced many traditional church practices and stifled dissenting* voices in the church. The Puritans resented Laud’s policies, and
their hostility contributed to the outbreak of a civil war in 1642. (See also
Christianity; England; Preaching and Sermons; Protestant
Reformation; Religious Thought.)
T
he Renaissance produced an unusually large number of royal
women who exercised cultural and political influence. Queenship is
a broader and more flexible term than kingship. While kings are always
rulers, queens can serve in a variety of roles. A queen regnant, for
instance, is a woman who has inherited the throne and rules the state
in her own right. Other queens may be the wives or mothers of kings,
with varying degrees of power. A non-ruling queen sometimes serves as
a regent, usually acting on behalf of a son who is too young or unable
to take power.
Ruling Queens. Few women became queens regnant in Renaissance
Europe, partly because the laws or customs of some countries prevented
women from inheriting the throne. Those queens who did rule had the
problem of marriage. Although they were expected to wed and to produce royal heirs, making an appropriate match was not easy.
Renaissance society generally expected women to obey their husbands,
but at the same time people feared that a queen’s husband would dominate or influence her. If she chose one of her subjects as a spouse, the
marriage might lead to conflict within the country. However, a foreign
husband might meddle in the nation’s affairs.
Two of the most important ruling queens of the Renaissance solved
the marriage problem in different ways. In Spain, ISABELLA OF CASTILE
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(ruled 1474–1504) married a neighboring monarch, FERDINAND OF
ARAGON. The marriage won acceptance because it united their two
realms into the kingdom of Spain. Moreover, Isabella’s status as a married woman and mother of sons helped strengthen her authority. By
contrast, ELIZABETH I of England (ruled 1558–1603) never married, largely because of political divisions among her advisers over the selection of
a husband. Although Elizabeth failed to provide an heir to the throne,
her single status became a diplomatic* tool. Until late in life, she used
the possibility of her marriage to a foreign ruler as a lever in international relations.
One of the most important ruling queens
of the Renaissance, Isabella of Castile
strengthened her kingdom through her
marriage to Ferdinand of Aragon. Their
union brought the two realms together to
form the kingdom of Spain.
* diplomatic having to do with formal
relations between nations
* Holy Roman Empire political body
in central Europe composed of several
states; existed until 1806
* patron supporter or financial
sponsor of an artist or writer
Querelle des
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* oppress to exercise power over
others in an unjust or cruel way
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Queens Consort. A king’s wife, known as a queen consort, had one
primary duty: to provide a son who could inherit the throne. If the
queen failed in this duty, her husband might divorce her or even call for
her execution.
Although a queen consort had no ruling authority of her own, she
did have symbolic power, especially if she had been formally recognized
in a coronation ceremony. Along with the king, the queen represented
the majesty of the monarchy. Her influence depended on the survival of
her sons, the strength of her personality, and the status of her family.
Women who served as regents held limited authority to govern.
During the mid-1500s, Mary of Hungary controlled the Netherlands for
her brother, CHARLES V of the Holy Roman Empire*. Although women
could not occupy the throne of France, CATHERINE DE MÉDICIS
(1519–1589) governed the country as regent for her sons. Occasionally
queens consort acted as regents for short periods when their husbands
were absent, but they usually exercised little power. Katherine Parr, the
last wife of Henry VIII, ruled briefly on her husband’s behalf in 1544.
Regardless of the queen’s status, her position at court allowed her to
be a patron* to artists, musicians, poets, and scholars. One of the greatest female patrons was MARGARET OF AUSTRIA, who served as regent of the
Netherlands in the early 1500s for her nephew, Charles V. In addition,
many women who married rulers of foreign realms brought cultural
ideas from their homelands to their new countries and encouraged
political and economic bonds between the two states. (See also Court;
Monarchy; Patronage; Princes and Princedoms; Women.)
T
he French phrase querelle des femmes, meaning “the woman question,” refers to a literary debate about the nature and status of
women. This debate began around 1500 and continued beyond the end
of the Renaissance.
The first Renaissance figure to raise the issue of women’s status was
the philosopher Heinrich AGRIPPA OF NETTESHEIM. In 1509 Agrippa gave
a lecture on the virtues of the female sex. Agrippa re-interpreted biblical, Greek, and Roman texts to support his theory that women were
superior to men. He argued that men had oppressed* women not
because of natural differences but for social reasons. This claim separat-
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* chaste
sexually pure
* humanist Renaissance expert in the
humanities (the languages, literature,
history, and speech and writing
techniques of ancient Greece and
Rome)
Rabelais, e
François
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ca. 1494–1553
French humanist and writer
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ed sex, the biological distinctions between men and women, from gender, a social construct.
Italian writer Baldassare Castiglione summarized some of Agrippa’s
ideas for a wider audience in The Book of the Courtier (1528). However,
Castiglione took a far less extreme view than Agrippa. While he
acknowledged that men’s dominant role in society placed limits on
women’s freedom, but he did not question the right of men to rule.
Italian poet Ludovico ARIOSTO took a much stronger position in support
of women. In 1532 he made several additions to his poem Orlando
Furioso that argued that women could be chaste* and that they were
morally equal, or even superior, to men. He also encouraged women to
write their own history instead of depending on men to do it for them.
In England, the querelle des femmes focused on the issue of women as
rulers. CATHERINE OF ARAGON, the first wife of HENRY VIII, had Spanish
humanist* Juan Luis Vives’s Instruction of a Christian Woman (1523)
translated for her daughter, the future MARY I. The book concluded that
Mary should not govern because women are weak. Scholar Thomas
Elyot countered Vives’s claims in The Defence of Good Women (1540),
arguing that women can rule as well as men, but they should do so only
under special circumstances.
Protestant preacher John KNOX renewed the attack on female rule in
First Blast of the Trumpet Against the Monstrous Regiment of Women.
Written while Catholic women ruled France, Scotland, and England, the
book did not appear in print until 1558, after the Protestant queen
ELIZABETH I had assumed the throne of England. Elizabeth’s supporters
were quick to respond to Knox, arguing that God had made Elizabeth
queen because she was unlike other women. Elizabeth’s rule also raised
another issue for women of her day: the status of women in marriage.
During the Renaissance, a woman’s husband was her undisputed master.
This fact provided a major reason for Elizabeth to stay single.
By the end of the 1500s, most scholars agreed that virtue was the
same for both men and women, and they focused on education as a way
to bring equality to the sexes. The Dutch scholar Anna Maria van
Schurman—one of the most educated women of her time—argued for
the education of women in Whether a Christian Woman Should Be
Educated (1638). In The Equality of Men and Women (1622), the French
feminist Marie de Gournay declared that men and women could excel
equally if they had the same education. She also mocked men for failing
to take women seriously and to accept them as equals in a conversation.
After 1650 social conversation between men and women began to be
accepted in society. (See also Feminism.)
A
lthough he is best known as a writer of satire*, French author
François Rabelais pursued many careers in his lifetime. At various
times, he was a monk, a doctor, a teacher, a clergyman, and an expert in
languages. He gained fame for his satire Gargantua and Pantagruel, which
promoted humanism* and religious reform. However, his comic and
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* satire literary or artistic work
ridiculing human wickedness and
foolishness
* humanist referring to a Renaissance
cultural movement promoting the study
of the humanities (the languages,
literature, and history of ancient Greece
and Rome) as a guide to living
* theologian person who studies
religion and the nature of God
* patron supporter or financial
sponsor of an artist or writer
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inventive writing frequently brought him into conflict with church and
state authorities.
Rabelais’s Life. Scholars know very little about several periods of
Rabelais’s life. Even his date of birth remains uncertain. Some evidence
suggests that he was born as early as 1483, but most scholars consider
1494 the correct date. The son of a successful lawyer in the French town
of Chinon, Rabelais may have studied to become a monk at a nearby
monastery. If so, he could have begun his studies as early as 1510 or
1511, receiving a traditional education in church Latin and religious
philosophy. At some point he also learned to read Greek.
By 1521 Rabelais had joined another monastery, where he fell in with
a group of humanist scholars. In 1523, he experienced the first of a
series of conflicts he would have throughout his life with conservative
theologians* in Paris. The Faculty of Theology at the University of Paris
seized the Greek and Latin books of Rabelais and his circle of friends.
Although the faculty eventually returned the texts, Rabelais soon left to
join another, less restrictive order of monks. Four years later he left that
order and went out into the world.
Rabelais then went on to study medicine, receiving a Bachelor of
Medicine degree in 1530. He practiced medicine on and off throughout
his life, and his advanced language skills helped him to make a name
for himself in the field. Medical schools of the time relied heavily on the
works of ancient Greek medical writers such as HIPPOCRATES and GALEN.
Rabelais produced new, accurate editions of these ancient texts. He also
lectured on Hippocrates.
In 1531 Rabelais published his satire Pantagruel, which became immediately popular. However, the work offended the Faculty of Theology in
Paris, who condemned it as indecent. Within a few years, Rabelais
attached himself to an important patron*—Cardinal Jean du Bellay, the
bishop of Paris. However, du Bellay’s support was not enough to protect
Rabelais from the Paris theologians, who continued to attack his work
throughout his life.
In 1534 Rabelais published another satire, Gargantua. Like Pantagruel,
this work poked fun at the Roman Catholic Church. Unluckily for
Rabelais, a group of Protestant reformers chose the same year to post
placards throughout Paris protesting Catholic practices. The Catholic
Church immediately began to exercise greater control over booksellers
and printers. Those who had criticized the church, like Rabelais, found
themselves in a risky situation.
Rabelais received an advanced degree in medicine in 1537. For the
rest of his life, he supported himself with money from his medical practice, support from his patrons, and the modest income he received for
his popular writings. He also earned a small salary as a clergyman. In
1543 the Faculty of Theology condemned Gargantua and Pantagruel, but
the king gave Rabelais permission to continue writing about the characters. Rabelais published two more volumes in the series before his
death in 1553. The circumstances and exact date of his death are
unknown.
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* romance adventure story of the
Middle Ages, the forerunner of the
modern novel
* epic long poem about the
adventures of a hero
Petrus
eRamus,e
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1515–1572
French philosopher
and educator
Gargantua and Pantagruel. Rabelais’ most famous work, Gargantua
and Pantagruel, is a collection of five books. Rabelais published the first
four books over a period of 20 years, and the fifth appeared after his death.
The books’ main characters—Pantagruel and his father, Gargantua—are
giants that Rabelais modeled after figures in popular tales.
The first two books are similar in form to romances*, with plots that
include a jumble of comic events. Throughout these adventures,
Rabelais slips in satiric comments about the intellectual, religious, and
professional people of his day. He also asserts the values of Christian
humanism and the reform movement within the church. For example,
one of his characters—Friar Jean—represents a new type of monk who is
worldly and active. In later books, Pantagruel and his sidekick Panurge
seek the advice of various counselors on whether Panurge should marry,
eventually embarking on a mock epic* voyage to consult with an oracle.
The plot of these books reflects the theme of a search for answers in an
uncertain world.
Gargantua and Pantagruel celebrates the breaking of boundaries and
rejects rigid points of view. As the narrator, Rabelais hides behind a
number of masks—at one point he is a wise philosopher, at another a
hustler. Rabelais also breaks with tradition by mixing words from both
the highest and lowest realms of society. Finally, the work constantly
switches its perspective, sometimes beginning with a serious commentary only to follow it with mockery. For example, when two characters
encounter a riddle in a religious building, one of them reads it as a
divine Christian truth, but the other sees only the rules for a game of
tennis. These constant shifts deny the reader any clear statement of the
author’s beliefs. (See also French Language and Literature; Satire.)
P
etrus Ramus was a controversial figure in France in the 1500s. A
scholar, teacher, and speechmaker, he sought far-reaching changes
in the educational system of his day. In particular, he challenged the
authority of ancient writers whose works were central to Renaissance
scholarship, such as the Greek philosopher ARISTOTLE and the Roman
orator CICERO. Ramus drew on the work of scholars such as Rudolf
AGRICOLA to create a new method of inquiry that vastly simplified the
techniques of Aristotle. He claimed that his new method was useful in
all fields of knowledge.
Life and Works. Pierre de La Ramée was born into a poor farming
family in the French province of Picardy. He later adopted the Latin
form of his name, Petrus Ramus. Ramus went to Paris in 1523 and
worked his way through school as a servant for richer students. In 1537
he began his teaching career in Paris. He soon became notorious for his
attacks on Aristotle, whose system of logic had dominated the curriculum for centuries.
In 1543 Ramus published his two chief works, Training in Dialectic
and Remarks on Aristotle. In these works, he harshly criticized the followers of Aristotle, both ancient and modern. He also proposed a plan
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to change the entire curriculum of the Renaissance university. Ramus’s
ideas infuriated many of his colleagues. The following year his critics
persuaded the French king, FRANCIS I, to ban Ramus from teaching either
logic or philosophy. However, the next king, Henry II, lifted the ban in
1547.
In 1551 Ramus became royal lecturer at the Collège de France. He
used this position to continue his attacks on Aristotle. In 1563 Ramus
announced a plan for reforming the University of Paris, including firing
professors, doing away with student fees, teaching physics in the arts
curriculum, and adding professorships in astronomy, botany, and pharmacy. His plan, however, was short-lived. Within a year, the WARS OF
RELIGION had broken out between Catholics and Protestants in France.
Ramus, who had converted to Protestantism in 1562, had to flee Paris.
For several years Ramus moved between France, Germany, and
Switzerland. While he was living in France in 1572, a wave of religious
violence, known as the St. Bartholomew’s Day massacre, occurred.
During the course of the massacre, Ramus was murdered in his room.
Some scholars believe his killers were assassins hired by a long-time academic enemy.
* rhetoric art of speaking or writing
effectively
* artisan
16
skilled worker or craftsperson
Ramus’ Method. In the early Renaissance, university students
learned logic and rhetoric* largely from the writings of Aristotle. His system of rhetoric involved five basic parts: invention, arrangement, style,
memory, and delivery. Invention, according to Aristotle, was the art of
selecting the best arguments to prove a point. This process, he claimed,
belonged to the field of dialectic (logic) as well as to rhetoric.
Several scholars of this time, including Agricola, Lorenzo VALLA, and
Juan Luis VIVES, attempted to simplify Aristotle’s system of logic. They
came up with a new system based on invention and judgment—the art
of laying out arguments in the most useful way. Ramus took up their
ideas and carried them further. He sought to create a single method,
with easily memorized rules, by which anyone could learn any subject.
In Ramus’ method, students used the process of invention to find
the relationship between a subject and the facts that could be stated
about the subject. To take a simple example, in the sentence “Hot is the
opposite of cold,” the word “opposite” lays out the relationship
between hot and cold. Ramus developed a list of 14 different arguments
that could represent a relationship between subjects. To solve a problem, a student had to run through this list of arguments and select the
best one for the topic. After choosing arguments, the student would
then use the process of judgment, or arrangement, to assemble them in
a useful order.
Ramus believed that students could use this approach to solve any
kind of problem. After observing artisans* at work in Paris and in
Germany, he began to see connections between mechanical and philosophical theories and practical problem solving. As a teacher, Ramus
promoted his classes not to philosophers but to young men seeking
success in the world of commerce, government, and the professions.
Ramus’s ideas spread quickly. By the year 1650 there were more than
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1100 printings of his works in Europe. His method found favor among
practicing lawyers, orators, and teachers, especially in northern Europe
and Protestant countries. (See also Logic; Philosophy.)
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Italian artist
* composition arrangement of objects
in a work of art
* altarpiece work of art that decorates
the altar of a church
* patron supporter or financial
sponsor of an artist or writer
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Raphael was one of the first
artists to sell prints of his work.
In the early 1500s, there was a
growing demand for affordable,
mass-produced works of art.
Raphael took advantage of this
emerging market to test a new
way of producing and selling
pictures. He formed a partnership with an engraver who produced prints of his drawings and
a businessman who sold them.
Raphael controlled the process
closely, providing the printer
with detailed instructions about
reproducing the images. He also
received most of the profits from
the prints, which helped spread
his style across Europe.
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R
aphael Sanzio has been hailed as one of Europe’s greatest painters.
Critics of his own day and later have called him—along with
MICHELANGELO and LEONARDO DA VINCI—one of the most important artists
of the Renaissance. They have praised Raphael’s versatility, coloring,
and composition*, as well as the sweetness of his style. Although
Raphael lived only to age 37, he had a substantial influence on many
artists who came after him.
Early Career. Raphael was born in Urbino in central Italy and learned
to paint from his father, an artist named Giovanni Santi. After Santi’s
death in 1494, the boy became an assistant in the workshop of
PERUGINO, the most famous painter of the region at that time. Raphael
quickly mastered Perugino’s style, and the two artists’ paintings from
these years are hard to tell apart.
Raphael’s first commission was for an altarpiece*, St. Nicholas of
Tolentino (1500). Then he received several assignments from the duke of
Urbino, including a painting of St. George Fighting the Dragon. In 1504
Raphael went to Florence, where he studied the works of Michelangelo
and Leonardo. From Leonardo, Raphael learned sfumato, a technique
that uses gentle shading rather than sharp outlines to define forms.
From Michelangelo, Raphael learned to broaden his figures and to focus
more on anatomy.
Raphael spent four years in Florence, applying what he was learning
from other artists and experimenting with composition. He also worked
for prominent patrons*. He produced numerous religious paintings,
some featuring Mary and the infant Jesus, and others showing larger
groups of individuals. The most complex of these works, the Canigiani
Holy Family, includes five figures. He painted many portraits as well, and
some of these show the influence of Leonardo’s Mona Lisa. By the end
of Raphael’s time in Florence, the influence of Perugino had nearly disappeared from his work. Instead, his paintings reflected what he had
learned from Michelangelo, Leonardo, and other artists working in the
city.
Later Career. Some of the information about Raphael’s career comes
from Giorgio Vasari (1511–1574), a Renaissance painter and biographer.
According to Vasari, in about 1508 the young artist heard from the
architect Donato BRAMANTE (a distant relative) that Pope JULIUS II had
work for him. As a result, Raphael left Florence and went to Rome.
The pope asked Raphael to decorate a room called the Stanza della
Segnatura in the Vatican Palace. Pleased with the result, Pope Julius
assigned the artist to paint the neighboring audience chamber, the
Stanza d’Eliodoro. Julius died before the work was finished, but the new
pope, LEO X, ordered Raphael to continue. Then Leo commissioned
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Raphael’s serene portraits of the
Madonna, the mother of Christ, became
models for other artists. His Madonna of
the Fish, shown here, dates from around
1513.
* humanist Renaissance expert in the
humanities (the languages, literature,
history, and speech and writing
techniques of ancient Greece and
Rome)
* papal referring to the office and
authority of the pope
* fresco
wall
mural painted on a plaster
* classical in the tradition of ancient
Greece and Rome
See color
plate 2,
vol. 1
Raphael to paint two more rooms, including the meeting chamber of
the supreme church court.
Popes Julius II and Leo X surrounded themselves with humanists*.
Raphael had not received a classical education, but these scholars supplied him with subject matter for his art drawn from the works of
ancient Greek and Roman writers. Under their influence, Raphael developed a style inspired by ancient culture that perfectly suited the papal*
court. Raphael became so popular with Rome’s patrons that he had
more work than he could do. He painted altarpieces and portraits,
including one of Pope Julius, as well as frescoes* of biblical and classical* subjects.
The years that Raphael spent in Rome, from 1508 to 1520, were the
most productive ones of his life—and also one of the most creative periods of the Renaissance. While Raphael was decorating the Vatican
rooms, Michelangelo was painting the ceiling of the Vatican’s Sistine
Chapel, and Bramante was building the new church of St. Peter. Around
1515 Pope Leo placed Raphael in charge of all classical structures in
Rome and asked him to create a map of the city as it had looked in
ancient times. For the next five years, Raphael also served as architect of
St. Peter’s and several other churches and palaces, and he produced
drawings for a set of tapestries to be hung in the Sistine Chapel. In 1518
Raphael completed two paintings commissioned as gifts for King
FRANCIS I of France: St. Michael and Holy Family of Francis I. Raphael’s last
work, completed just a few days before his death, was Transfiguration,
which illustrates passages from the New Testament.
Artistic Methods and Influence. Raphael helped change the way
artists’ workshops functioned in the 1500s. Other masters, such as
Perugino, had operated large workshops where they supervised assistants who helped them produce pieces. Raphael gave the artists in his
workshop considerable responsibility. As his fame grew, so did the
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* apprentice person bound by legal
agreement to work for another for a
specified period of time in return for
instruction in a trade or craft
* perspective artistic technique for
creating the illusion of threedimensional space on a flat surface
* relief type of sculpture in which
figures are raised slightly from a flat
surface
See color
plate 14,
vol. 4
Reformation
demands on his time, and he gathered more artists around him. By 1515
Raphael had what was probably the largest painting workshop that had
ever been assembled. Vasari reported that 50 artists accompanied the
painter to the Vatican each day. Some were assistants and apprentices*,
but others were mature artists who functioned as partners.
Raphael was involved in every stage of a project in his workshop without taking complete responsibility for any step after the initial idea. The
other artists not only copied and enlarged designs on sketches, but also
drew new studies of live models. Raphael seems to have treated the workshop as a cooperative venture, rather than a strict master-apprentice relationship, and other artists of his time considered him a generous teacher.
Raphael invented new types of composition and new ways of using
color, often adapting the methods of others to create his own distinctive
techniques. In composing his paintings, he experimented with several
different types of perspective*. He also tried to imitate ancient relief*. In
Battle at the Milvian Bridge (on the wall of one of the Vatican rooms), he
combined traditional perspective with relief. Designed by Raphael and
painted by his workshop after his death, the scene shows the emperor
Constantine and his army, moving like a procession from left to right.
Raphael was the first artist to adapt his colors to each individual commission. Before Raphael, artists usually used only one style of coloring,
which they taught to their apprentices. Raphael combined Leonardo’s
subtle, smoky sfumato tones with the Florentine taste for beautiful color
effects. The result was a style called unione, which Raphael used when he
wanted to express harmony. For more dramatic scenes he turned to
chiaroscuro, a style marked by deep shadows and high contrast between
dark and light colors. In his final masterpiece, Transfiguration, Raphael
used unione in the upper part of the painting, which is dominated by an
image of Christ. In the lower part, a scene of earthly struggle, he
employed chiaroscuro. Raphael’s experimentation with color styles
encouraged the next generation of artists to make their paintings more
expressive by combining colors in a creative way. (See also Art,
Education and Training; Art in Italy; Rome.)
See Catholic Reformation and Counter-Reformation; Protestant Reformation.
ReformationCounter-Reformation; Protestant Reformation.
[PN:ART B]
See Bible; Christianity; Clergy; Islam; Jews; Missions, Christian; Popes and Papacy;
Preaching and Sermons; Religious Literature; Religious Orders; Religious Thought.
Religion
ReligionChristian; Popes and Papacy; Preaching and Sermons; Religious Literature; Religious Orders; Religious Thought.
[PN:ART C-White Text tag is doctitle]
Religious Literature
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Religious Literature
B
ecause Christianity played such a major role in the social and intellectual life of the Renaissance, almost all the literature produced in
Europe at that time had some religious content. However, many types
of works were specifically Christian in nature. Religious writers produced poetry, stories, essays, and dialogues, written both in Latin and in
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* vernacular native language or
dialect of a region or country
* laypeople those who are not
members of the clergy
* humanism Renaissance cultural
movement promoting the study of the
humanities (the languages, literature,
and history of ancient Greece and
Rome) as a guide to living
* epic long poem about the
adventures of a hero
* medieval referring to the Middle
Ages, a period that began around A.D.
400 and ended around 1400 in Italy
and 1500 in the rest of Europe
20
vernacular* languages. All these works fell under the broad heading of
devotional literature, which aimed to help the reader lead a more holy
life.
Devotional writing changed in several ways during the late Middle
Ages and the Renaissance. For example, by the middle of the 1300s, the
growing use of the vernacular in writing had helped to create new forms
of religious literature. At the same time, a large new audience for books
emerged among laypeople*. During the Renaissance, other factors such
as the development of printing and the intellectual movement known
as humanism* produced further changes in religious literature.
However, people continued to read older religious texts, including
works written by church fathers (individuals who shaped Christianity in
its early centuries). Also, new religious works continued to focus on
themes that had been traditional throughout the Middle Ages.
Major Themes. The most popular devotional texts of this period
advised readers about following the example of Jesus Christ. This theme
appeared in such works as Life of Christ by Ludolph of Saxony and
Imitation of Christ by Thomas à Kempis. These works taught that believers could recreate Christ’s sufferings in their own minds and bodies, an
idea that became a focus of spiritual exercises for Catholics and some
Protestants in the late Renaissance. For Catholics, literature of this type
focused largely on the physical details of Christ’s suffering.
Another major figure in devotional literature was the Virgin Mary.
Catholic authors of this period wrote about the Virgin in epics*, lyric
poetry, sermons, and meditations. These works discussed Mary’s various
roles as a wife and mother, a worker of miracles, and a person who
pleads on behalf of sinners. Devotion to other members of Christ’s Holy
Family, such as his cousin John the Baptist, became popular at this time
as well. A cult also developed around Joseph, Mary’s husband, which
presented Christ’s earthly father as a model for Christian fathers.
Some devotional literature focused on the ideal of isolation, which
provided a contrast to a Renaissance culture centered on the life of the
city and the court. Many texts described the experiences of the Desert
Fathers, who fled Roman persecution in the 200s and 300s. These holy
men settled in Egypt, where they lived as hermits. The image of a person alone in the desert provided a popular model for many Christians.
During the 1500s, however, this ideal faded as both Catholics and
Protestants stressed the importance of public as well as private devotion.
Another form of religious literature, the confessional, evolved out of
the handbooks used by medieval* priests to guide them in the care of
souls. With the development of printing, these works became available
to laypeople as well. Confessionals might take such forms as biographies, catalogues of virtues, or dialogues. For example, a text might be
presented as a conversation between the body and the soul, Jesus and a
sinner, or man and the devil.
A final theme that played a large role in religious literature was affectivity. This term, based on the word affectus meaning love or emotion,
referred to a spirituality based on experience and emotion rather than
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* Catholic Reformation reform
movement within the Roman Catholic
Church that focused on spiritual
renewal, correcting abuses, and
strengthening religious orders; it began
in the late Middle Ages and continued
throughout the Renaissance
* mystical based on a belief in the
idea of a direct, personal union with the
divine
Orders
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* secular nonreligious; connected with
everyday life
* laypeople those who are not
members of the clergy
* chastity
on reason. Literature of this type became very popular during the
Catholic Reformation* of the mid-1500s. Authors attempted to appeal
directly to the reader’s senses, to inspire sighs, groans, and tears. Many
authors of affective works were women, such as the Spanish nun TERESA
OF ÁVILA.«Xtags error: Can’t fit: too much text: tag &te»
Literature of Prayer. For those who could read, literature played a
central role in the Renaissance practice of prayer. During the
Renaissance, Christians read religious works both publicly and privately. Some Renaissance religious scholars viewed the act of reading alone
as the first step on a path leading to a greater spiritual awareness. From
reading, they claimed, the soul moved to meditation, prayer, and finally contemplation, a state of mystical* awareness of God. Public reading,
by contrast, was done out loud, in a group, often as part of a church
service or other ritual.
Prayer, like reading, might be either spoken or silent. Although vocal
prayer played an important role in certain religious rituals, devotional
literature more often focused on mental prayer. The Spanish mystic St.
John of the Cross described praying in silence as a conversation between
the soul and God. Various texts of the late Renaissance urged readers to
pray passively before the mystery of God’s presence. During the
Renaissance, various disagreements about the nature of prayer arose
between Protestants and Catholics, as well as within each group.
However, both Protestant and Catholic literature about prayer—like
devotional literature in general—took up the most basic theme of modern literature: the self. (See also Catholic Reformation and CounterReformation; Latin Language and Literature; Religious
Thought.)
D
uring the Middle Ages and Renaissance, there were two types of
clergy members. One group, known as the secular* clergy, lived in
the world and tended to the spiritual needs of laypeople*. The other
type of clergy belonged to religious orders—groups of men or women
who lived according to a religious “rule,” usually involving vows of
poverty, chastity*, and obedience. Many new religious orders appeared
during the Renaissance, and many existing orders underwent reforms.
purity or virginity
REFORMS OF EXISTING ORDERS
By the 1400s, most religious orders had strayed far from the ideals of
their founders. Traditional monasteries, which followed the Benedictine
Rule (a series of rules laid down in the 500s by St. Benedict), had fallen
into decline in the 1200s and 1300s. They faced competition from the
rise of mendicant orders, whose members lived by begging and were forbidden to own property. At the same time, a new system known as the
commenda was placing many monasteries in the hands of people who
often ran the houses purely for their own gain. During the 1300s, even
the mendicant orders fell away from their basic ideal of poverty.
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In 1534 Ignatius Loyola founded the
Society of Jesus, the largest new religious
order of the Renaissance. He appears at the
center of this picture holding a copy of the
order’s constitution. Other noted Jesuits of
the 1500s and 1600s stand nearby.
* papacy
pope
office and authority of the
All these problems helped contribute to the growing sense of need for
reform within religious orders. Many orders began to return to their
founding rules. For example, the Franciscans—an order founded by St.
Francis of Assisi in the 1100s—had begun as a mendicant order of hermits. Over time, however, the papacy* had eased many of the strict rules
under which the Franciscans lived. In the late 1300s a group of monks
who followed a reform movement called the Observance sought to
restore the order’s original ideals. Observant houses appeared throughout Europe during the 1400s. However, other Franciscans, known as
Conventuals, opposed their reforms. After years of controversy, Pope
Leo X divided the Franciscan order into two parts, the Conventuals and
the more rigid Friars Minor. Two even stricter groups of Franciscans, the
Minims and the Capuchins, appeared in the late 1400s and early 1500s.
Reform of the Dominicans, another mendicant order, also began in
the late 1300s. Dominican religious houses joined together to form larger groups called congregations that were independent of Dominican
control but still linked to the order. By the late 1400s nearly all
Dominican congregations, except in England, were reformed.
The old-fashioned order of the Benedictines also underwent reforms
beginning in 1424. The reform movement tightened the union between
abbeys and required monks to take vows to their congregation, not to a
specific abbey. These reforms began in Padua, Italy, and spread throughout Europe. One congregation in Austria contained over 100 abbeys.
NEW RELIGIOUS ORDERS
Beginning in the 1500s, several new religious orders arose throughout
Europe, especially in Italy. Many of these were a different kind of order
known as clerics regular, or priests living under a religious rule.
Although they took the traditional vows of monks, they also devoted
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themselves to active ministries, mostly in schools and parishes. The
largest group of this type was the Jesuits. However, a variety of smaller
orders for both men and women appeared at this time.
* humanism Renaissance cultural
movement promoting the study of the
humanities (the languages, literature,
and history of ancient Greece and
Rome) as a guide to living
* catechism
teachings
handbook of religious
* Roman Inquisition religious court
started in Rome in 1542 to deal with
those accused of straying from the
official doctrine of the Roman Catholic
Church
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The Jesuits. The Society of Jesus, or Jesuits, first appeared in 1534
when IGNATIUS LOYOLA and six other students at the University of Paris
made a pact to travel to the Holy Land to convert the Muslims. They
took vows of poverty and chastity and eventually became priests.
However, war prevented them from continuing to Jerusalem. In 1539
they formed a new plan to spread the faith through preaching, hearing
confessions, and performing works of mercy. They took a special vow to
make themselves available for missionary work anywhere in the world.
By the end of the 1500s, Jesuits had missions in India, Japan, China,
Brazil, Mexico, and other parts of Spanish America.
In 1548 the Jesuits opened their first school in Messina, Sicily. Until
then they had avoided permanent assignments, but the school was so
successful that soon the order considered teaching its primary mission.
The Jesuits thus became the first teaching order in the Catholic Church.
They came to exercise a great deal of influence on education.
Like the Dominicans and Franciscans, the Jesuits remained independent from the control of local bishops. However, the group differed
from other orders in several ways. They did not gather together during
the day to sing hymns or pray, and they did not wear a distinctive habit.
More importantly, the Jesuits used a book written by Ignatius, the
Spiritual Exercises, as their guide to spiritual life. This practice unified and
motivated the order. Ignatius also insisted on frequent correspondence
between Jesuit leaders and the members of the order. This helped to
promote a common outlook among Jesuits. Their letters have since provided a highly valuable resource for historians of the Renaissance.
Humanism* had a profound impact on the Jesuits. Because of their
emphasis on teaching, many Jesuits became expert in subjects such as
science, philosophy, and theology. The Jesuits played a leading role in
the spread of humanist ideas.
Other Male Orders. Most of the new Italian orders dedicated themselves to charitable acts such as helping the poor, tending the sick, or
educating children. One major teaching order was the Piarists, founded
by St. José Calasanz. In 1597 he opened a free school in Rome, paid for
by donations from wealthy clergy members. The school educated poor
boys in the catechism* and in other subjects that helped them to earn a
living. Pope Clement VIII approved the order in 1604. The order grew
rapidly, but this caused several problems. Standards fell as the Piarists
rushed poorly trained teachers into classrooms. Also, the Jesuits grew to
resent the Piarists as a rival teaching order. In 1642 the Roman
Inquisition* briefly arrested Calasanz and forbade the order to take in
new members. However, the Piarists thrived after the pope restored
them as a full order in 1669.
One of the more controversial Italian orders was the Barnabites,
founded by St. Antonio Maria Zaccaria. In 1533 he and two friends set
up a community of priests living the simple life of monks. A friend of
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* confraternity religious and social
organization of Roman Catholics who
were not members of the clergy
* penance act performed to show
sorrow or repentance for sin
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World
During the Renaissance, the
Roman Catholic Church made it
difficult for women to perform
missionary work. After the Council
of Trent (1545–1563), the papacy
would approve only cloistered
orders of women. As a result,
those who wished to work in the
world often did so without papal
approval. For example, Mary
Ward of England founded the
Institute of the Blessed Virgin Mary
in the early 1600s. The institute
opened several colleges and
taught girls in many countries.
However, the papacy refused to
recognize it as a religious order
because its members were not
cloistered and because they performed tasks considered unfit for
women. Pope Clement XI finally
approved the order in 1703.
24
his, the countess Ludovica Torelli, founded a similar order for women,
known as the Angelics. Several of Zaccaria’s married friends then set up
a confraternity* called the Devoted Married Laity of St. Paul. Many
church leaders saw these three organizations as being too closely linked.
The order further damaged its image by its public acts of penance*, in
which mixed groups of priests and nuns painted their faces and whipped
themselves. The Barnabites fell under suspicion from the Inquisition but
eventually received approval from Pope Clement VII in 1533.
New religious orders arose in France partly in response to problems
within the Catholic Church, which had been heavily drained by the
extended WARS OF RELIGION that ended in 1598. The most influential
new congregation was the Oratory of Mary and Jesus, founded by Pierre
de Bérulle in 1611. Bérulle saw the priesthood, not the vows of religious
orders, as the source of all holiness in the Church. Thus, he established
an order of priests who lived together without taking vows and devoted
themselves to training new clergy members. Several other orders arose
either directly or indirectly from the Oratory, including the
Congregation of St. Nicholas-du-Chardonnet and the Congregation of
Jesus and Mary.
In 1625 Vincent de Paul established the Congregation of the Mission,
another order of priests. Its members, known as the Lazarists, preached,
taught catechism, heard confessions, and tended the sick. One of
Vincent’s followers, Jean-Jacques Olier, founded St. Sulpice seminary,
which became a leading center for the training of priests in France.
Orders of Women. The role of women in the Roman Catholic
Church underwent a profound change during the Renaissance.
Developments within society and the church encouraged women to
take a more active role in religious life and to engage in charitable work
aimed at helping the poor, the sick, and orphans.
In the late 1300s the Dutch priest Geert Grote founded an order
called the Sisters and Brethren of the Common Life. His goal was to promote a religious life devoted to prayer and meditation. Unlike nuns,
members of the Sisters came mostly from noble or middle-class backgrounds, did not take vows, and maintained the right to own property.
These secular features made the order more acceptable to the public,
which feared the growth of religious groups that did not pay taxes. Over
time, however, religious and secular authorities began pressing the
Sisters to adopt a religious rule. Many of them formed convents and
placed themselves under the authority of the church.
In 1535 Angela Merici, a young Italian woman, established a confraternity called the Company of St. Ursula for women who wished to
devote themselves to God but could not afford the entrance fee required
by most convents to help support the new nun. The order sought to
protect the virginity of its members, but did not require them to take
vows. The Ursulines taught catechism to young girls and promoted
female education. In France, the Ursulines eventually formed traditional convents, and French Ursuline nuns established the first female mission in Canada in the early 1600s.
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The Angelics of St. Paul, the female counterpart to the Barnabites, also
led a religious life that included performing acts of charity. Their main
work involved reforming convents and helping the sick, orphans, and
former prostitutes. In time, the independence of the Angelic Sisters
aroused opposition from church leaders, and in 1552 the order adopted
a cloistered life, shut away from the public. (See also Clergy;
Confraternities; Devotio Moderna; Education; Inquisition;
Missions, Christian; Women.)
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* theology study of the nature of God
and of religion
* classical in the tradition of ancient
Greece and Rome
* mystical based on a belief in the
idea of a direct, personal union with the
divine
* humanist Renaissance expert in the
humanities (the languages, literature,
history, and speech and writing
techniques of ancient Greece and
Rome)
T
he Renaissance brought many new ideas and trends to the study of
theology*. Religious scholars began to reexamine sacred texts in the
light of classical* knowledge. They studied the Bible in its original languages (Greek and Hebrew) and applied the doctrines of ancient
philosophers to religious ideas. The Kabbalah, a mystical* Jewish system
of interpreting the Scriptures, also played a major role in the ideas of
both Christian and Jewish thinkers during this period.
CHRISTIAN THOUGHT
During the Middle Ages, most Europeans were members of the Roman
Catholic Church. However, a number of different schools of religious
thought existed within this single church. Catholics differed over such
issues as whether the pope should be subject to the authority of church
councils. These theological divisions became more pronounced during
the Renaissance. Scholars began to question many traditional doctrines
of the Catholic Church and to adopt new views based on their reexamination of ancient religious texts.
Attacks on Scholasticism. Religious scholars of the Middle Ages had
favored a philosophy known as Scholasticism, which combined
Christian faith with the ideas of the Greek thinker ARISTOTLE. The most
important explanation of this belief system appeared in Summa
Theologica, by St. Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274). During the Renaissance,
however, many scholars attacked Aquinas’ work because it relied heavily on abstract ideas and formulas. Humanists* such as Desiderius
ERASMUS (ca. 1466–1536), as well as some Protestant reformers, favored
another approach. They urged Christians to follow the example and
teachings of Jesus. The Roman Catholic Church responded to attacks on
its doctrines at the Council of Trent, which took place between 1545 and
1563. The church reaffirmed the views of Scholastic thinkers that it had
supported throughout the Middle Ages.
Christians and the Bible. Biblical studies blossomed during the
Renaissance as humanist scholars began reviving the original Greek and
Hebrew versions of the text. For most of Christian history, theologians
had relied on a Latin version of the Bible known as the Vulgate.
Renaissance scholars such as Lorenzo VALLA compared the Vulgate with
the original texts and found many flaws in the translation. Their work
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* Protestant Reformation religious
movement that began in the 1500s as a
protest against certain practices of the
Roman Catholic Church and eventually
led to the establishment of a variety of
Protestant churches
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In some ways, the humanist ideas
of the Renaissance played a crucial role in the spread of the
Protestant Reformation in the
1500s. Protestant reformers relied
on the text of the Bible as the
chief source of religious authority.
Thus, their ideas rested on the
work of humanists who had
helped to recover biblical texts in
their original Greek and Hebrew
versions. However, the reformers
disagreed with humanist thinkers
on many points of theology. For
instance, the reformers placed a
great deal of emphasis on the
idea of original sin. They saw
humans as sinful, fallen beings
whose only hope lay in the grace
of God.
26
helped translators such as Erasmus prepare new versions of the Bible
that followed the original sources more closely. Erasmus also wrote a set
of “paraphrases” of the New Testament. The paraphrases aimed to make
biblical passages easier to understand by rewriting them in simpler
terms.
The Protestant Reformation* of the early 1500s spurred efforts to
interpret and analyze the Bible. Martin LUTHER, the central figure of the
Reformation, viewed the Bible as the sole source of religious knowledge
and placed a great deal of importance on understanding it. In his commentaries on the Bible, he focused on the relationship between the Old
and New Testaments. He noted that while the Old Testament had value
for Christians on its own terms, its chief value lay in its hidden links to
characters and events in the New Testament. Other Protestant leaders,
such as Philipp MELANCHTHON, Huldrych Zwingli, and John CALVIN, also
prepared commentaries on the Bible designed to help spread Protestant
doctrines and train clergy members.
Patristics. Another major development in Christian thought at this
time was the recovery of patristic works. The term patristics refers to the
writings and doctrines of the church fathers, the theologians of
the early Christian era. Throughout the Middle Ages, the writings of the
church fathers often had been available only in translations or in
incomplete versions. During the Renaissance, however, renewed contact
between the Roman Catholic Church and the Orthodox Church, centered in the city of Constantinople, helped restore the original texts to
western Europe.
Renaissance humanists, aiming to recover the wisdom of the ancient
world, made the revival of patristics an important part of their studies.
Humanists such as Erasmus discovered, edited, and translated the writings of the major Greek and Latin church fathers or the 300s and early
400s, including AUGUSTINE OF HIPPO, St. Jerome, and John Chrysostom.
Unlike scholars of the Middle Ages, humanists viewed the church
fathers less as authorities on doctrine than as sources of Christian teaching. They believed the church fathers had special understanding of
Christianity because they had lived so close to the time of Jesus. Many
humanists also praised the church fathers for their knowledge of languages and literature.
New Directions in Christian Thought. During the Renaissance,
many humanists sought to revive the ideas of the ancient Greek
philosopher PLATO. These scholars, known as Neoplatonists, had a major
impact on religious thought. Various factors shaped the growth of
Neoplatonism, including the expanding knowledge of Greek, the
increased contact between eastern and western churches, and the
renewed study of the church fathers. Scholars such as Marsilio FICINO
(1433–1499) sought to replace the ideas of Aristotle, which had held a
central place in Scholastic thought, with those of Plato. They saw Plato’s
works as being closer to the philosophy of the Greek church fathers,
especially St. Augustine.
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The Neoplatonists played a key role in one of the biggest debates in
Renaissance theology, the question of whether the human soul was
immortal. The roots of the conflict lay in the writings of Averroes, an
Arab philosopher who had commented on Aristotle in the 1100s.
According to Averroes, Aristotle’s works denied the immortality of the
soul. For centuries, followers of Averroes—known as Averroists—continued to claim that only faith, and not reason, could prove that the soul
was immortal. Throughout the Renaissance, various Italian scholars
attacked the views of the Averroists. Ficino took a strong stand against
them, making the immortality of the soul a key part of his belief system.
However, another noted thinker, Pietro POMPONAZZI, claimed that
according to reason, the soul must be mortal.
Many Neoplatonic thinkers also took an interest in mysticism. Several
of them became students of the Kabbalah, a Jewish system of seeking
hidden symbolic meanings within the Scriptures. Armed with a newfound knowledge of Hebrew, philosophers such as Giovanni PICO DELLA
MIRANDOLA (1463–1494) and Giordano BRUNO (1548–1600) explored the
Kabbalah to seek a deeper understanding of Christian beliefs.
Several religious thinkers of the Renaissance
urged Christians to model their lives on the
example of Jesus. German theologian
Thomas à Kempis, shown here, advanced
this idea in his famous work of the early
1400s, On the Imitation of Christ.
JEWISH THOUGHT
Many of the same ideas that affected Christian scholarship during the
Renaissance also played a role in Jewish thought. Like Christians, Jews
explored the links between their faith and the ideas of ancient philosophers such as Aristotle. They also studied and wrote commentaries on
the Bible and other sacred works.
Religion in Jewish Philosophy. Throughout the Middle Ages,
Jewish philosophy and theology were closely connected. One of the
most influential Jewish philosophers was Moses Maimonides of Spain
(1135–1204). His work sought to link the divine wisdom of the Torah
(the most sacred Jewish religious text) with human wisdom, as revealed
in the works of Aristotle. Followers of Maimonides believed that Greek
philosophy and the Torah taught the same truths in different ways.
During the 1400s Jewish thinkers in Spain became more familiar with
the works of Thomas Aquinas and other Christian Scholastics. Drawing
on these texts, they developed the notion that the truths of theology
complete and perfect those of philosophy. Some Jewish thinkers sought
to prove that the Jewish faith was in harmony with reason, while
Christian doctrines were not. Other Jewish philosophers explored a variety of religious issues, such as the nature of God, the origin of the universe, prophecy, miracles, and human perfection. Some scholars also
blended the ideas of the Kabbalah into their worldview. They linked the
hidden meaning of the Torah to the ideal order of the universe, as contained within the mind of God.
Jewish philosophy in Renaissance Italy relied heavily on the ideas of
Aristotle and Maimonides. In addition, Italian Jews explored the works
of Averroes and Plato. Some Jewish philosophers played a major role in
the growth of Neoplatonic thought. For example, Yohann Alemanno
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* Ottoman Empire Islamic empire
founded by Ottoman Turks in the 1300s
that reached the height of its power in
the 1500s; it eventually included large
areas of eastern Europe, the Middle
East, and northern Africa
* secular nonreligious; connected with
everyday life
* allegory literary or artistic device in
which characters, events, and settings
represent abstract qualities and in
which the author intends a different
meaning to be read beneath the surface
(ca. 1435– ca. 1504) became the teacher of the philosopher Giovanni
Pico della Mirandola and introduced him to both the Kabbalah and
Jewish texts on Plato.
In 1492 Spain forced all its Jews to leave the country. Many Jewish
exiles fled to the Ottoman Empire* and spread their philosophy there.
Scholars in eastern cities began to focus their attention on the Bible and
other sacred texts. A leading philosopher of the 1500s was Moses
Almosnino, who developed a moral philosophy based on Scholastic
sources, Jewish and Muslim thought, and the Kabbalah. His belief system declared that humans could achieve union with God through
moral action.
Jews and the Bible. The Bible played a key role in Jewish scholarship
during the Middle Ages. Jews studied the Old Testament in terms of
both its language and its role in Jewish law and custom. The understanding of the Bible also informed the study of secular* philosophy
and mysticism. Most scholars drew on all these areas of knowledge—
language, tradition, philosophy, and mysticism—in their teaching.
During the Renaissance, Jewish exiles from Spain brought their studies to other regions, especially in eastern Europe. Most of these biblical
scholars saw the Torah as the ultimate source of human knowledge.
However, they also believed that the Scripture was vastly complex, filled
with symbols and allegories* that required explanation. To unearth the
layers of meaning within the Bible, they used a method borrowed from
Christian Scholasticism. This technique involved laying out a series of
questions and objections and then resolving them in a long discussion.
Jewish scholars tended to focus on complex issues rather than straightforward ones, and they enjoyed discovering hidden connections
between distinct fields of knowledge.
Jewish Messianism. Several Jewish thinkers in the 1400s and 1500s
argued that the end of the world, or apocalypse, was near. They believed
that this coming crisis would bring forth a Messiah—a hero who would
save the Jews both as individuals and as a people. The Messiah, some
claimed, would bring God’s revenge upon the enemies of the Jews and
establish a miraculous kingdom on earth. Many also believed that the coming of the Messiah would put an end to death and restore the dead to life.
Several writers of the late 1400s and 1500s predicted the arrival of the
Messiah. A few even claimed to be the Messiah or someone else who
would play a major role in the apocalypse. One of the most important
messianic writers was Isaac Luria (1534–1572), a student of the
Kabbalah. He claimed that the Messiah would be a spiritual leader,
rather than a political or military one. This figure, he argued, would
restore the power of God on earth and would fight the forces of evil.
* metaphysics branch of philosophy
concerned with the nature of reality
and existence
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ISLAMIC THOUGHT
In most parts of the Islamic world, philosophy fell into decline in the
1100s. Theologians in the east opposed the study of metaphysics*,
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which they saw as being in conflict with the revealed word of God in
the Qu’ran, the sacred text of Islam. As metaphysics sank in importance,
religious scholars turned to mysticism. The most noted mystical thinker
of this period was Muhyi al-Din ibn al ‘Arabi of Spain. His works and
those of his students focused on such themes as the divine unity of all
creation and the powers of rare individuals who are “friends of God.”
In the late 1200s and early 1300s, many Muslim thinkers rejected
mysticism, which they feared would dissolve the legal and ethical system of Islam. Scholars such as Ibn Taymiya of Damascus, Syria
(1263–1328), insisted that the goal of Islam was not to understand or
love God but to obey him. According to Ibn Taymiya, the only way to
do this was to return to the teachings of the Qur’an and the practices of
the Prophet Muhammad, the founder of Islam. Similar ideas arose in the
Muslim empire of India in the 1600s, where scholars called for a purification of religion through a return to the Qur’an and Islamic law. (See
also Christianity; Classical Scholarship; Ideas, Spread of;
Jewish Languages and Literature; Jews; Philosophy; Religious
Literature.)
Renaissance:
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W
riting in the 1430s, Matteo Palmieri of FLORENCE celebrated “this
new age, so full of hope and promise” with a greater collection of
“nobly-gifted souls” than the world had seen in a thousand years. Like
others of his day, Palmieri believed he was living in a special time, a period of tremendous intellectual and artistic creativity inspired by the
ancient world. That era came to be known as the Renaissance, and ever
since Palmieri’s day historians have discussed its causes, characteristics,
and importance.
IDENTIFYING THE RENAISSANCE
For centuries, scholars have seen the Renaissance as a distinct period of
history. However, most have used more than just dates to identify the
time. They have also examined intellectual movements, political
changes, technological advances, and other factors in an attempt to
understand Renaissance society.
* humanism Renaissance cultural
movement promoting the study of the
humanities (the languages, literature,
and history of ancient Greece and
Rome) as a guide to living
THE RENAISSANCE
Defining the Era. The cultural changes that launched the
Renaissance began to take shape around 1350. At about that time, new
developments in learning, the arts, politics, and society emerged in
Italy. Many Italian intellectuals became interested in humanism* with
its focus on ancient Greek and Roman culture. By the late 1400s these
developments had spread to the rest of Europe, aided by the invention
of printing. In northern Europe, other factors, such as new religious
ideas, influenced Renaissance thought.
No single date marks the end of the Renaissance. Nevertheless, historians generally agree that, by the mid-1600s, the artistic and intellectual trends of the period had run their course and new ideas were
emerging. Events such as the THIRTY YEARS’ WAR (1618–1648) had
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changed the political map of Europe. By then, humanists had revived
the learning of ancient Greece and Rome and made it part of the curriculum at European schools and universities. A few developments after
the mid-1600s, such as the later works of the English poet John MILTON
(who died in 1674) are also often included in the Renaissance.
* pagan referring to ancient religions
that worshiped many gods, or, more
generally, to any non-Christian religion
* classical in the tradition of ancient
Greece and Rome
* antiquity era of the ancient
Mediterranean cultures of Greece and
Rome, ending around A.D. 400
* medieval referring to the Middle
Ages, a period that began around A.D.
400 and ended around 1400 in Italy
and 1500 in the rest of Europe
* Protestant Reformation religious
movement that began in the 1500s as a
protest against certain practices of the
Roman Catholic Church and eventually
led to the establishment of a variety of
Protestant churches
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The Renaissance View of the Era. The notion of an age focused on
reviving the best features of ancient culture began with the Italian poet
PETRARCH in the mid-1300s. Scholars of the 1400s and 1500s, especially
Italians, further developed Petrarch’s ideas about the Renaissance and
his belief that it was a unique period of history.
Petrarch changed the European view of history. Earlier, scholars had
considered the birth of Christ to be a major turning point, marking the
end of the dark pagan* times and the beginning of the Christian age.
But Petrarch viewed the writing and scholarship of the MIDDLE AGES as
inferior to the learning and languages of the classical* world. He divided history in a new way, with its turning point in the A.D. 300s, when
the Roman Empire adopted Christianity. For Petrarch, this marked the
end of the classical era and the beginning of a less civilized time. He
began calling the two eras “ancient” and “modern,” and he clearly valued the ancient more highly.
By the time of his death in 1374, Petrarch had acquired followers who
shared his vision. They contributed to the burst of CLASSICAL SCHOLARSHIP—especially the recovery and publication of many texts from
ancient Greece and Rome—that fueled the humanist movement.
The humanist historian Flavio Biondo (1392–1463) promoted the
idea of dividing history into three distinct periods: antiquity*, marked
by great learning; a middle period of about one thousand years; and an
era of cultural rebirth beginning about 1400. Other humanists developed the view that the Middle Ages had been a time of darkness and
ignorance. “It is but in our own day,” wrote Palmieri, “that men dare to
boast that they see the dawn of better things.” Writers like Palmieri and
Giorgio Vasari (1511–1574) claimed that the rebirth of culture began in
literature with Petrarch, in art with the painter GIOTTO, and in Latin
with Leonardo BRUNI, a humanist scholar who worked to restore what
he considered the classical purity of the language. This view of the origins of the Renaissance became widespread in Italy during the 1400s
and 1500s.
Other Europeans agreed that a new age had dawned after the long
medieval* period. French humanists acknowledged that the Renaissance
had begun in Italy, but also credited French figures, such as king FRANCIS I
(ruled 1515–1547), for their efforts in encouraging a cultural rebirth.
Some northern European thinkers, including the philosopher
Desiderius ERASMUS (ca. 1466–1536), saw the Renaissance in religious
terms, as a return to the pure and authentic beliefs of early Christianity
as well as to classical culture.
Beginning in the 1500s, the Protestant Reformation* influenced the
way some people thought about the Renaissance. Protestant historians
of the time accepted the concept of ancient and medieval periods giv-
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Giorgio Vasari, shown in this self-portrait
from the 1560s, was one of several
Renaissance writers who described their
own time as a glorious age of cultural
rebirth. His influential work The Lives of
the Most Excellent Architects, Painters, and
Sculptors claimed that the great art of the
ancient world had fallen into decline during the Middle Ages. He saw the work of
artist Giotto de Bondone in the early
1300s as the beginning of a major revival
in art.
* papacy
pope
office and authority of the
ing way to a rebirth. However, they emphasized some of the problems
of the Middle Ages, blaming the papacy* for its cultural backwardness
and its religious errors and abuses. They also saw their own age as the
time in which true religion was restored. Although Italian writers paid
little attention to religious matters when describing the Renaissance,
Protestant historians often viewed the period in terms of both a revival
of scholarship and religious reform.
INTERPRETING THE RENAISSANCE
Scholars have been studying the Renaissance since it ended. They have
compared the Renaissance with the periods before and after it; noted the
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forms it took in various parts of Europe; examined the relationship
between the Renaissance and the Protestant Reformation; and traced
the influence of the Renaissance on later culture. For centuries, most
historians shared the view of the period as a rebirth after the darkness
of the Middle Ages. More recently, scholars have expanded and sometimes challenged that interpretation.
The 1700s and 1800s. Intellectuals of the 1700s inherited from the
humanists the division of history into three eras. They tended to
emphasize the contrast between the Middle Ages and the modern era.
In Essay on the Manners and Spirit of Nations (1756), the French writer
Voltaire argued that during the Middle Ages the church had joined
forces with certain governments to suppress individual freedom and reason. During the 1300s, 1400s, and 1500s, Italians and then the French
had begun to shake off the chains of religion and take rational steps forward. Following Voltaire’s lead, French art historian Jean-Baptiste
Seroux d’Agincourt (1730–1814) identified the Renaissance with the art
of the period between the Middle Ages and the 1700s.
Three scholars shaped the view of the Renaissance as a unique period
of history. French historian Jules Michelet, in The Renaissance (1855),
was the first to conceive of the Renaissance as a distinct period in
European civilization, with a unique spirit that expressed itself in every
aspect of life. That spirit, he wrote, was “the discovery of the world and
the discovery of man.” Michelet focused on the revival of classical
antiquity, scientific discoveries, and geographic exploration.
Four years later, German historian Georg Voigt published a detailed
study of Italian humanism. He saw a sharp break between medieval culture and the Renaissance, which he considered the beginning of modern culture. Voigt credited Petrarch with launching the Italian
Renaissance and discovering “the new world of humanism.” In Voigt’s
view, one of the key features of the Renaissance was individualism—an
awareness of and emphasis on the individual. He identified Petrarch as
displaying this characteristic because the poet expressed his personal
interests rather than following an established philosophical system.
Swiss historian Jakob Burckhardt was the most influential
Renaissance scholar of the 1800s. In The Civilization of the Renaissance in
Italy (1860), Burckhardt summed up the views of the historians of his
day and influenced other scholars for a century. His book covers six
aspects of Italian Renaissance civilization: politics, individualism, the
revival of antiquity, science, society, and religion.
In the section on politics, Burckhardt describes the origins of the
Italian city-states. In discussing individualism, he argues that medieval
people were aware of themselves only as members of families and other
groups, but Renaissance people saw themselves as independent individuals. The third section of his book covers the revival of antiquity, which
guided Renaissance humanists as they developed their interests and talents. The fourth section deals with Renaissance advances in scientific
and geographic discovery. Next, in a discussion of society, Burckhardt
claims that Renaissance cities developed a social structure in which status depended on culture and wealth, not birth. In the last section, on
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religion, the author suggests that excessive individualism led to a breakdown in morals and a loss of respect for religion in Italy. Individualism
also contributed to the country’s decline in the 1500s. However, by that
time the Italian Renaissance had succeeded in bringing Europe into the
modern world.
Burckhardt’s views on the Italian Renaissance were widely accepted,
but scholars differed in their interpretations of the Renaissance in northern Europe. Most agreed that it was a break from the Middle Ages and
that humanism was a key element. They disagreed, however, on the role
of the Protestant Reformation. As a result, the northern Renaissance was
never as clearly defined as the Italian Renaissance. In addition, some historians tended to think that the modern world originated in northern
Europe in the 1500s, not in Italy in the 1400s.
* rhetoric art of speaking or writing
effectively
THE RENAISSANCE
From the 1900s Onward. From Petrarch through the 1800s, the
Renaissance was seen as a revolt against the Middle Ages. The 1900s
brought a reaction from scholars who specialized in medieval studies.
Some accepted the existence of the Renaissance but placed its beginning
back in earlier times. Others claimed that the Renaissance brought nothing new, that it was just a continuation—or even a decline—of medieval
culture. The most influential attack on the Renaissance by a medievalist
came from Charles Homer Haskins. In The Renaissance of the Twelfth
Century (1927) he argued that the modern world had really begun in the
1100s and that the Italian Renaissance was a minor historical episode.
Renaissance scholarship increased dramatically after the end of World
War II in 1945. Most scholars accepted the idea of the Renaissance but
did not attempt sweeping studies of it. Instead, they focused on distinct
aspects or phases of the Renaissance.
The major contribution of historians after the 1940s was identifying
humanism as the unifying force of the Renaissance. In The Crisis of the
Early Italian Renaissance (1955), Hans Baron distinguished between the
early humanism of Petrarch and his followers, who advised withdrawal
from active life in favor of study, and the later humanism of Leonardo
Bruni and other Florentines, who believed that scholars should be
involved in public affairs. Paul Oskar Kristeller (1905–1999), perhaps the
most important Renaissance scholar of the 1900s, concentrated on
humanism. He defined humanistic studies as the study of grammar,
rhetoric*, poetry, history, and moral philosophy based on the standard
ancient authors in Latin and sometimes Greek. Many other scholars
accept this definition.
Another strand of Renaissance study has consisted of art criticism and
art history. During the 1800s, John Ruskin and Walter Pater and other
critics wrote extensively about the works of artists such as MICHELANGELO,
GIORGIONE, and LEONARDO DA VINCI. The leading authority on Italian
Renaissance painting for much of the 1900s, Bernard Berenson, viewed
the Renaissance as a golden age. His influential studies focused on the
qualities of works of art, rather than on the social and intellectual climates that produced them.
Since the mid-1900s scholars have examined the Renaissance from
multiple angles, such as its religious expressions and political organiza-
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* elite
privileged group; upper class
tion. Specialists called social historians have increasingly turned away
from politics and famous individuals to study the entire range of human
activities and social groups. Sifting through mountains of historical
data, social historians have provided detailed information about such
aspects of life as courtship, marriage, poverty, crime, and the roles and
rights of women.
Most scholars today still regard the Renaissance as different from the
Middle Ages and as the beginning of the modern era. Some, however,
deny that the Renaissance was a unique period, or they dismiss it as
concerned only with the culture and experiences of elites*. Further
research and interpretation will no doubt continue to influence thinking about the Renaissance.
INFLUENCE OF THE RENAISSANCE
In the traditional view, the Renaissance affected every area of human
activity and knowledge, from art to zoology. It transformed Europe and,
eventually, the rest of the world. In addition, it left a legacy that still
shapes many aspects of modern life.
Education and History. Renaissance humanists created a school
curriculum based on classical languages and literature. This system
dominated European education for centuries. Students seeking to enter
universities had to know Greek and Latin, and the classics were a key
part of their studies. The English and French carried this humanist curriculum to North America, where, until the early 1900s, certain universities required students to know classical Latin.
Before the Renaissance, some people had thought of history as
shaped by divine forces. By contrast, the humanists viewed history as a
fully human activity. They also began to distinguish different ways of
writing about history: as an art, like literature; as a way of teaching a
moral or political lesson; or as a scientific quest for truth. The notion of
history writing as a technical discipline based on facts began with the
Renaissance historians.
* perspective artistic technique for
creating the illusion of threedimensional space on a flat surface
* villa luxurious country home and the
land surrounding it
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Art and Science. The art and architecture of the Renaissance had a
lasting influence on later centuries. Masterpieces by Michelangelo,
Leonardo, RAPHAEL, and other Renaissance masters became standards of
greatness. In addition, later artists continued trends begun during the
Renaissance. For example, the method Filippo BRUNELLESCHI invented for
showing perspective* is still taught and used today. The Renaissance
also revived the classical idea of portraits as realistic images of individuals, a move toward modern portraiture.
Renaissance architects drew on classical models and, in turn, were imitated by later designers. Andrea PALLADIO’s writings and villas* have influenced many structures built over the years. Examples in the United States
include the White House and Monticello, the home of Thomas Jefferson.
Science advanced when Renaissance humanists discovered and
spread ancient works on mathematics, medicine, and other topics.
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Renaissance Tales Retold
Renaissance playwright William
Shakespeare borrowed plots from
a variety of sources for his plays. In
turn, many modern moviemakers
have borrowed his plots. The
science-fiction classic Forbidden
Planet (1956) follows the story of
Shakespeare’s play, The Tempest.
Japanese filmmaker Akira Kurosawa
based Throne of Blood (1957) and
Ran (1985) on King Lear and
Macbeth. Shakespeare’s comedy
The Taming of the Shrew inspired
the musical Kiss Me Kate, filmed in
1953. Eight years later, the movie
version of the musical West Side
Story recreated Shakespeare’s
Romeo and Juliet in New York City
of the 1950s.
* guild association of craft and trade
owners and workers that set standards
for and represented the interests of its
members
THE RENAISSANCE
Certain important scientific ideas took root during the Renaissance,
including the value of precise measurement, the notion that the universe is mathematically harmonious, and the belief that technological
progress is possible. These ideas laid the foundation for modern science.
In addition, medicine was revolutionized in the Renaissance by two new
practices: an emphasis on the study of anatomy and teaching medical
students through direct observation of patients. Both of these elements
remain important to medical training today.
Popular Imagination and Culture. The general public draws ideas
and images of the Renaissance from school, museums, books, television,
and movies. Major Renaissance figures, such as Michelangelo and
William SHAKESPEARE, are familiar to people all over the world, and the
term “Renaissance” has entered the common vocabulary.
Because the Renaissance produced individuals with a wide range
interests who excelled in a number of different areas, someone who is
accomplished and successful in several fields is often called a
“Renaissance man” or “Renaissance woman.” Writers have referred to
the outpouring of literary and artistic activity among African Americans
of the 1920s as the Harlem Renaissance. In the 1970s, the city of Detroit,
Michigan, rebuilt a downtown area to bring new life to a declining
urban core. The area was named the Renaissance Center to convey
images of rebirth and cultural achievement.
Shakespeare has had more influence in the popular imagination than
any other Renaissance figure. Schools and universities teach his plays,
which are performed more often than any other English plays. Phrases
from his works, such as “To be or not to be,” have become part of everyday language. Many of Shakespeare’s plays have been filmed and or
made into operas.
Other operas have drawn on Renaissance figures and settings.
Gaetano Donizetti’s Lucrezia Borgia (1833) offers a sensational and dramatic treatment of the life of a member of the powerful BORGIA clan.
Giuseppe Verdi’s Don Carlos (1867) alters the facts of history to create an
exciting story set in Spain during the reign of PHILIP II. Benvenuto Cellini
(1838), by Hector Berlioz, dramatizes the life of the great sculptor, while
Richard Wagner’s opera Die Meistersinger (The Mastersinger of Nuremberg,
1868) is based on the story of a German singers’ guild* of the 1500s.
Historical fiction and films have also contributed to the popular
image of the Renaissance. In novels such as The Life of Cesare Borgia
(1912) and Columbus (1942), Rafael Sabatini depicts various larger-thanlife characters who peopled the 1400s and 1500s. The Agony and the
Ecstasy (1961), a novel by Irving Stone about Michelangelo, portrays the
artist as a heroic genius struggling against society to create great works.
It was later filmed. These and other works have shaped a dramatic and
colorful vision of the Renaissance that is popular, although not entirely
accurate. This view is summed up in the 1949 film The Third Man, when
a character played by Orson Welles says, “In Italy for thirty years, under
the Borgias, they had warfare, terror, murder, and bloodshed, but they
produced Michelangelo, Leonardo da Vinci, and the Renaissance.” (See
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REPRESENTATIVE INSTITUTIONS
also Art; Classical Antiquity; Europe, Idea of; History, Writing
of; Humanism; Ideas, Spread of; Individualism; Literature;
Science.)
eRepresentative
e
Institutions
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Representative Institutions
* autonomous
independent
self-governing;
R
epresentative institutions emerged in Europe during the late Middle
Ages. Before that time kings ruled with the advice and support of the
clergy, known as the first estate, and the nobility, known as the second
estate. As towns became more important economically, they gained a
voice in government as the third estate. Representatives of the estates met
in an assembly, variously called the Parliament, Estates General, Cortes,
Diet, or Landtag in different places. In Italy important towns became
autonomous* and set up representative institutions to govern themselves.
ITALY
* classical in the tradition of ancient
Greece and Rome
* prince Renaissance term for the ruler
of an independent state
* artisan
36
skilled worker or craftsperson
Governments with representative institutions were generally called
republics. Renaissance writers used the term republican to describe a
form of government dominated by leading merchants with little participation by others. Some scholars explain the enthusiasm for republican
government as a result of the numerous independent city-states in Italy
and the great interest in classical* culture. Republican governments with
representative institutions took different forms.
Communes. Between the 1000s and 1200s, a number of northern and
central Italian towns shook off the rule of local princes* and bishops.
Each of these cities set up a commune—an association of citizens that
took over many of the functions of government. These citizens usually
came from the wealthy and merchant classes. Most communes had an
elected executive committee of consuls and a larger assembly with
which the consuls were supposed to consult. The assemblies acquired
the power to approve laws that were binding on all citizens.
In the 1200s growing interest in the classical world led scholars to
study the government of the ancient Roman republic. They admired the
Roman principles of justice, peace, equality, and the common good, and
adopted these ideals in forming communes. Brunetto Latini, chancellor
of Florence in the 1250s, wrote that the commune was the best form of
government because its members are elected and advised by the citizens
and must follow the communal laws.
Guild Republics. Early communes represented mainly the interests
of the wealthy classes. However, as urban economies developed and
became more specialized, the associations of artisans* and tradespeople
known as guilds grew dramatically. In many urban areas, they formed
alliances and demanded representation. In Bologna, Padua, and
Florence, groups of guilds even took over city government on several
occasions.
Like the communes, these guild-based republics followed the example
of ancient Rome, quoting the Roman principle “that which touches all
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* humanist Renaissance expert in the
humanities (the languages, literature,
history, and speech and writing
techniques of ancient Greece and
Rome)
* patronage
sponsorship
support or financial
* aristocracy privileged upper classes
of society; nobles or the nobility
* elite
privileged group; upper class
must be approved by all.” However, they applied this principle in a limited way, extending rights only to those who lived in the city. People in
the surrounding area controlled by the town had no say in government.
Influential humanists*, such as the poet PETRARCH and the Florentine
chancellor Coluccio SALUTATI, supported the concept of republican government. Nevertheless, by the end of the 1300s republicanism based on
the people and the guilds had begun to decline. In northern Italy, nobles
reacted against the demands of the lower classes for greater representation and turned to despots—individual rulers with sweeping powers. In
places where republicanism remained, the nature of government
changed. The upper classes shared power but made it difficult for other
groups to join the administration. In Florence members of the middle
class came to depend upon the patronage* of the city’s aristocracy*,
which helped stifle political opposition. Those in control promoted the
image of the city as a family, with the rulers as parents looking after the
needs of their children.
Florence and Venice. Florence and Venice were the two Italian cities
most closely associated with republican government. Florence had
become a commune by 1138, and republican government survived in
the city until the 1500s. By the 1430s the powerful MEDICI family controlled political life in Florence, but they ruled through existing republican institutions. When France invaded Italy in 1494, the Medici were
banished from Florence and the monk Girolamo SAVONAROLA restored
the republic. However, the Medici returned in 1512, and in the 1530s
they abolished republican institutions and established themselves as
dukes.
Although Venice was praised by many Renaissance observers as a
model republic, its government was actually less representative than
that of Florence. A Great Council made up of members of the elite* classes elected an executive officer, called the doge, and other officials to
administer city business. Although the Great Council contained over
2,000 members, it had been closed to newcomers since 1297. Thus, an
upper class of wealthy traders and investors held power in the city.
Venice remained a republic until the French conquered it in 1797.
OTHER EUROPEAN STATES
* autonomy
government
independent self-
Most towns in northern and eastern Europe did not attain the degree of
independence reached by Florence and Venice. However, representative
institutions existed in many provinces and at a national level, and, in
some places, towns had a substantial amount of autonomy*.
The Netherlands. Towns in the Netherlands set up independent governments similar to those in Italian city-states. The upper classes dominated the towns until the 1300s, when challenged by urban wool
workers. Eventually merchants and artisans gained the right to have representatives. In the southern provinces, guilds drew up lists of candidates for the town council, with the first burgomaster (similar to a
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* Flanders region along the coasts of
present-day Belgium, France, and the
Netherlands
mayor) chosen from the aristocracy. In the north, the council and burgomaster all came from among the wealthiest citizens.
In Flanders* the towns of Ghent, Bruges, and Ypres ran the whole
province, instead of the three estates that governed elsewhere. When
Flanders became part of the duke of Burgundy’s lands in the late 1300s,
assemblies representing the first and second estates (the clergy and the
nobility) were added. However, throughout the Netherlands, the town
leaders (the third estate) still dominated political life because of their
economic power. Although the duke could summon the assemblies to
raise revenues, the councils of every province had to approve any new
taxes. A veto by one of the estates or even by a single member of one
commune could prevent the government from raising taxes.
In the 1500s the Netherlands came under the control of the HABSBURG
king of Spain. Opposition to Spanish domination led to a revolt in the
1570s, and for a time the estates controlled the entire country. The
southern provinces eventually accepted the return of Spanish rule, but
the northern provinces remained independent until the late 1700s.
The Iberian Peninsula. The Spanish kingdoms of Castile and
Aragon each had an assembly called the Cortes, with representatives
from the clergy, the nobility, and the towns. In Castile, the clergy and
the nobility paid no taxes, so they saw little reason to attend meetings
of the Cortes. This left the towns to face the power of the monarch
alone. Originally, a general assembly of the heads of families elected the
representatives from the towns. However, by the 1300s representatives
chosen by the monarchy held most of the power in the Cortes.
Aragon had a separate Cortes in each of its three provinces (Aragon,
Valencia, and Catalonia). These assemblies possessed more independent
power than the Castilian Cortes. In response to a political crisis of 1626,
for example, the Cortes of Aragon and Valencia agreed to raise taxes for
the crown but refused to send troops.
France. French kings began to summon representatives of the three
estates to a national assembly, known as the Estates General, in the early
1300s. Deputies to the Estates General could not raise taxes but could
recommend such an action to the assemblies of their provinces. The
Estates General did not meet between 1484 and 1560. As a result, no
taxes were authorized and the monarchy faced financial difficulties. The
king often had to approach the estates of the provinces to raise money
or approve treaties.
In France, the nobility and the clergy generally outvoted the representatives of the towns. Moreover, people in the countryside did not
have their own representatives, but relied on local nobles to speak on
their behalf. During the 1600s and 1700s, the crown worked to undermine the power of the estates. No Estates General met between 1615
and the beginning of the French Revolution in 1789.
England. By the time of the Renaissance, Parliament had been established as the representative institution in England. Parliament consisted
of two bodies: the House of Lords (made up of members of the nobility)
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* burgher well-to-do middle class
inhabitant of a town or city
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and the House of Commons. In the early Renaissance, the House of
Commons included two burghers* from each town and two knights
from each rural county. Later, the towns began electing knights as well.
As a result, most members of Parliament belonged to the aristocracy.
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Scandinavia was the only region
of Europe in which peasants
gained representation in the
national assembly. In Denmark,
the nobility and clergy became so
powerful that, in 1468, the king
replaced the old assembly with
a new body that included members from the nobility, clergy,
burghers, and free peasants.
Peasants also won representation
in Sweden’s national assembly in
return for their support for a
rebellion against the Scandinavian
Union. In the 1400s Swedish
opponents of the union—made
up of Denmark, Norway, and
Sweden—invited representatives
of the burghers, miners, and
peasants to a parliamentary meeting. Sweden succeeded in breaking free of the union, and later
Swedish rulers frequently summoned the national assembly.
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* prince Renaissance term for the ruler
of an independent state
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Some English monarchs summoned Parliament rarely, while others
called members together for lengthy sessions. In the 1530s, HENRY VIII
consulted Parliament as he broke away from the Roman Catholic
Church and introduced religious changes in England. Later, Parliament
oversaw the efforts of ELIZABETH I to lay the permanent foundations for
the Church of England. In the 1600s, conflicts between Parliament and
the king led to civil war. Between 1629 and 1640, CHARLES I refused to
summon the members of Parliament and tried to govern without consulting them. In 1649 they had him executed.
Germany. Representative institutions in Germany took many forms.
The clergy usually formed the first estate, but in many places they did
not attend the local assembly, called the Diet or Landtag. In other areas,
the nobility refused to participate in the Landtag to assert their independence from the local prince. They would only attend the Reichstag,
the imperial assembly summoned by the emperor. Peasants generally
had no representatives in the Landtag.
Many German towns achieved a good deal of autonomy, with guilds
dominating town councils. Most towns were subject to the authority of
a territorial prince. However, some became powerful enough to gain status as “imperial cities” under the emperor.
German princes often had their own sources of revenue. As a result,
they did not need to rely on the Landtag to pass taxes. During the 1500s,
many Protestant princes took over monasteries and other church properties with the approval of the local diet. For this reason, assemblies in
Protestant regions gained new privileges and influence. In Catholic
Bavaria, the princes remained strong and the power of the estates gradually declined. (See also City-States; Government, Forms of; Guilds;
Monarchy; Political Thought; Princes and Princedoms; Social
Status; Taxation and Public Finance.)
D
uring the Renaissance, social, economic, and political tensions
often led to popular revolts. Although commonly referred to as
peasant revolts, these uprisings usually involved townspeople as well as
peasants. Moreover, most revolts were carefully planned and led by individuals from the upper levels of urban and rural society. The primary
goal of rebellion was to achieve justice, and most rebels respected life
and property. While some committed bloody acts, they targeted only
individuals viewed as enemies of the community.
Causes of Revolt. Protest was a normal part of relations between
lords and tenants or princes* and subjects. Most protests arose because
of changes in political and economic organization or in social relationships. However, protest turned into revolt when the people believed
that such changes threatened the survival of the community. For example, a combination of high taxes and unequal distribution of food might
trigger an uprising. In most cases, the rebels sought to restore the previous state of affairs, not to overthrow the system.
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Bad harvests, excessive taxation, and abuse from soldiers were the most
common causes of rebellion. People tended to accept these hardships
when they affected everyone equally. However, if some people profited
while others suffered, revolt was likely. In 1585, for example, an uprising
in Naples specifically targeted individuals who had been hoarding food.
* tyrant absolute ruler who uses
power unjustly or cruelly
* Protestant Reformation religious
movement that began in the 1500s as a
protest against certain practices of the
Roman Catholic Church and eventually
led to the establishment of a variety of
Protestant churches
* Holy Roman Emperor ruler of the
Holy Roman Empire, a political body in
central Europe composed of several
states that existed until 1806
* secular nonreligious; connected with
everyday life
Theories of Resistance and Revolt. Those who led rebellions
turned to religion, history, and myth to justify their actions. Many cited
biblical examples of protest and just wars against tyrants*. Both ancient
Roman and Germanic law provided support for the right of the people
to resist bad leaders and to take back power from them. Medieval
churchmen also promoted the idea of justified resistance. In 1405, Jean
de Gerson of France declared that, “No sacrifice is more pleasing to God
than the death of a tyrant.” Within the Roman Catholic Church, councils could challenge even the authority of the pope.
The Protestant Reformation* ushered in the great age of resistance in
Europe. The original Protestants were German princes who opposed the
decision of CHARLES V, the Holy Roman Emperor*, to outlaw the teachings of religious reformer Martin LUTHER (1483–1546). The princes based
their right to revolt partly on Luther’s claims that people should be free
to follow their consciences. Luther accepted that kings ruled by God’s
will. However, he argued that “if one may resist the pope, one may also
resist all the emperors and dukes who … defend the pope.” Protestant
Reformer John CALVIN (1509–1564) also accepted the divine rights of
kings. Calvin recommended passive resistance instead of uprisings.
However, he left the door open for revolt by adding that obedience to
secular* authority should never come before obedience to God.
Calvinist leaders in France took a stronger position, especially after
the French king authorized a massacre on St. Bartholomew’s Day, August
24, 1572, that left thousands of Protestants dead. In writings that followed this event, resistors stated that the king drew his power from the
people and that it was the duty of the people to reject tyranny. French
writer Philippe Duplessis-Mornay proclaimed that subjects were justified
in taking up arms against an unjust ruler.
Calvinists in the Netherlands and Catholics in England and France
also used some of these arguments for revolt when they found themselves in opposition to their rulers. The argument turned on the question of who ultimately held power—the monarch or the people. In
either case, there was always the danger of abuse of power.
Records of Revolt. Documents from the 1430s and 1440s indicate
numerous revolts in Denmark and Sweden, and in the late 1400s several uprisings occurred in Germany. Reports of revolts become much more
common during the 1500s. The first recorded major peasant uprisings in
central and eastern Europe took place in Hungary (1514) and Slovenia
(1515).
The revolt of Spain’s Castilian cities (comuneros) shows how revolts
affected the way rulers governed. Spanish nobles were alarmed when
Charles I, their king, left Spain for Germany in 1519 to be crowned Holy
Roman Emperor. They feared that his absence would further weaken the
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This illustration shows German peasants
taking up arms in a 1525 revolt against
their lords. Known as the Peasants’ War,
the uprising actually included a wide
range of common people, such as artisans,
preachers, middle-class townspeople, and
even minor nobles.
e
skilled worker or craftsperson
e
Rhetoric
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Rhetoric
e
* artisan
kingdom, which was already being harassed by its neighbors. They also
had complaints about Charles’s rule—about the many foreigners who
held government positions and about a new tax.
The Spanish rebellion began in urban areas as cities rose up against
the crown. Rural villages quickly took advantage of the confusion to
revolt against their lords. In response, many of the lords looked for royal
protection. They gave the king their full support and strengthened the
royal army. Many of the rebellion’s urban leaders found it too difficult
to maintain one revolt while fighting off another. They soon ended
their uprising. Charles generously pardoned the rebels. Although he
maintained control, the Comunero Revolt made it clear that Charles
could govern successfully only by seeking the support of those he ruled.
The German peasant’s revolt of 1525 stands out as the classic example of a popular uprising of the time. It began with opposition to
German nobles expanding their economic and political control over
their subjects. The main leaders were not peasants but artisans*, preachers, minor nobles, and middle-class townspeople. They organized resistance, and violence broke out in 1524. Over the next year uprisings
swept through areas of southern Germany, Switzerland, Austria, and
what is now eastern France.
Much of western Europe followed Germany’s lead. In 1529 in France
and in the 1540s in Belgium, people revolted to defend their traditional privileges. Several major uprisings occurred in the French territory of
Aquitaine beginning in 1548 protesting a new salt tax. Bad harvests and
political crises in the mid-1580s led to revolts in France and Italy.
Religious politics set off a revolt in Paris in 1588, when the king ordered
the execution of a duke and a cardinal.
Conditions worsened in the 1590s as a result of bad harvests and rising prices. Widespread famine and increasing prices led to a peasant
uprising in Finland that lasted two years and a short-lived revolt in
England. Between 1594 and 1597, Austrian peasants revolted on a large
scale. From 1593 to 1595, French peasants and laborers rose up to resist
new taxes in the revolt of the Croquants. (See also Peasants’ War;
Violence; Warfare.)
R
hetoric, the art of speaking or writing persuasively, was a matter of
great importance to educated people during the Renaissance. In
schools, students used it to express their own ideas and to analyze the
works of others. The basic principles of rhetoric were so familiar to educated people that they could use them almost without thinking.
Eloquent speech became the key to success in professions and at court.
Renaissance scholars based their study of rhetoric mainly on the works
of CICERO, an ancient Roman orator and philosopher who claimed that
when rhetoric combined wisdom and persuasive speaking, it produced
civil government and justice.
Roots of Rhetoric. Scholars of the Middle Ages and Renaissance learned
about rhetoric largely from two ancient sources: Cicero’s On Invention and
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* humanist Renaissance expert in the
humanities (the languages, literature,
history, and speech and writing
techniques of ancient Greece and
Rome)
an anonymous text called The Art of Rhetoric for Herennius. These sources
identified three major types of rhetoric. Judicial rhetoric was used to present a case in court, while political rhetoric aimed to persuade an audience
about political issues. The third type, epideictic rhetoric, served to praise or
blame a particular person or thing. Speakers might use this form of rhetoric at ceremonies such as funerals and birthday celebrations.
On Invention and Rhetoric for Herennius divided rhetoric into five basic
parts, known as canons. The first canon, invention, referred to the way
speakers selected arguments to support their positions. Scholars drew on
certain basic categories of thought, which they called topics, to find
their arguments. For example, in describing a person, a speaker might
use such topics as appearance, education, and character. The Greek
philosopher ARISTOTLE (384–322 B.C.) discussed the techniques of invention in two of his works, Rhetoric and Topics. Cicero also wrote a work
called Topics, which attempted to explain Aristotle’s ideas further.
The second canon, arrangement, dealt with the structure of a formal
speech. In ancient practice, a speaker would begin by introducing his topic
and laying out the facts related to it. He would then announce his thesis
(the point he wished to argue) and gave a brief overview of his argument.
He offered arguments to support his thesis and to counter opposing viewpoints and ended with a formal conclusion. Renaissance humanists* used
this structure in formal letters and essays as well as in orations.
The third canon, style, focused on word choice and figures of speech.
The Rhetoric for Herennius was the major Renaissance reference for style.
It identified three broad levels of style—plain, middle, and grand. It also
described 64 different figures of speech for writers to use and imitate.
Renaissance writers, who considered style very important for expressing
emotion, came up with even longer lists of such figures.
The Rhetoric for Herennius also devoted chapters to the two final
canons, memory and delivery. Renaissance authors were not much concerned with memory, which had to do with the use of mnemonics
(memory aids) to learn a speech. However, they paid some attention to
delivery, the art of using voice and gestures effectively during a speech.
Rhetoric in the Renaissance. These ancient methods of rhetoric fell
out of favor during the Middle Ages, as educators focused more on logic.
Scholars involved in the sciences tended to rely on dialectics, a branch
of logic, rather than on rhetoric, to discuss their findings. Dialectics was
a method of discussion between experts, while rhetoric aimed to address
the general public. Unlike rhetoric, which aimed to persuade an audience, dialectics focused on discovering the truth.
During the Renaissance, however, some of the distinctions between
these two fields began to blur. As more people became interested in
scholarly questions, scholars began to find rhetoric a useful tool for
bringing their studies to a wider audience. As a result, rhetoric gradually
regained its importance in the academic realm. It also became important
in three other fields: preaching, letter writing, and poetry. Renaissance
preachers favored a grand style that played on their listeners’ emotions.
Humanist authors paid close attention to their use of rhetoric in private
letters because they often hoped to publish them for a wider audience.
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Renaissance writers continued to rely on the Rhetoric for Herennius
and Cicero’s On Invention as their main sources for the study of rhetoric.
However, humanist scholars also recovered other ancient Roman manuscripts on the subject. In the mid-1300s, the Italian scholar PETRARCH
found works by Cicero that dealt with the art of rhetoric and the value
of poetry and literature. In 1416 Italian humanist Poggio Bracciolini
found the first complete manuscript of On the Education of the Orator, by
the ancient Roman teacher Quintilian. This work described the training
that a person would need to become an ideal orator, or “the good man
speaking well.” The book had a great influence on humanist methods of
teaching rhetoric.
Greek studies also had a major impact on Renaissance rhetoric.
Italian scholars began to study the Greek language in the late 1300s, and
those who did not read Greek could refer to new Latin translations of
Greek works. Renaissance scholars prepared new, more accurate translations of Aristotle’s Rhetoric, which clarified many of the author’s points.
For example, they showed that Aristotle defined rhetoric not as the art
of speaking persuasively but as the art of seeing all possible means of
persuasion. They also identified three kinds of appeals that speakers
could use to sway their audience. The first, ethos, rested on the moral
character of the speaker. The second, logos, depended on reason, and
pathos, the third, played on the emotions of the audience. These new
translations of Aristotle’s works reawakened interest in the ancient
thinker’s teachings on the subject of rhetoric.
* vernacular native language or
dialect of a region or country
* treatise
44
long, detailed essay
Rhetoric and Education. During the first half of the 1400s, rhetoric
formed the core of the humanist program of study. Teachers produced a
variety of new Latin textbooks on this subject. One of the most influential manuals was On a Course of Studies (1512) by the Dutch scholar
Desiderius ERASMUS. It laid out a curriculum that would help students
master Latin, imitate ancient writers, and create original works.
Vernacular* rhetoric manuals began to appear during the 1500s. They
became very important in England, where the Renaissance arrived later
than in the rest of Europe. In England, texts in Latin were the first
rhetorical manuals. Some English rhetorics focused on a single canon,
such as invention or style. Others, like Thomas Wilson’s The Arte of
Rhetorique (1553), included all five canons. Wilson took a fresh
approach to rhetoric, using examples from the Bible, classical works,
and his own time to show how to apply the principles of rhetoric.
Scholarly writers also produced various treatises* on the meaning and
value of rhetoric. Several of them sought to clarify the differences
between rhetoric and dialectic. The northern European author Rudolf
AGRICOLA first took up this topic in 1479 in his Three Books On Dialectical
Invention. Petrus RAMUS, a French educator, expanded on Agricola’s ideas
in his Training in Dialectic (1543). Ramus claimed that invention and
arrangement belonged to the field of dialectic rather than rhetoric. In
northern Europe, the scholar Gerhard Johann Vossius took issue with
Ramus’ new approach. His Commentary on Rhetoric (1605) dealt with the
full art of rhetoric as Cicero had described it. Another critic of Ramus
was the English philosopher Francis BACON. His Advancement of Learning
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* civic related to a city, a community,
or citizens
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Italian missionary to China
Ricci, Matteo
* Jesuit refers to a Roman Catholic
religious order founded by St. Ignatius
Loyola and approved in 1540
* classical in the tradition of ancient
Greece and Rome
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* classical in the tradition of ancient
Greece and Rome
* papacy
pope
office and authority of the
* humanist Renaissance expert in the
humanities (the languages, literature,
history, and speech and writing
techniques of ancient Greece and Rome)
* patron supporter or financial sponsor
of an artist or writer
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(1605) echoed Cicero’s idea that the complete art of rhetoric played an
important role in civic* life. (See also Classical Scholarship;
Education; Humanism; Logic.)
M
atteo Ricci was the first Jesuit* missionary to promote the Roman
Catholic faith in China. During his 28 years there, Ricci introduced Chinese scholars to European technology and learning. At the
same time, he launched the European study of Chinese culture.
Born in Macerata, Italy, Ricci began his Jesuit training in 1571. He
studied law, philosophy, mathematics, and astronomy before volunteering to serve as a missionary in Asia. Ricci became a priest in India in
1580, and a few years later Chinese officials invited him to settle in a
province of southern China. He eventually settled in the capital city of
Peking (now known as Beijing), where his residence became the center
of the growing Christian community. He also became acquainted with
many Chinese scholars and government officials.
Ricci learned to speak Chinese and had a deep appreciation for Chinese
culture. He became the bridge connecting China to the Europe of the late
Renaissance. Ricci introduced the culture of China to the West by translating the major works of Chinese philosophy into Latin. He also developed a system for spelling Chinese names and words in the European
alphabet. In addition, he carried Western ideas into China by writing
Chinese books based on classical* sources. Ricci also translated a world
map into Chinese, which he presented as a gift to the emperor of China.
Ricci argued that Christianity and Confucianism, one of China’s traditional belief systems, could exist side by side. China’s prime minister
shared this view and became a Christian. Together the two men translated European books on mathematics, astronomy, and geography into
Chinese. Upon Ricci’s death, the emperor of China granted him a burial place near Beijing. Known today as the Matteo Ricci cemetery, it
holds the tombstones of more than 60 Jesuits and other missionaries.
(See also Missions, Christian.)
R
enaissance Rome had various identities related to Christianity, classical* culture, and Renaissance art. The city was considered the
headquarters of the Roman Catholic Church, even though the papacy*
was not based in Rome for most of the 1300s. Rome also became known
as an important site of classical art and architecture. Humanists* and
artists flocked to the city to study its ancient buildings and ruins. Over
the course of the Renaissance, Rome gained a reputation as a center of
artistic activity as popes and other patrons* commissioned works from
leading painters, sculptors, and architects.
The City of Rome. In 1350 Rome was an agricultural town with a
population of about 30,000 people. The withdrawal of the papacy to
Avignon in southern France in 1309 had left the city without a ruling
prince. However, by 1410 governmental institutions had emerged in
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er River
Tib
Villa Borghese
N
Santa Maria del Popolo
Vatican
Palace
Pi n c
The
Leonine Castel
City Sant’ Angelo
Ponte Sant’
Angelo
Piazza
Navona
St. Peter’s
Basilica
J a nic u
lu m
l
Hil
St. Peter’s in Montorio
ill
Baths of
Diocletian
Trevi
Fountain
Pantheon
Cancelleria
Villa
Farnesina
io H
Quirinal
Hill
SS. Apostoli
in
m
Vi
ill
H
al
to Saint
Lawrence
outside the
Walls
Santa Maria
Maggiore
Sta. Maria
Sopra Minerva
Palazzo del
Conservatori
Sta. Maria in Aracoeli
Palazzo del
Esquiline
Senatore
S. Petro in
Hill
Vincoli
Forum
Santo Croce
Colosseum
Capitoline
in Gerusalemme
Arch of Titus
Hill
San Clemente
Arch of
SS. Quatro
Temple of
Santa Maria
Constantine
Coronati
Venus and
in Trastevere
Rome
Trastevere
Caelian Hill
San Giovani
Palatine
in Laterano
Hill
San Stefano
Rotondo
Aventine
Hill
Baths of
Caracalla
0
0
0.5
0.5
Rome
* guild association of craft and trade
owners and workers that set standards
for and represented the interests of its
members
* artisan
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skilled worker or craftsperson
1 mi
1 km
St. Paul outside
the Walls
St. Sebastian
Rome and were supported by the papacy. The chief officials were a senator, appointed by the pope, and three conservators, chosen by lots
from the city’s urban districts. The senator, a foreigner, headed Rome’s
highest court; the conservators oversaw the markets, guilds*, and city
councils. The officials were housed in two palaces on the Capitoline
Hill. The artist MICHELANGELO redesigned them to form a unified urban
ensemble around a statue of the ancient Roman emperor Marcus
Aurelius.
During the 1500s, two city councils developed in Rome. The larger or
public council was open to any Roman citizen (male) over 20 years old
who was approved by five gentlemen from his district. This inclusive
rule opened city offices and institutions to immigrants, who had
acquired Roman citizenship and were not servants or artisans*. Rome
welcomed and absorbed foreigners of all classes to a greater degree than
most Renaissance cities.
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ROME
* antiquity era of the ancient
Mediterranean cultures of Greece and
Rome, ending around A.D. 400
* symmetry balance created by
matching forms on opposite sides of a
structure
* pagan referring to ancient religions
that worshiped many gods, or, more
generally, to any non-Christian religion
* Holy Roman Emperor ruler of the
Holy Roman Empire, a political body in
central Europe composed of several
states that existed until 1806
See color
plate 2,
vol. 3
THE RENAISSANCE
The flow of migrants to the city helped swell Rome’s population to
55,000 by 1520 and 100,000 by 1600. The population included a small
community of Jews, perhaps 3,000 to 4,000 people. However, after 1555
Jews had to live in the ghetto, a gated enclosure that was locked at night.
Men outnumbered women in the city’s population, partly because Rome
had large numbers of unmarried churchmen. Commerce and manufacturing played a much smaller role in the city’s economy than agricultural produce and income from positions in the curia, the bureaucracy
of the papacy.
Humanists and architects contributed to the knowledge of the
ancient city beneath Renaissance Rome. The humanists revived interest
in the city’s antiquities*, unearthing ruins and hunting for ancient texts,
objects, and statues. On the surface, the city’s appearance was transformed by urban planning and buildings based on classical principles
such as symmetry*, the use of classical columns, and straight streets. By
1585, however, the cityscape inspired by classical models began taking
on a stronger Christian tone. Statues of saints and religious inscriptions
appeared on ancient monuments, illustrating Christianity’s victory over
the pagan* beliefs of the classical world.
The Sack of Rome. In the 1520s Pope Clement VII joined with
France and several Italian city-states in an alliance against CHARLES V, the
Holy Roman Emperor*. Charles sent an army against Rome. On May 6,
1527, the imperial troops laid siege to the city and conquered it the following day. The pope and about 1,000 others fled to a fortress within the
city and watched as the soldiers looted the city and terrorized, raped,
robbed, and murdered its citizens. The army did not leave the ruined
city until February 1528.
Historians disagree about Charles’s responsibility for the military
attack on Rome, but it seems clear that the brutality and destruction
that followed horrified him. Known as the Sack of Rome, the event
shook European Catholics to the core. The city, once celebrated as the
head or center of the world, had been shown to be vulnerable, and the
papacy’s attempts to remain politically independent and powerful had
suffered a severe blow. Some Protestants saw the Sack of Rome as divine
punishment of a corrupt church. But both Protestant and Catholic
humanists grieved for the damage done to Rome’s libraries and its reputation as a center of learning. Some humanists died in the sack; many
writers and artists fled the city to escape it.
Rome regained political and economic strength under Pope Paul III,
who reigned from 1534 to 1549. Once again the city became a magnet
for artists and writers, but the sack had dimmed hopes for Rome’s future.
For many people, all that remained was a lingering nostalgia for the
golden age of Renaissance culture that had ended in 1527. (See also Art
in Italy; Cities and Urban Life; Holy Roman Empire; Popes and
Papacy.)
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Ronsard, e
Pierre de
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1524–1585
French poet
P
ierre de Ronsard, the leading French poet of the 1500s, is best
known for his love poems. Ronsard’s works inspired many French
poets in the late 1500s, and his influence spread to the Netherlands,
Germany, Italy, and England.
Ronsard, Pierre de
* classical in the tradition of ancient
Greece and Rome
* ode poem with a lofty style and
complex structure
* sonnet poem of 14 lines with a fixed
pattern of meter and rhyme
* epic long poem about the
adventures of a hero
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Early Work. Born to a noble family in Vendôme, in central France,
Ronsard served in the households of several royal and noble French
families. Ronsard began writing poetry in both Latin and French in the
1540s, and he also took up the study of Greek. In the 1550s Ronsard
became part of a group of young poets who called themselves the
“Brigade.” (They later renamed themselves the Pléiade, a name drawn
from Greek mythology.) Inspired by classical* and Italian poets, these
writers wanted to create a French literature in the grand tradition of
ancient Greece and Rome.
In 1550, Ronsard published his first collection of poetry, The First Four
Books of the Odes*. The ode was one of the young poet’s favorite forms.
In an ode published in 1552, Ronsard described both poetry and the
political order that it praises as being inspired by God. This verse
expresses the ideals of the poets who made up the Pléiade.
Love Poems. Within a couple of years, however, Ronsard had turned
away from classical models and toward the sonnet*, a more personal
verse form. In 1552 he published his most celebrated work, Loves, a collection of love sonnets modeled on the Canzoniere (Book of Songs) of
the Italian poet PETRARCH. Ronsard referred to his beloved in these
poems as Cassandre, the name of the daughter of a wealthy Italian merchant. In many of the verses he played on the fact that Cassandra was
also the name of a prophetess in Greek mythology.
In 1555 Ronsard produced a second collection of love poems
addressed to a new mistress, Marie, whose name is an anagram of the
French word aimer, meaning “to love.” When he published his collected works in 1578, Ronsard added two more sets of love poems: one dedicated to French noblewoman Françoise d’Estrées and one inspired by
Hélène de Surgères, a lady at the court of CATHERINE DE MÉDICIS. In this
last collection Ronsard plays on the name Hélène, linking his beloved
to the mythical figure Helen of Troy.
Other Works. Though he was most famous for his love poetry,
Ronsard’s true ambition lay in the field of the epic*. The growth of
French as a literary language brought with it a demand for a French
national epic, which Ronsard attempted to address. The first four books
of Ronsard’s epic, La Franciade, appeared in 1572. This work drew on the
model of the Aeneid, by the ancient Roman writer VIRGIL, which
described the adventures of Aeneas, the legendary founder of Rome.
Ronsard presented his hero, Francus, as a survivor of the Trojan War and
the ancestor of French royalty. However, Ronsard lost his royal patron,
Charles IX, in 1574, and the poet never finished his national epic.
THE RENAISSANCE
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RUBENS, PETER PAUL
* pastoral relating to the countryside;
often used to draw a contrast between
the innocence and serenity of rural life
and the corruption and extravagance of
court life
Ronsard composed a great variety of other poems during his life,
including hymns in honor of nature, pastoral* poetry, and Last Verses,
the sad sonnets he wrote on his deathbed in 1585. Ronsard also contributed to the field of poetic theory. His Summary of French Poetics
(1565) offered practical advice on how to write in French and urged
poets to take pleasure in variety. (See also French Language and
Literature; Poetry.)
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Rouen
* guild association of craft and trade
owners and workers that set standards
for and represented the interests of its
members
* Protestant Reformation religious
movement that began in the 1500s as a
protest against certain practices of the
Roman Catholic Church and eventually
led to the establishment of a variety of
Protestant churches
* siege prolonged effort to force a
surrender by surrounding a fortress or
town with armed troops, cutting the
area off from aid
Rubens, Peter
Paul
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Rubens, Peter Paul
1577–1640
Flemish painter
THE RENAISSANCE
ocated in the northwestern province of Normandy, Rouen was the
leading port of Renaissance France and the country’s second-largest
city. The city’s population grew from about 40,000 in 1500 to a peak of
75,000 in 1550. During these years, Rouen served as a major commercial hub, a seat of regional government, and a center of religious reform.
Rouen’s ability to handle ocean-going ships made trade a key part of
the economy. Local merchants had contacts with England, Italy, the
Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, Africa, and South America. Major industries included woolens and hosiery. However, restrictive guild* regulations eventually drove many wool and hosiery makers out of the urban
area.
Rouen was an important administrative city as well. It had many
royal courts and its archbishop oversaw more than 1300 parish churches. Yet, despite its commercial and political prominence, Rouen did not
develop a large artistic or intellectual community. The city’s main cultural event was an annual poetry contest in honor of the Virgin Mary.
Normandy emerged as a center of religious reform during the
Protestant Reformation*. In 1557 Protestants founded a Reformed
church in Rouen. Five years later, they took over the city and held it for
six months. When Catholic troops regained control, they executed several of Rouen’s Protestant leaders. Although the Reformed church
reestablished itself and grew steadily, relations between Catholics and
Protestants remained tense. In September 1572, a large massacre of
Protestants occurred in Rouen. But after this the city escaped much of
the religious violence that raged across France in the 1570s and 1580s.
However, in 1589 Catholic activists took over Rouen, and three years
later the city endured a five-month siege* by Protestant forces. Finally,
in 1594 Rouen accepted the Catholic convert Henry of Navarre as king
HENRY IV, ending the civil wars in the region. (See also Economy and
Trade; France; Wars of Religion.)
P
eter Paul Rubens was the most successful and influential northern
European artist of the 1600s. Following the tradition of the Italian
Renaissance masters, he produced glowing paintings of religious and
mythological subjects as well as portraits and landscapes. His robust,
larger-than-life figures represent the essence of the Baroque* style of art.
Rubens also excelled in several other fields—so many that a friend said
of him, “Of all his talents, painting is the least.” Scholar, humanist*,
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RUBENS, PETER PAUL
* Baroque artistic style of the 1600s
characterized by movement, drama,
and grandness of scale
* humanist Renaissance expert in the
humanities (the languages, literature,
history, and speech and writing
techniques of ancient Greece and
Rome)
* classical in the tradition of ancient
Greece and Rome
* apprentice person bound by legal
agreement to work for another for a
specified period of time in return for
instruction in a trade or craft
* guild association of craft and trade
owners and workers that set standards
for and represented the interests of its
members
* villa luxurious country home and the
land surrounding it
* Catholic Reformation reform
movement within the Roman Catholic
Church that focused on spiritual
renewal, correcting abuses, and
strengthening religious orders; it began
in the late Middle Ages and continued
throughout the Renaissance
* secular nonreligious; connected with
everyday life
diplomat, and businessman, Rubens was an outstanding example of a
“Renaissance man,” someone of great knowledge, ability, and accomplishment in a variety of areas.
Early Career. Rubens’s parents fled the Netherlands in the late 1500s
to escape religious persecution. Peter Paul was born in the small German
town of Siegen, but the family later returned to ANTWERP in the
Netherlands. There young Rubens received a classical* education. Then
he served as an apprentice* to various local painters, including Otto van
Veen, the city’s leading artist. In 1597 Rubens completed Portrait of a
Young Man, his earliest dated work, and was accepted into the painters’
guild* the following year.
Many artists from the Netherlands traveled to Italy to study and
work. Rubens made the journey in 1600, visiting Venice and Mantua.
The following year he arrived in Rome, just as the Baroque style of
painting was emerging. Rubens studied the paintings of Italian artists
such as MICHELANGELO, RAPHAEL, and CARAVAGGIO. He also focused on
ancient sculpture, which he sketched in such a lifelike manner that the
pictures seem drawn from live models rather than marble statues.
In Rome, Rubens accepted a major commission to prepare three large
murals for a chapel. He also received his first assignment as a diplomat,
when the duke of Mantua asked him to carry gifts to king Philip III,
ruler of Spain and the Netherlands. In 1605 Rubens went back to Rome
and began an intensive study of classical art and literature. He also
began collecting Roman sculpture, coins, and other ancient objects.
When Rubens returned to Antwerp in 1608, he found a peaceful
political climate and promising opportunities. He received a commission for a painting called Adoration of the Magi to be placed in the Town
Hall. In addition, the local Spanish rulers named him their court
painter. Rubens married Isabella Brant and set up a studio in Antwerp.
For his own home, he designed a magnificent Italian Renaissance villa*
set in the heart of the city.
Rubens completed an enormous number of projects between 1610
and 1620. Among his religious commissions were two triptychs (threepanel pieces), Raising of the Cross and Descent from the Cross. Rubens’s
extensive output of religious pictures established him as northern
Europe’s leading artist of Catholic Reformation* themes. However, he
also painted many secular* works, including hunting scenes, portraits,
and images from history and mythology. His great productivity was
partly the result of his large, well-organized studio. Often, Rubens would
start a picture by drawing the basic outline in chalk, then his assistants
would begin painting, and he would finish it. For one commission, a
series of 39 ceiling paintings for a new church in Antwerp, Rubens
painted preparatory sketches in oils, leaving other artists to complete
the canvases. Although fire later destroyed the paintings, the surviving
sketches reveal Rubens’s creative genius and lively style.«Xtags
error: Can’t fit: too much text: tag &te»
International Activity. In 1621 Rubens began acting as agent for
Spain in peace negotiations between warring sections of the
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THE RENAISSANCE
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RUBENS, PETER PAUL
Although famous as a painter, Peter Paul
Rubens was also a distinguished scholar. In
The Four Philosophers, painted around
1611, the artist portrayed himself, standing on the left, with three important scholars of his time.
* allegory literary or artistic device in
which characters, events, and settings
represent abstract qualities and in
which the author intends a different
meaning to be read beneath the surface
* patron supporter or financial
sponsor of an artist or writer
THE RENAISSANCE
Netherlands. His fame as a painter allowed him to move freely among
royal courts. He met with princes and officials, who often discussed politics while posing for their portraits.
The following year Rubens went to Paris to fulfill a commission for a
series of scenes celebrating the life of MARIE DE MÉDICIS, former queen of
France. Drawing on his broad knowledge of classical mythology and
allegory*, the artist sketched grand, dramatic images. His assistants created large paintings based on the sketches, and Rubens added the finishing touches.
When the artist returned to Antwerp, he continued to receive commissions from prominent patrons*. Important paintings of this period
include another Adoration of the Magi (1624), surrounded by sculptures
designed by Rubens; Ludovicus Nonnius (ca. 1627), a portrait of the
painter’s friend and physician; and Landscape with Philemon and Baucis
(1625), a troubled view of nature with a hint of a rainbow suggesting the
return of peace and order. Rubens also designed a series of tapestries that
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RUDOLF II
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The Creative Life
Some critics and art historians
have identified genius with torment, dwelling on the image
of solitary artists who struggle
against economic, social, and
spiritual obstacles to fulfill their
lonely vision. Peter Paul Rubens is
proof that not all great artists fit
this image. Far from being a solitary genius, he was a capable
businessman who produced great
works in collaboration with many
other artists. Successful, happy,
respected, a devout Catholic and
devoted husband and father,
Rubens was a thoroughly balanced man of his time as well as a
creative genius.
* diplomatic having to do with formal
relations between nations
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Rudolf II
e
Rudolf II
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1552–1612
King of Hungary and
Bohemia, Holy Roman
Emperor
* patron supporter or financial
sponsor of an artist or writer
* Holy Roman Emperor ruler of the
Holy Roman Empire, a political body in
central Europe composed of several
states that existed until 1806
52
created the illusion of additional tapestries within the larger scene.
Based on religious subjects, the series expressed Rubens’s Catholic faith.
In 1626 Rubens’s wife died, and he set forth on a number of diplomatic* missions. He arranged for England and Spain to exchange
ambassadors as a first step toward a formal peace treaty. Eventually
Rubens was knighted by these two countries—the only painter to
receive this honor from both monarchies. He also received notable commissions, such as painting the ceiling of the banquet hall in England’s
Whitehall Palace.
Later Career. Back in Antwerp, Rubens married Helena Fourment and
retired from diplomatic work to devote his time to his family and to art.
He took on several significant projects, such as designing a group of
nine arches for the procession of a new ruler through the streets of
Antwerp. He also created a vast series of mythological paintings for the
hunting lodge of King Philip IV of Spain. To complete the series, Rubens
employed most of the artists in Antwerp. He painted more than 60 oil
sketches for the paintings, based on tales from Metamorphoses by the
Roman poet Ovid. The sketches are some of Rubens’s liveliest and most
inventive works.
Rubens was troubled with attacks of gout, a disease that causes joint
pain, during his final years. Nonetheless, he managed to complete a
number of works, including two masterpieces in the late 1630s: SelfPortrait, in which the artist presents himself as a knight, and Het Pelsken,
a painting of his wife Helena that offers a view into his private life.
After Rubens’s death, his fame spread far beyond the Netherlands. In
Italy, the late Baroque painters and the sculptor Gian Lorenzo Bernini
studied his style. His work also inspired the Spanish painter Diego
Velázquez and various French Baroque painters. Rubens’s lasting influence ranks him with earlier Renaissance masters such as Michelangelo,
TITIAN, and Raphael. (See also Art in the Netherlands; Baroque;
Netherlands; Spain.)
A
lthough a great patron* of the arts and learning, Rudolf II was an
incompetent ruler who suffered from periods of severe depression.
Holy Roman Emperor* from 1576 to 1612, he focused more on artistic
than on political matters and exercised little control over the religious
conflicts that threatened the stability of his empire.
The son of Holy Roman Emperor MAXIMILIAN II, Rudolf spent eight
years of his youth at the court of his uncle, PHILIP II of Spain. In 1572
Rudolf became king of HUNGARY. By 1576 he was also ruler of BOHEMIA,
AUSTRIA, and the Holy Roman Empire.
Rudolf moved the imperial capital from Vienna to Prague, which
became a center of Renaissance culture. His personal collections were
the wonder of the age and included paintings, sculpture, decorative arts,
musical instruments, natural objects, and scientific devices. A patron of
leading philosophers, mathematicians, and astronomers, Rudolf also
THE RENAISSANCE
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See color
plate 15,
vol. 3
* Ottoman Turks Turkish followers of
Islam who founded the Ottoman
Empire in the 1300s; the empire
eventually included large areas of
eastern Europe, the Middle East, and
northern Africa
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Russia
* humanism Renaissance cultural
movement promoting the study of the
humanities (the languages, literature,
and history of ancient Greece and
Rome) as a guide to living
See color
plate 14,
vol. 3
THE RENAISSANCE
had a strong interest in the occult—the study of mysterious forces
believed to affect the world.
Like other HABSBURG emperors, Rudolf hoped to unite Christian
Europe. However, rather than give full support to the Roman Catholic
Church, he backed individuals who were not tied to either Catholic or
Protestant organizations. This policy led to political chaos. Rudolf’s
most disastrous plan, however, was his attempt to lead a crusade against
the Ottoman Turks* in the 1590s. The project resulted in a war, which
lasted until 1606, and the revolt of his Hungarian subjects. Increasingly
alarmed by Rudolf’s incompetence, other members of the Habsburg family eventually forced him to yield most of his titles to his younger brother Matthias. Rudolf died in 1612, but his misguided actions led to the
THIRTY YEARS’ WAR (1618–1648). (See also Holy Roman Empire;
Prague; Vienna.)
R
ussia missed the Renaissance, most historians agree. Religious and
political barriers prevented the ideas of Italy and other parts of
western Europe from taking hold in Russia during the 1400s and 1500s.
However, regions around Russia did absorb some elements of
Renaissance humanism*.
Religion was the major obstacle to the Renaissance in Russia. The
Orthodox Church, the version of Christianity that dominated the country,
rejected almost everything Western, including the realistic religious art of
the Renaissance. In Europe, the invention of movable type had hastened
the spread of Renaissance ideas. In Russia, however, the church’s traditional suspicion of books and learning stood in the way of the print revolution.
Politics also hindered the spread of the Renaissance into Russia. In
eastern Europe, Renaissance thought and art flourished in the neighboring countries of POLAND and Lithuania. They represented Roman
Catholicism, the Latin language, and Western art and architecture.
However, because of the rivalry between the Polish-Lithuanian state and
Russia over control of various regions, the Russians rejected PolishLithuanian cultural influences. In addition, Russia was preoccupied
with foreign wars and internal crises—conditions that Italian humanist
Enea Silvio Piccolomini, later Pope PIUS II, noted were unfavorable to
the growth of the culture and the arts.
The states of Kievan Rus’, long under Polish-Lithuanian influence,
developed separately in political and cultural realms from Moscovy, the
area around Moscow. Renaissance humanism took root in Kievan Rus’,
although weakly. Today this region, the present-day states of Ukraine
and Belarus, has closer ties to Western culture and to Greek and Roman
literature than to Russian traditions.
Moscow became the center of Russian political and religious life during the 1400s. Under the influence of the monk Andrei Rublev (ca.
1370–ca. 1430), a distinctive Russian style of art began to develop.
Contacts with the Western world through centers such as Kiev dwindled,
and Muscovy grew more isolated from the rest of Europe. The grand
dukes of Muscovy deliberately emphasized the Russian values of tradition
and stability over the foreign tendency toward innovation and change.
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THE RENAISSANCE
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SALONS
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skilled worker or craftperson
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Salons
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* artisans
Salons
* patron supporter or financial
sponsor of an artist or writer
THE RENAISSANCE
Although thousands of foreign merchants, artisans*, and soldiers
lived in Muscovy during the reign of Grand Duke Ivan III (1462–1505),
they had little influence on the Russian people around them. Russians
were suspicious of Catholics, Protestants, and Jews, and they disliked
foreign ways. Few Russians traveled abroad, and as a result they had little idea of what the Renaissance had achieved elsewhere or what it could
do for Russia. Diplomats from England or central Europe who visited
Muscovy at the time were struck by the exotic character of the Russians,
who shared so little of the culture that was the pride of educated
Westerners. (See also Baltic States.)
S
alons were gathering places that played a key role in European social
and intellectual life in the 1600s. Like the Italian ACADEMIES of the
1400s, a salon provided a place for people to meet and discuss interesting issues. Salons, however, brought together a far greater variety of people and ideas than other social groups. In the context of the salon,
women mingled with men, writers with the wealthy and powerful, oral
culture with written texts, and social life with intellectual discussions.
The roots of the salon date back to the royal courts of the Middle
Ages, and forerunners of the salon existed in Italy in the 1400s.
However, the salon truly came into its own in France in the 1600s.
Salons had a major impact on the culture of Paris, but they also
appeared in other European cities, including Berlin, Vienna, and
London.
The salon was one of the few settings for discussion that offered a
major role to women. Each salon, in fact, had a woman who served as
its hostess, inviting guests of both sexes into her home and guiding the
conversation among them. Salons provided hostesses with a way to
pursue their education and to gain cultural influence. Many writers, in
fact, criticized the salon culture for placing too much power in female
hands.
The subjects discussed in salons varied. In Paris in the 1600s, most
salon gatherings focused on matters of language, such as how to express
ideas clearly in writing. Other topics included the nature of love, marriage, and male authority. The salon also provided a fertile ground for
literature. Many writers found patrons* among the women who ran
salons or among the wealthy individuals who gathered there. A number
of women in French salons published their own writings, which often
drew on the ideas discussed in the salon setting.
The salons of Paris helped promote new cultural ideas, such as the
importance of talent over noble birth. They also provided a private setting for people to debate political ideas without interference. The salon
culture gave birth to a new class of informed citizens, independent of
the nation’s political leaders. As a result, salons were often attacked by
those who feared changes to the social order. (See also Feminism;
Women.)
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SALUTATI, COLUCCIO
Coluccio
eSalutati, e
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Salutati, Coluccio
1331–1406
Italian intellectual
and politican
* humanist Renaissance expert in the
humanities (the languages, literature,
history, and speech and writing
techniques of ancient Greece and
Rome)
* papacy
pope
office and authority of the
* medieval referring to the Middle
Ages, a period that began around A.D.
400 and ended around 1400 in Italy
and 1500 in the rest of Europe
* pagan referring to ancient religions
that worshiped many gods, or, more
generally, to any non-Christian religion
* republican refers to a form of
Renaissance government dominated by
leading merchants with limited
participation by others
Sannazaro,
Jacopo
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Sannazaro, Jacopo
1458–1530
Italian poet
* pastoral relating to the countryside;
often used to draw a contrast between
the innocence and serenity of rural life
and the corruption and extravagance of
court life
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C
oluccio Salutati was the leading humanist* of his generation. An
official in the city of FLORENCE for more than 30 years, he helped
make the city the center of the humanist movement.
Salutati was born in Stignano, a small village under the control of
Florence. After receiving an education in Bologna, he held a series of
positions in government—first in the region around Stignano and later
in the cities of Rome and Lucca. In 1374 he became supervisor of election procedures in Florence, and a year later he assumed the post of
chancellor, or head of state. Around the same time Salutati took office,
Florence went to war with the papacy*. The new chancellor gained fame
throughout Europe with a series of brilliant missive, public letters written in defense of Florence’s cause. Salutati produced thousands of missive during his life, including some written just days before his death.
Salutati’s fame as the author of the missive made him a leader of the
humanist movement in Italy. Although his writing style was medieval*,
it reflected humanist ideas in its use of examples from Greek and Roman
sources. In addition, he made a strong case for humanist education by
claiming that knowledge of history was essential for a political leader. In
1397 Salutati helped bring Manuel Chrysoloras, a Greek scholar and
teacher, to Florence. The scholar’s arrival played an important role in
reintroducing Greek learning to western Europe. Salutati also made
scholarly studies of a number of ancient texts. However, he did not follow the lead of earlier humanists, such as the Italian poet PETRARCH.
While Petrarch longed for the ancient world and showed no interest in
history after the A.D. 100s, Salutati sought to trace historical and literary
developments across the centuries between ancient times and his own.
Over the decades Salutati gathered around him a group of followers
who became the leaders of the next generation of humanists in Italy.
Toward the end of Salutati’s life, however, these followers became critical of some of his views, which they found old-fashioned. For instance,
Salutati tended to regard Christian wisdom as superior to pagan* culture
and thought. He also argued that monarchy was the best form of government and rarely expressed republican* ideas in his writing. Salutati’s
influence declined, but his central role in developing Italian humanism
and in establishing Florence as its capital has remained. (See also Greek
émigrés; Humanism.)
J
acopo Sannazaro of Italy gained fame for his poetry in both Latin
and Italian. He is best known for his works in the pastoral* style, especially his romance* Arcadia, which had a great influence on the development of the pastoral form.
Born to a noble Italian family, Sannazaro grew up in and around
NAPLES in southern Italy. Early in his career, he composed verses in the
style of the famous Italian poet PETRARCH (1304–1374). He also wrote
farces* for the court of the Duke of Calabria. In the 1490s he began writing poetry in Latin. Sannazaro spent the years from 1501 to 1504 in
exile in France with Frederick of Aragon, the former king of Naples.
THE RENAISSANCE
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SAVONAROLA, GIROLAMO
* romance adventure story of the
Middle Ages, the forerunner of the
modern novel
* farce light dramatic piece that
features broad comedy, improbable
situations, stereotyped characters, and
exaggerated physical action
* epic long poem about the
adventures of a hero
Satire
Sannazaro’s Arcadia became one of the most popular books of the
1500s. It first appeared in print in an illegal copy in 1502, and two years
later another version came out with two additional chapters. Arcadia
tells the tale of Sincero, an unhappy lover from Naples who enters an
ideal world of poetic shepherds (Arcadia). The text presents the life of
Arcadia as an endless cycle of games, feasts, and songs. Eventually, the
hero leaves the happy life of Arcadia and returns to his homeland, only
to find that the woman he loved has died. This pattern of entering and
then leaving a blissful rural world would influence most of the European
pastorals that followed. It also reflects the period of exile Sannazaro
experienced in his own life.
In his Latin epic* On Giving Birth by the Virgin (1526), Sannazaro
applied the pastoral style to the story of Christ’s birth. Influenced by the
verse of the ancient Roman poet VIRGIL, this poem presents the birth of
Christ from the viewpoint of the joyful shepherds. However, like
Arcadia, this work also contains notes of sorrow and lament. One of the
poem’s most moving sections describes Mary at Christ’s death, weeping
bitterly at the foot of the cross. (See also Pastoral; Sidney, Philip.)
See Literature.
Satire
[PN:ART C-White Text is doctitle]
Savonarola,e
Girolamo
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Savonarola, Girolamo
1452–1498
Preacher, reformer,
and prophet
* Dominican religious order of
brothers and priests founded by St.
Dominic
* humanist referring to a Renaissance
cultural movement promoting the study
of the humanities (the languages,
literature, and history of ancient Greece
and Rome) as a guide to living
* patron supporter or financial
sponsor of an artist or writer
THE RENAISSANCE
T
he Dominican* friar Girolamo Savonarola was a leading political
and religious figure in FLORENCE in the 1490s. Savonarola, who
claimed to possess the gift of prophecy, attacked the wealthy and powerful in his sermons. He urged the people of Florence to reform their
government and to transform the city into a New Jerusalem that would
become the center of a worldwide Christian empire.
Early Life and Career. Born in Ferrara, Savonarola received a
humanist* education before entering the monastery of San Domenico
in Bologna in 1475. During his seven years there, he became a priest. In
1482 he was transferred to the monastery of San Marco in Florence,
where he began to preach. His sermons at this time focused on the ideas
of sin, punishment, and the redeeming power of Christ’s love. They
gained little notice from the people of Florence. A few years later, however, he attracted attention as a visiting preacher in San Gimignano,
where he announced that God planned to punish the sinful world, especially the church, and bring about a great reform. He preached this message in various cities over the next few years.
In 1490 Savonarola returned to San Marco at the request of Lorenzo
de’ MEDICI, the leader of Florence. Lorenzo felt that the friar’s presence
would add prestige to the monastery and its patrons*, including himself. Savonarola’s new, sensational style of preaching appealed greatly to
the common people. It also won the admiration of several noted artists
and scholars, including Giovanni PICO DELLA MIRANDOLA, Marsilio FICINO,
Sandro BOTTICELLI, and MICHELANGELO BUONAROTTI. Savonarola soon
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SAVONAROLA, GIROLAMO
became the prior, or head, of San Marco and restored the order’s original strict rules. His powerful sermons increased the monastery’s fame. It
attracted many new recruits, including some from prominent families.
Dominican friar Girolamo Savonarola
dominated the political scene in the city of
Florence in the 1490s. Claiming to have
the gift of prophecy, he preached about
the dawn of a glorious age in which
Florence would become the center of a
new Christian empire. However, he eventually fell from favor and was arrested, tortured, and hanged.
* tyrant absolute ruler who uses
power unjustly or cruelly
* sack
to loot a captured city
* secular nonreligious; connected with
everyday life
* excommunicate to exclude from
the church and its rituals
* conspirator one who plots with
others to commit a crime
58
The French Invasion. Savonarola’s preaching soon became more
outspoken. He attacked tyrants* and condemned the church’s alliance
with the wealthy and powerful at the expense of the poor. Between
1492 and 1494 he began to claim that God was sending him visions of
a kingly warrior who would cross the Alps and conquer Italy. In late
summer of 1494, Charles VIII of France invaded Italy, seeking to conquer the kingdom of Naples. His arrival appeared to confirm the friar’s
prophecies.
It also placed Florence in peril. Piero de’ Medici, the city’s new leader,
had refused to let Charles pass through Florence’s territory. The king
responded by threatening to sack* the city. To preserve peace, Piero had
to surrender important fortresses and towns within Florence and agree
to pay Charles a large sum of money. The news of this bargain led to an
uprising in Florence and forced the Medici family to flee the city.
Charles entered Florence on November 17 and demanded that the
Florentines restore the Medici to power. However, after an anti-French
riot and a series of talks with Savonarola, Charles agreed to leave the city
in exchange for a smaller payment than that promised him by Piero.
The New Jerusalem. After driving out the Medici, the people of
Florence pressed for serious changes in the structure of city government.
Savonarola proposed that the city model itself after Venice, which had
a single council made up of some 2,000 nobles. In December, Florence
set up a new assembly called the Grand Council, made up of 3,000 male
citizens. Savonarola hailed the new council as a “government of the
people” and claimed credit for it.
The friar now began to preach almost daily about the coming age of
the Antichrist. He predicted that Florence would join forces with the
king of France to lead the world into an age of universal Christianity
and peace. Florence would be the center of a Christian empire, a New
Jerusalem for the new age. In addition to his rousing sermons,
Savonarola and his supporters staged processions and “bonfires of the
vanities,” in which citizens publicly burned books, paintings, clothing,
playing cards, and other items the friar viewed as immoral.
Various groups challenged the policies of Savonarola and his followers, whom opponents called the Piagnoni (wailers). Conservative clergy
members criticized his involvement in politics and disputed his claim to
prophecy. Secular* political opponents blocked several of his measures,
such as regulating women’s dress. Gangs of young nobles disrupted his
sermons and processions. In 1497 Pope Alexander VI excommunicated*
Savonarola and threatened to take economic measures against Florence
for supporting him. Later that year Savonarola learned of a plot to
restore Piero de’ Medici to power. He had the conspirators* executed
without granting their right to appeal their sentence. This action severely weakened the friar’s moral standing with the people of Florence.
THE RENAISSANCE
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* republican refers to a form of
Renaissance government dominated by
leading merchants with limited
participation by others
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Saxony
* Holy Roman Emperor ruler of the
Holy Roman Empire, a political body in
central Europe composed of several
states that existed until 1806
* duchy territory ruled by a duke or
duchess
* elector German prince with a vote in
choosing the Holy Roman Emperor
* humanist referring to a Renaissance
cultural movement promoting the study
of the humanities (the languages,
literature, and history of ancient Greece
and Rome) as a guide to living
* Protestant Reformation religious
movement that began in the 1500s as a
protest against certain practices of the
Roman Catholic Church and eventually
led to the establishment of a variety of
Protestant churches
THE RENAISSANCE
Savonarola’s End. In early 1498 one of Savonarola’s chief followers
accepted a challenge to test the truth of the friar’s claims to divine favor.
The test would be a trial by fire. If the flames did not kill Savonarola, it
would prove that he was truly favored by God. On the day scheduled for
the event, however, both sides argued so long about the details of the
trial that rain eventually put out the flames. People took this as a sign of
God’s disapproval, and the city guard dispersed the angry crowd. The
next day a mob attacked San Marco. The guard stepped in once again,
arresting Savonarola and his two closest deputies. Questioned under torture, Savonarola admitted to faking his prophecies. On May 23, 1498,
the three were hanged and their bodies burned.
After Savonarola’s death, Florence’s nobles took control of the city,
and in 1512 the Medici returned to power. However, the Piagnoni
remained a force in the city. In 1527 they played a role in driving out
the Medici and establishing a short-lived republican* government.
Within a few years, however, the Medici returned and became hereditary dukes of Florence. Nonetheless, Savonarola’s ideas continued to circulate widely outside of Italy. They exerted a great influence on Catholic
reformers of the 1500s, and Protestant leaders such as Martin LUTHER
hailed him as their forerunner. (See also Medici, House of.)
S
axony emerged as a leading state in northeastern Germany during
the Renaissance. In 1423 the Holy Roman Emperor* Sigismund
awarded the duchy* of Saxony-Wittenberg to Frederick of Meissen and
Thuringia. In 1485 the duchy was split between Frederick’s grandsons
into Ernestine Saxony, which carried the title of elector*, and Albertine
Saxony. This lasting division created complicated boundaries that
would prove troublesome in the future.
At first Ernestine Saxony, centered in Wittenberg, overshadowed
Albertine Saxony, based in Dresden. Under Elector Frederick III, “the
Wise”, Saxony-Wittenberg prospered and gained influence in the Holy
Roman Empire. In 1502 Frederick founded a new university in
Wittenberg that welcomed humanist* scholars and attracted an
Augustinian monk named Martin LUTHER. Although not a humanist,
Luther used humanist techniques to study the Bible. His studies led him
to become a strong critic of Scholasticism, a movement endorsed by the
Roman Catholic Church that blended Christian teachings with ancient
philosophy. In October 1517, Luther launched the Protestant
Reformation* with his famous Ninety-five Theses. The Greek scholar
Philipp MELANCHTHON, one of Luther’s most important supporters, was
an educational reformer who turned the university into a humanistic
school.
Frederick and his successors protected Luther’s movement from the
decrees of the church and Emperor CHARLES V and made Ernestine
Saxony the center of the Reformation. The Lutheran Reformation did
not gain any ground in Albertine Saxony until the rule of Duke Henry V
(1539–1541). Henry’s son Maurice continued to promote church reform
but declined to join the Protestant Schmalkaldic League. When the
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league went to war with Charles V, Maurice sided with the emperor. The
victorious Charles rewarded Maurice by turning over to him most of
Ernestine Saxony.
Maurice and Charles soon fell out over the emperor’s failure to live
up to his promises. Maurice then formed a secret alliance with King
Henry II of France and attacked Charles, setting off a rebellion of
German princes in 1552. Charles was forced to sign a treaty and give up
some of his political and religious goals. By this time, Dresden had
replaced Wittenberg as the seat of power in Saxony, and Albertine
Saxony had emerged as the leading Protestant state in the empire.
Saxony reached its peak under Maurice’s brother, Elector August I
(ruled 1553–1586). Leipzig became a center of arts, and Wittenberg was
recognized as the stronghold of Lutheranism. By the early 1600s, however, Saxony was losing influence. Elector John George switched sides several times in the course of the THIRTY YEAR’S WAR (1618–1648), and Saxony
was devastated during the last years of fighting. After the war,
Brandenburg, not Saxony, emerged as the leading state in northern
Germany. (See also Holy Roman Empire; Protestant Reformation.)
Scandinavian
Kingdoms
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Scandinavian Kingdoms
* Flanders region along the coasts of
present-day Belgium, France, and the
Netherlands
* humanism Renaissance cultural
movement promoting the study of the
humanities (the languages, literature,
and history, of ancient Greece and
Rome) as a guide to living
* medieval referring to the Middle
Ages, a period that began around A.D.
400 and ended around 1400 in Italy
and 1500 in the rest of Europe
* classical in the tradition of ancient
Greece and Rome
* vernacular native language or
dialect of a region or country
60
D
uring the Renaissance, the kingdoms of Denmark and Sweden
competed for power in Scandinavia. By 1448 Denmark controlled
Norway and Iceland, and Sweden ruled Finland. Both kingdoms saw a
surge of cultural and intellectual activity in the 1500s as new ideas
reached the region from neighboring European states. Rivalry between
the two countries continued into the 1650s, when Sweden became the
dominant power and the influence of Denmark declined.
Renaissance Ideas. In the early 1500s, artists from Germany and
Flanders* arrived in the Scandinavian courts. They produced portraits of
prominent individuals, such as the Danish king Christian II (ruled
1513–1523). At the same time, humanism* inspired various scholars in
the region to study the Latin of ancient Rome and to write about the
history of local cultures.
The introduction of the printing press in the late 1400s helped spread
Scandinavian writing. In 1514 the Danish scholar Christiern Pedersen
printed an edition of The Deeds of the Danes (ca. 1200) by the medieval*
historian Saxo. The Swedes Johannes and Olaus Magnus published
History of All the Kings of the Goths and Swedes and A History of the Nordic
Peoples in the 1500s.
Protestant reform movements of the 1500s had considerable success
in Scandinavia. The Swedish king, Gustav Vasa, declared Sweden a
Lutheran country in 1527; nine years later, Christian III did the same for
Denmark. The main inspiration for the Lutheran Renaissance in
Scandinavia was the German reformer Philipp MELANCHTHON, who
attempted to harmonize Christian beliefs with the ideas of classical* culture. His emphasis on the study of classical languages contributed to the
development of Latin literature in the region. The vernacular* was used
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N
Scandinavian
Kingdoms,
1448–1648
A
W
200 mi.
200 km
White Sea
Lapland
R
100
100
A N
D
N
0
O
0
Y
Boundary
Swedish acquisitions,
1523–1648
City
D E N
M A
R K
ATLANTIC
OCEAN
Trondheim
O F
Bergen
Carelia
1617
1645
Finland
KINGDOM OF SWEDEN
`
Aland
Island
Christiania
(Oslo)
Uppsala
Stockholm
Ösel
1645
K I N G D O M
Tönsberg
North
Sea
Helsingfors
(Helsinki)
`
Abo
Narva
(Turku)
Reval Estonia
1617
Dago
1582
Novgorod
Livonia
1523–1561
Linköping
Göteborg
Ingria
1583–1595,
1617
Gotland
1645
Riga
Courland
Öland Island
Copenhagen
Baltic
Sea
GRAND PRINCIPALITY
OF LITHUANIA
Königsberg
Rügen
1645
Danzig
(Gdansk)
KINGDOM OF POLAND
mostly by women writers and for religious works. Translations of the
Bible appeared in Swedish, Danish, Finish, and Icelandic.
* patron supporter or financial
sponsor of an artist or writer
* epic long poem about the
adventures of a hero
THE RENAISSANCE
Scandinavian Cultures. The period between 1550 and 1600 was a
time of great cultural development for Denmark. Frederick II (ruled
1559–1588), an enthusiastic patron* of the arts, attracted artists, musicians, and architects to the kingdom and supported the education of
promising students. Leading Danish poets included Erasmus Laetus,
who composed Latin epics*, and Hans Thomessøn and Hans
Christensen Sthen, who wrote hymns. Among later scholars were
Anders Sørensen Vedel, who collected and edited popular folk ballads in
1591, and Arild Huitfeldt, who wrote Chronicle of Denmark (1604).
The Danish astronomer Tycho BRAHE established Uraniborg, one of
Europe’s finest research centers, in the late 1570s. An accomplished
writer, Brahe also composed outstanding poetry in Latin. His sister,
Sophie, gained renown as the first female scholar in Scandinavia.
The Danish king Christian IV (ruled 1588–1648) built two magnificent castles: Rosenborg and Frederiksborg. When fire destroyed the
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Norwegian city of Oslo in 1624, Christian rebuilt it and modernized its
castle, Akershus, in the style of the Renaissance.
Humanism developed a following in Norway, especially in the cities of
Bergen and Oslo. Some Norwegian writers focused on Latin texts, while
others studied Norse literature and history. In Iceland the cathedral
schools of Hólar and Skálholt became important centers of learning. Two
prominent Icelandic authors, Oddur Einarsson and Arngrímur Jónsson,
produced works defending their country against foreign prejudice.
From 1600 to 1650 Sweden experienced a period of political and cultural expansion. During the reigns of King Gustav II Adolf (ruled
1611–1632) and his daughter, Christina (ruled 1632–1654), Stockholm
became a gathering place for artists, architects, and other intellectuals.
Christina hired a French court painter and a German architect to help
build Drottningholm Castle near Stockholm.
Rival Courts. The rivalry between Sweden and Denmark inspired various works of art and literature. For example, the Swede Johannes
Bureus and the Dane Ole Worm competed in collecting inscriptions
written in runes—an ancient form of writing used in Scandinavia.
During the reigns of Christian IV in Denmark and Christina in Sweden,
the royal courts became known for elegant entertainment. Christian
employed celebrated musicians, such as the Dane Mogens Pedersen and
the German Heinrich Schütz. At the Swedish court, Georg Stiernhielm
provided ballets and poems in honor of the queen. Scholars consider
Stiernhielm to be the first great poet to write in Swedish.
In the early to mid-1600s, both Denmark and Sweden became
involved in the THIRTY YEARS’ WAR (1618–1648). Sweden won significant
victories, but Denmark mostly met with disaster. By the time Christian
IV died in 1648, the Danish state was bankrupt. Six years later, Sweden’s
queen Christina shocked the country by becoming a Catholic and giving up the throne. Nevertheless, both rulers made their mark, having
encouraged the growth of art, literature, and learning in their kingdoms. (See also Astronomy; Humanism; Literature; Music;
Protestant Reformation.)
Scholasticism
See Philosophy.
Scholasticism
[PN:ART B]
Schools and Academies
See Education.
Schools and Academies
[PN:ART C-White Text tag is doctitle]
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R
enaissance scientists made major discoveries in a variety of fields,
from the study of animals and plants to the analysis of motion,
light, and sound. They also developed many ideas and techniques that
are central to modern science, such as the reliance on observation and
experience and the use of experiments to test theories. However, the
THE RENAISSANCE
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Astronomer Galileo Galilei published his
Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World
Systems around 1630. In it he defended
the views of Nicolaus Copernicus, who
had created a model of the universe in
which the Earth traveled around the Sun.
This image from the title page of the book
shows Copernicus, on the right, discussing
his theory with the ancient scholars
Aristotle and Ptolemy.
* alchemy early science that sought to
explain the nature of matter and to
transform base metals, such as lead,
into gold
* astrology study of the supposed
influences of the stars and planets on
earthly events
THE RENAISSANCE
term science had a much broader meaning in the Renaissance than it
does today. The word could refer to several fields of study, such as alchemy*, astrology*, and magic, that the modern world does not regard as
scientific.
THE MEANING OF SCIENCE
Renaissance thinkers based their concept of science on the writings of
the ancient Greek philosopher ARISTOTLE, who defined science as knowledge that is certain and unchanging. Aristotle claimed that a person
gained perfect knowledge of an object by knowing its cause. The cause
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* metaphysics branch of philosophy
concerned with the nature of reality
and existence
* ethics branch of philosophy
concerned with questions of right and
wrong
of an object, he claimed, made it what it was, and made it impossible
for it to be anything else. Thus, Aristotle saw scientific knowledge as
fixed and not subject to change. For him, a scientific explanation had
to involve a logical proof that one thing was the cause of another.
Since Aristotle’s time, however, the concept of science had broadened
to include less perfect types of knowledge. Over the course of the Middle
Ages, and even more during the Renaissance, thinkers came to recognize
that the kind of arguments Aristotle saw as “proof” always involved
some amount of speculation. Thus, they began accepting theories that
only identified the probable cause of a thing or event, rather than “proving” its cause. They also gave more credit to theories that could predict
actual events, such as eclipses, without explaining why they occur.
Renaissance scholars divided science into two main types. The speculative sciences were concerned with knowledge for its own sake. The
practical sciences, by contrast, focused on applying knowledge to everyday problems. Each of these broad categories included several more specific fields.
The speculative sciences covered three major areas: mathematics,
metaphysics*, and natural philosophy. Of these three, only natural philosophy resembled the modern concept of science. This field, also
known as natural science, dealt with the physical world. It included
such disciplines as botany (the study of plants), geology (the study of
the earth), and zoology (the study of animals). The speculative sciences
also included some “mixed sciences” such as mathematical physics,
which covered the same subjects as natural science, but examined them
in terms of mathematical ideas.
While the speculative sciences dealt with what human beings could
know, practical sciences dealt with what human beings could do or
make. Renaissance thinkers saw the practical sciences as very close to the
arts, and they viewed some fields, such as logic and medicine, as both
arts and sciences. Practical sciences during the Renaissance included
medicine, engineering, and the “moral sciences” of ethics* and politics.
NATURAL SCIENCES
* classical in the tradition of ancient
Greece and Rome
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The natural philosophy of the Renaissance was the basis of the disciplines now known as natural sciences. Several factors helped advance
the study of natural philosophy. First, better translations of the classical* works on science became available. Scholars also rediscovered
ancient sources that provided alternate views of nature. Perhaps the
most important change, however, was the development of new ideas
and new approaches in science.
Mathematicians had long relied on the use of suppositions, or
hypotheses—ideas that they assumed to be true in order to test an argument. As mathematics and physics began to overlap more in the 1500s,
scientists began using the same technique. The famous Italian scientist
Galileo GALILEI (1564–1642) was one of the first to use experiments to
test his proposed ideas. The use of hypotheses and experiments was a
major breakthrough in the development of modern science.
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See color
plate 6,
vol. 4
* woodcut print made from a block of
wood with an image carved into it
* medieval referring to the Middle
Ages, a period that began around A.D.
400 and ended around 1400 in Italy
and 1500 in the rest of Europe
* humanist referring to a Renaissance
cultural movement promoting the study
of the humanities (the languages,
literature, and history of ancient Greece
and Rome) as a guide to living
THE RENAISSANCE
Botany. Since prehistoric times, humans had used plants for food,
medicine, and other purposes. However, until the Renaissance, there
were few attempts to study or describe plants in a systematic manner.
The science of botany emerged in the 1400s as a result of several factors,
including the revival of classical texts, the discovery of new plants, and
the growth of printing, which made it much easier to reproduce pictures
and descriptions of plants. Renaissance botany dealt mainly with the
medical uses of plants and with identifying plants mentioned in ancient
texts. In the later Renaissance, botanists focused more on classifying
plants and describing their physical and chemical properties.
Two types of botany texts were widely available in the Renaissance.
The first type, known as an herbal, was a list of plants—usually in alphabetical order—along with a brief description of each one, including its
habitat and its medical uses. The only illustrations in the earliest printed herbals were woodcuts* based on drawings from medieval* texts,
which barely resembled the actual plants. Some later herbals featured
more realistic images drawn from life. The other common botany texts
were new editions of ancient botanical works, such as Natural History by
the Roman author Pliny the Elder and On the Materials of Medicine by the
Greek physician Pedanius Dioscorides. The study of these classical texts
raised suspicions among scholars that the ancients might not have
known all the plants in the world.
In 1530 the scholar Otto Brunfels gave the illustrated herbal a distinctly Renaissance form with his Living Images of Plants. The woodcut
illustrations, prepared from drawings made by a student of the famous
German artist Albrecht DÜRER, were incredibly lifelike. Some pictures
even showed the insect holes and withered leaves on individual plants.
The text quoted new editions of classical authors and attacked medieval
physicians’ ignorance of plants.
Brunfels’s success led others to follow in his footsteps. In 1542
Leonhard Fuchs, a German professor of medicine, published Notable
Commentaries on the History of Plants. The simple line drawings in this
volume could be printed at very small sizes while still showing each
plant clearly, making them suitable for use in pocket-sized field manuals. Fuchs’s text also included many New World plants not known to the
ancients, such as maize (corn). In addition, it featured a glossary of old
and new terms for the parts of plants.
By the late 1500s the number of known plants had grown to 6,000—
ten times the number listed in Dioscorides’ text. These newly discovered
plants included many from beyond Europe, and specialized books began
to appear about the plants of different lands. Scholars found it difficult
to name and classify all these new plants. Over 200 different authorities
existed, each with its own set of plant names. The confusion over names
made it harder to classify plants. Some texts claimed to arrange plants
according to similarities, but the guidelines for similarity—such as habitat, growth pattern, or visible features—differed from one book to the
next.
Beginning in the 1530s, humanist* scholars reformed the teaching of
medicine to reflect the advances in botany. Formal lectures on the
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Renaissance artists such as Albrecht Dürer
and Leonardo da Vinci helped promote
the study of zoology with their lifelike portraits of animals. Dürer drew this picture of
a rhinoceros in 1515.
medicinal uses of plants drew on new editions of texts by Dioscorides
and the ancient Greek physician GALEN. Instructors also began to place
more emphasis on direct, hands-on experience. Professors took students
on botanical field trips and conducted demonstrations of plants in
botanical gardens. An Italian teacher of botany developed a new type of
study aid called an herbarium, which contained pressed and dried
plants preserved on sheets of paper.
* hierarchy organization of a group
into higher and lower levels
* dissect to cut open a body to
examine its inner parts
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Zoology. During the Renaissance, the study of animals was based on
texts and descriptions rather than on real-world experience. Universities
emphasized the teachings of Aristotle, which inspired them to group
living things into a value-based hierarchy*. Other classical authors, such
as Pliny, focused on tales of animals rather than descriptions of them.
These writers tended to include mythical creatures, such as unicorns, in
their texts. They often assigned human traits to animals.
Like botany, zoology had strong ties to medicine. Most zoologists
were physicians who studied stories of animals to seek ingredients for
medical cures. Most of what scholars knew at the time about the structure and function of the human body was based on parallels drawn
from dissecting* animals such as pigs and apes. Scientists also studied
animals to learn more about their roles in transportation, nutrition, and
sports.
Humanist activity encouraged the study of zoology as scholars
restored the original versions of ancient texts. Works by Aristotle, Pliny,
and other classical writers appeared in print in the late 1400s. Other factors promoted the growth of zoology as well. For example, Renaissance
artists such as Albrecht DÜRER and LEONARDO DA VINCI created lifelike portraits of animals. The practice of letter writing also advanced the science
by giving scholars a way to exchange information. World travelers
brought back reports of new animals in other lands—though these
reports were often false or exaggerated. Wealthy and powerful individu-
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als, such as popes, set up their own menageries (the forerunners of modern zoos) to display exotic creatures, such as monkeys and elephants.
During the 1500s scientists who wrote about nature relied mostly on
evidence from books. In their eagerness to cover as many ancient
sources as possible, they often discussed mythical creatures such as the
phoenix that had been included in classical texts. Some of them also
accepted as fact the claims of ancient authors that rotting wood could
breed a certain type of geese. However, other scientists disproved the
theories of ancient authors by dissecting actual animals. The Italian
medical scholar Gabriele Falloppio, for instance, countered Aristotle’s
claim that lions have solid bones with no marrow in them. Similarly,
Swiss physician Conrad Gesner disproved the belief that the liver of a
mouse grows and shrinks with the phases of the moon.
While knowledge of animals increased, classifying them remained
difficult. Scholars used a variety of methods for sorting animals into categories. Aristotle had grouped animals according to their structure,
development, and habitat. Another common division involved several
categories, including quadrupeds (four-footed creatures), birds, and fish.
However, even these large groupings left room for confusion. For example, one text included a picture of a bat nursing, yet described the animal as a bird. Gesner suggested adding further branches to the four basic
groups of animals, such as wild versus tame and hornless versus horned.
PHYSICS
During the Renaissance, the modern science of physics did not exist.
The Renaissance concept of physics reflected the ideas outlined in
Aristotle’s Physics, which laid out a basic philosophy of nature. However,
scientists of the time were studying many of the areas that make up
modern physics, such as mechanics (the study of forces at work), optics
(the study of light), and acoustics (the study of sound).
* treatise
long, detailed essay
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Mechanics. In its earliest form, the science of mechanics dealt with
weights and the movement of heavy bodies. Renaissance scholars used
a variety of sources to study mechanics. Two of the most important were
Aristotle’s Physics and another work called Mechanics, thought to be
Aristotle’s but actually written by one of his students. Scholars also
relied on texts by ancient Greek mathematicians, such as Archimedes,
Hero, and Pappus, and on treatises* about the medieval science of
weights. The work of engineers who designed and built machines also
contributed to the science of mechanics.
The earliest studies of mechanics occurred in the field now known as
statics, which deals with the forces exerted by bodies at rest. The central
idea of statics is the law of the balance, which tells how applying
weights or forces at certain distances from a fulcrum, or balancing point,
will bring the entire system to rest. The ancient Greeks had developed
two ways to prove this law. The first, which involved calculating the
ratios between the forces and distances involved, assumed that all the
bodies were at rest. The other proof treated the bodies involved as if they
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Plant Look-Alikes
Most botanists of the 1500s
named, pictured, and described
plants without attaching any special importance to their outward
appearance. However, some held
to the longstanding belief that
God had made plants look like
human organs to reveal their
medical properties. The physician
Paracelsus supported this view
and proposed such remedies as
the use of walnuts to treat brain
ailments because a walnut resembles the brain.
were moving in a circle around the fulcrum. Renaissance mathematicians eventually came to favor the first proof, which led them emphasize the mathematical aspects of mechanics over its physical aspects.
In the 1300s scholars at Oxford University made advances in the
study of bodies in motion. They developed laws more sophisticated
than Aristotle’s for analyzing the forces that move bodies and created
rules for calculating the distances bodies travel in various periods of
time. Scientists in Paris applied these new discoveries to the fields of
physics and astronomy. In the mid-1500s the Spanish scholar Domingo
de Soto sought, with limited success, to find common ground between
Aristotle’s laws of motion and those discovered at Oxford. De Soto also
made a major contribution in 1551 when he suggested that the speed of
a falling body changes steadily over time.
Galileo made the last great discoveries in Renaissance mechanics. His
work in the field began in 1590, when he challenged one of Aristotle’s
laws of motion. Aristotle had claimed that the speed of a falling object
depends on its weight and on the resistance it encounters. Galileo
claimed that what mattered was not the absolute weight of the object,
but its weight minus the weight of the volume of air, water, or some
other medium that it displaced as it fell. Thus, two objects of unequal
size made of the same material would fall at the same speed through a
given medium.
Beginning around 1593 Galileo taught a course in mechanics at the
University of Padua. In this course he used the law of balance to calculate the mechanical advantage of various simple machines, such as the
screw and the lever. In the early 1600s Galileo performed a series of
experiments with pendulums and inclined planes to study the properties of falling bodies. Eventually he determined that the speed of a
falling object varies according to how long it has been falling, rather
than on how far it has fallen. In a series of clever “tabletop” experiments, he succeeded in proving that the speed of a falling body increases steadily with time. After 1610 Galileo turned his attention to
astronomy for many years. It was not until 1638 that he published Two
New Sciences, which became the basis of modern mechanics.
Optics. The science of optics deals with the study of reflected and
refracted (bent) light, as well as with the nature of light and theories of
human vision. The most influential medieval work on this subject was
Optics, by the Arab thinker known to the West as Alhazen. Drawing on
anatomical, physical, and mathematical texts by ancient Greek scholars,
Alhazen developed the idea that each point on the surface of an object
gives off rays that strike the eye. About 1270 the Polish monk Witelo
reworked Alhazen’s ideas, along with those of various other authors, in
a book titled Perspective. Early Renaissance scholars, however, largely
ignored these medieval sources in favor of classical texts. For example,
in 1486 the monk Gregorius Reisch published an encyclopedic work
that drew on the ideas of ancient Stoic philosophers, who described
vision in terms of a series of images that moves from the object to the
eye of the viewer.
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* sidereal
relating to the stars
In 1572 scholar Friedrich Risner published his Thesaurus of Optics.
This text combined Optics and Perspective in a single volume and was the
first printed version of Alhazen’s work. Risner prepared this book by
comparing the texts of several different manuscripts. He also divided the
book into sections, redrew the figures, and added references to link parts
of Alhazen’s work to that of Witelo. The book had a major influence on
future studies of optics.
The work of German astronomer Johannes KEPLER laid the foundation
for the modern science of optics. His Supplement to Witelo, published in
1604, explored such topics as reflection, refraction, the nature of light,
and the relationship between light and color. Kepler also developed a
theory of vision that stated that light rays enter the eye and create an
upside-down image on the retina. He was the first to understand the role
of the retina in vision.
One of the most important developments in optics during the
Renaissance was the use of lenses to magnify the size of objects. This
idea was not completely new. Eyeglasses had existed as early as 1313,
and by 1500 the use of lenses to improve vision was common throughout Europe. However, making eyeglasses was the work of craftspeople,
rather than scientists, and was not related to writings on optics. In 1593
the Italian humanist Giambattista della Porta published On Refraction,
which described a series of experiments that combined convex lenses,
which curve outward, with concave ones, which curve inward. By 1608
instrument makers in the Netherlands had put this idea to use, creating
spyglasses that used two lenses to magnify images to three times their
normal size.
Galileo began improving on the spyglass and developed an instrument that could magnify images 30 times. He used his new tool to study
and describe the features of the moon’s surface, the moons of Jupiter,
and many new stars. In 1610 he published his discoveries in the book
Sidereal* Messenger. The book stirred controversy about the value of the
telescope. A critic in Florence attacked Galileo, denying that images seen
through a telescope were real. Kepler responded by declaring his belief
in the value of the telescope and the reality of Galileo’s observations.
Acoustics. The science of acoustics deals with the physics of sound
and the ways that humans hear sounds. For much of the 1400s, scholars and musicians based their understanding of sound on the book
Fundamentals of Music, by the Roman scholar Anicius Boethius
(480–524). This work combined the theories of various ancient Greek
authorities in a single text. Boethius defined sound as a vibration of air
that reaches a listening ear. Although a sound wave is actually a series of
pulses, the ear senses it as a continuous tone, which is higher or lower
depending on how fast the air is moving. Measuring the rate of the pulses, he argued, made it possible to assign a number to a pitch and compare it to the pitch of other notes.
Boethius agreed with the Greek author Pythagoras that only certain
ratios between pitches would produce consonances—mixtures of high
and low tones that were pleasing to the ear. He believed that simple
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ratios, like 2:1 or 3:2, produced pleasing sounds. Because there was no
way to measure the speed of the vibrations in the air directly, Boethius
focused on the size of the objects that produced the sounds. He referred
to a legend about Pythagoras hearing consonances coming from a blacksmith’s shop and speculating that the combinations of pitches resulted
from hammers of differing weights striking the anvil. Later scholars,
however, proved that the weight of a hammer does not affect the pitch
of the sound it produces.
While some parts of Boethius’s work used Pythagorean ideas, in other
sections he quoted authors who defined consonance and dissonance (a
displeasing blend of tones) purely in terms of the listener’s judgment.
During the 1500s musical theorists argued over whether to define consonance in terms of mathematical ratios or listener reactions. Physicist
Giovanni Benedetti analyzed the motion of strings and suggested that a
consonance depended on having two vibrating strings pass through the
central point of their vibration at exactly the same instant. The more
often this happened, the more perfect the interval between the two
notes would sound. For instance, if the two strings were tuned exactly
one octave apart, then the lower string would be in its central position
exactly half the time that the higher one was. Thus, the ear perceived
the octave as a consonance.
Another major discovery of the 1500s had to do with sympathetic
vibration. This occurs when the sound waves produced by one vibrating
object, such as a string, set off vibrations in another object. Italian
scholar Girolamo Fracastoro suggested that a vibrating string produces
a sound by causing the air to compress and decompress in a series of
pulses. When these waves of compressed air hit another string, they will
cause it to vibrate if it is tuned to the same pitch as the first object. If
the second string is tuned to a different note, it will interfere with the
motion of the air and no sound will be produced.
CHEMISTRY
* mystical based on a belief in the
idea of a direct, personal union with the
divine
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The modern science of chemistry arose out of the “chemical philosophy” of the Renaissance. This philosophy, in turn, grew out of the work
of alchemists, especially the Swiss physician PARACELSUS (1493–1541).
Chemical philosophers sought to identify the basic elements of which
things were made. Some of them focused their attention on the study
of metals and minerals. Others, such as Paracelsus, aimed to discover
new medical uses for various substances. Some of their methods hinted
at the techniques that would later be useful in the labs of modern
chemists. However, most chemical philosophers did not make a distinction between their field and alchemy, which also contained magical
and mystical* elements.
Metallurgy. Many early advances in chemistry occurred in the field of
metallurgy (the study of metals). Italian scholar Vannoccio Biringuccio
made several major discoveries in this field. Although he based his theories on the works of Aristotle, his methods were much more modern.
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During the Renaissance, scholars
first began to suggest that fossils
were not merely stones, but
objects that had once been living
beings. In 1547 the Italian scholar
Girolamo Cardano argued that
some fossils found on mountainsides had come from sea creatures. However, he rejected the
suggestion that the great flood
described in the Bible had deposited these fossils on land. In 1566
Conrad Gesner of Switzerland
sorted fossils by shape, separating
out specimens he felt resembled
land and sea animals. His work
was a first step toward the modern view of fossils as the remains of
living creatures.
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In On Pyrotechnics, published in 1540, he wrote at length about metallic
ores and how to analyze them and prepare them for smelting. He also
discussed alloys (blends of two or more metals) and “semiminerals” such
as mercury and sulfur.
German scholars Georgius Agricola and Lazarus Ercker also published
influential works on mining and metallurgy. Agricola’s On Metals was a
thorough survey of what Renaissance scholars knew about metals,
including how to work with them. Ercker’s Description, published in
1574, built on Agricola’s work. It explained how to obtain and refine
various metals and use them to produce acids, salts, and other compounds. Some consider this text the first manual of analytical and metallurgical chemistry.
Medical Chemistry. Paracelsus pioneered the field of medical chemistry. Unlike most doctors of his time, he favored the use of powerful
drugs designed to treat specific diseases. He developed several new laboratory procedures to refine chemical substances for medical purposes,
such as a method of concentrating alcohol by purifying and freezing it.
He was also the first scientist to group chemicals according to how easy
it was to perform certain chemical processes on them.
German scientists of the mid-1500s took the lead in expanding medical chemistry into a more complete field. Adam of Bodenstein edited
and translated Paracelsus’s works, focusing on the relationship between
minerals and medicine. He also recommended the use of metallic compounds for treating disease. German scholar Andreas Libavius, by contrast, opposed the ideas of Paracelsus. The last edition of his book
Alchymia, published in 1606, included plans for building a chemical laboratory. The text contained more than 200 designs and pictures of
chemical glassware, furnaces, and devices. Many modern scholars view
Libavius as the founder of chemical analysis. Another leading medical
chemist in Germany was Oswald Croll, who performed experiments to
determine the chemical properties of the drugs he used. His book
Chemical Edifice (1609) described his preparations in detail and
explained how to use them. It became the first textbook of medical
chemistry, used for a course in the subject at the University of Marburg.
In France, scientist Guy de La Brosse combined his knowledge of
botany with an interest in medicine and chemistry. De la Brosse admired
Paracelsus because he had stressed the importance of experiments and
direct experience and had opposed the ideas of ancient scholars such as
Aristotle and Galen. In 1628 de la Brosse published a work on the nature
of plants that he described as a “general treatise on chemistry.”
According to de la Brosse, the basic idea of chemistry is that everything
can be broken down into the basic elements of which it is formed.
Reducing a substance in this way, he argued, is the only way to understand it fully.
Belgian scientist Jan van Helmont (1579–1644) made several major
discoveries in medicine and chemistry. He relied heavily on the use of
experiments to test different substances. He analyzed smoke chemically
and described it as a gas with specific properties based on the substance
that produced it. Helmont identified several gases produced by burning
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different substances, including carbon dioxide from charcoal and
“explosive gas” from gunpowder. He also designed methods for preparing various acids from substances such as clay and salt.
While Helmont made many practical discoveries, Daniel Sennert of
Germany was responsible for the most important advances in the theory of chemistry. He aimed to find common ground between the ideas of
Paracelsus, Aristotle, Galen, and other ancient scholars. Sennert argued
that all natural objects could be reduced to certain basic parts. He
thought of these parts as very small particles, or minima. He viewed a
chemical reaction as an object splitting into specific minima, which then
moved around and reformed to create a new substance with its own
properties. The minima themselves, he claimed, could never be created,
destroyed, or changed. Sennert saw the science of chemistry not just as
an aid to the practice of medicine, but as a separate field with the goal
of breaking down natural substances and prepare them for other uses.
(See also Alchemy; Anatomy; Astronomy; Humanism; Magic and
Astrology; Mathematics; Medicine; Mining and Metallurgy;
Scientific Instruments; Scientific Method; Technology.)
Scientific Instruments
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* sidereal
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relating to the stars
R
enaissance scientists used a variety of instruments for measuring,
drawing, calculating, and so forth. Most of these tools had existed
since ancient times and had been refined throughout the Middle Ages.
Renaissance scientists improved the devices they had and invented several new ones.
Renaissance astronomers relied on three basic tools. The astrolabe
and the quadrant were two devices used to measure the altitude of a
heavenly body. An astrolabe was usually a small brass disk with markings that showed the positions of stars and a pointer in the center to
indicate the angle between the user and a heavenly body. The quadrant
was a simpler tool for measuring angles, composed of a quarter-circle
marked off in degrees and equipped with a pointer. The third device, the
armillary sphere, was a sphere made of rings that showed the supposed
orbits of the heavenly bodies. Renaissance astronomers Bernard Walther
(1430–1504) and Tycho BRAHE (1546–1601) built oversized versions of
these tools that made remarkably accurate measurements.
The most important new astronomical device to appear during the
Renaissance was the telescope. Zacharias Jansen, an eyeglass maker in
the Netherlands, created the first telescope in 1608. Astronomer
Thomas Harriot of England made the first recorded use of the telescope
the following year. Italian scientist Galileo GALILEI made astonishing discoveries with this new tool. His Sidereal* Messenger, published in 1610,
described the mountains on the Moon, the moons of Jupiter, and the
stars of the Milky Way.
Sailors used some of these astronomical devices, including the astrolabe and the quadrant, as tools for estimating distances. They also used
a variety of other instruments. The cross staff, a long wooden rod with
one or more crosspieces, enabled sailors to measure the sun’s altitude at
midday or a star’s height above the horizon. Magnetic compasses
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Venetian physician Santorio Santorio
invented several new medical tools. He
used his weighing chair, shown here, to
study the change that occurred in his
body weight as a result of eating food and
eliminating waste.
Scientifice
Method
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Scientific Method
showed navigators their course. To measure speed sailors used a log—a
weighted rectangular plate attached to a long cord. They threw the plate
overboard and used a sandglass to measure the amount of time it took
for the cord to unwind. This told them how fast the ship was moving.
By the late 1500s, sailors had begun adding knots to the cord at regular
intervals so that they could tell their speed by counting the knots. This
practice gave rise to the term “knots” as a measure of nautical speed.
During the 1500s, artists and mathematicians used various types of
compasses to compare the lengths of unequal lines and to divide
straight lines and circles into parts. In the late 1590s, Galileo developed
an improved compass that could aid a wide variety of mathematical
tasks. English mathematician Thomas Hood invented a similar device,
which he called a sector. Another new tool for calculating, the slide rule,
appeared in the 1600s. Unlike the abacus, used by mathematicians and
merchants of the early Renaissance, this device could help solve complex mathematical problems.
New tools for doctors also appeared during the Renaissance. Galileo
experimented with several medical instruments, including a pulse watch
and an early thermometer without a scale. The Venetian physician
Santorio Santorio (1561–1636) developed the first clinical thermometer.
The extreme points of its scale were the temperature of snow and that
of a candle flame. He also invented a device to measure the pulse, an
instrument for measuring humidity, a special syringe for extracting
bladder stones, a bathing bed, and a weighing chair. The last major
invention of the Renaissance was the microscope. By the middle of the
1600s, medical scholars had begun to make new discoveries with the
help of this tool. (See also Calendars; Clocks; Geography and
Cartography; Mathematics; Medicine; Science; Weights and
Measures.)
O
ne of the most significant events in Renaissance science was the
development of the scientific method. Modern scientists use this
phrase to refer to a specific form of inquiry that involves forming a theory, or hypothesis, and using experiments to test it. The theory may
change based on the results of the experiments. During the Renaissance,
however, “scientific method” had a somewhat different meaning, which
had its origins in the work of the ancient Greek philosopher ARISTOTLE.
Ancient scholars such as Aristotle and his teacher PLATO had used the
term method—based on the Greek words meta, meaning “following,”
and hodos, meaning “way”—to refer to a process of rational inquiry.
Plato described a method for investigating subjects in the area of the
arts, and Aristotle extended the idea to all fields of knowledge. Later
thinkers, such as the physician GALEN in the late 100s and the mathematician Pappus in the 300s, applied the concept of method to their
own fields of study.
Italian scholars in the mid-1500s began to revive the ancient concept
of method and to apply it to the study of science. Jacopo Zabarella of
Padua drew a distinction between method and order. Order, as he
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* treatise
long, detailed essay
* inductive proceeding from particular
facts to a general conclusion
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* Low Countries region bordering on
the North Sea, made up of present-day
Netherlands and Belgium
* humanist referring to a Renaissance
cultural movement promoting the study
of the humanities (the languages,
literature, and history of ancient Greece
and Rome) as a guide to living
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defined it, meant simply learning one thing before another, while
method involved using the knowledge of one concept to lead to understanding of another. Girolamo Borro, a teacher of Italian scientist
Galileo GALILEI, described method as the quickest way to gain a particular knowledge or skill. Another of Galileo’s teachers, Francesco
Buonamici, also stressed the importance of method as a way to progress
from one piece of knowledge to another.
Galileo gave his own account of scientific method in his Logical
Treatises*, written around 1589. He defined method as a two-stage
process. The first stage involved looking at an effect and reasoning backward to find its cause. For instance, a scientist might see a shadow on
the ground and try to determine what type of object was casting it.
Then, in the second stage, the thinker would reason forward from this
cause to determine the effect—in this case, attempting to show that the
object in question would indeed cast a shadow of that shape. However,
Galileo, like Zabarella, believed that a third stage had to take place in
between to prove that the cause in question was truly responsible for
the effect. He proposed the use of logic and experiments to support the
link between cause and effect. The idea of suggesting a probable cause
for some fact, then testing it through experiments, forms the basis of
the modern scientific method.
Other Renaissance thinkers also explored the idea of method, but
they took a different approach to the concept from Galileo’s. The
French educator Petrus RAMUS, for example, developed a method of
inquiry that he claimed was useful in all fields of knowledge. However,
his method was geared more toward teaching a subject than making
new discoveries. Ramus’s efforts inspired the English philosopher
Francis BACON, who set out to create a complete system of thought that
would make use of experimentation and inductive* reasoning. He
believed his method would enable humans to find the causes of everything that occurred in the world of nature. Although Bacon’s method
did not work as well as he claimed, his insistence on experimentation
set a standard for later scientists in England. (See also Logic; Science.)
T
hough only a small and poor kingdom on the far edge of Europe,
Scotland remained in close touch with Renaissance ideas and culture. This connection came in part from trade relations with France, the
Low Countries*, and the Baltic states and in part from the readiness of
Scots to travel and study abroad. Scottish political and cultural leaders
worked hard to combat the popular image of Scots as ferocious barbarians constantly at war with one another. As a result of their efforts,
Scotland became a center of humanist* learning and thought.
The Stuart Dynasty. Since 1371 the STUART DYNASTY had struggled to
impose its authority over Scotland, a country divided geographically
and politically into many small regions ruled by powerful local lords.
However, by the late 1400s, after years of warfare the power of the
regional lords was mostly broken. The Stuart monarchs then began to
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* coat of arms set of symbols used to
represent a noble family
* classical in the tradition of ancient
Greece and Rome
* rhetorical related to the art of
speaking or writing effectively
* lay referring to people who are not
members of the clergy
* papacy
pope
office and authority of the
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seek marriage alliances with foreign powers to increase their influence
abroad. Perhaps the most significant of these marriages occurred in 1503,
when James IV (ruled 1488–1513) wed Margaret Tudor, daughter of King
HENRY VII of England. One hundred years later, Scotland’s James VI
would use this tie to claim the English throne as JAMES I and unite the
two kingdoms.
Before the marriage of James IV and Margaret Tudor, Scotland and
England had a long history of hostile relations. Defending Scotland
against English aggression was considered one of the key roles of
Scottish kings. Many Scots viewed the marriage as a betrayal of the
crown’s traditional loyalties. Nevertheless, Scotland remained allied
with France, another long-time adversary of the English. The French
king Louis XII called on James to fulfill the obligations of their alliance
by invading England. James did so, but the invasion ended with his
defeat and death at the battle of Flodden in 1513.
By this time, Scotland had established itself as a united kingdom
under the control of the Stuart dynasty. James IV had expressed this
supremacy by adding the arched “imperial” crown to his coat of arms*.
The crown represented the idea of Roman law that “the king is emperor
in his own kingdom.” Scots thought of themselves as an imperial
monarchy on an equal with any in Europe. James IV’s elegant
Renaissance court, and his own interests in architecture and medicine,
reflected Scotland’s self-confident view of itself and its monarchy.
Scottish Humanism. Scotland’s familiarity with and acceptance of
Renaissance culture and learning promoted such self-confidence. Since
the mid-1400s, Scottish officials within and outside of the church had
been collecting classical* literature as well as the works of Italian and
French humanists. Under royal secretary Archibald Whitelaw, humanist
rhetorical* skills were applied in government in the late 1400s.
Scottish universities also adapted to humanist ideas. A group of Scots
who studied in Paris exercised enormous influence on university curricula after their return to Scotland. Led by the University of Aberdeen,
Scottish universities gradually adopted a humanist course of study
aimed at serving both the clergy and the lay* students. The emergence
of a group of well-educated laypeople was one of the most significant
cultural developments in this period of Scottish history. Many educated
Scots went on to study and practice law, often in France or Italy.
James V, barely a year old, inherited the throne on his father’s death in
1513. When James assumed control of the government in 1528, he made
use of the lay lawyers to reassert the crown’s powers. Scotland’s influence
with the Catholic powers of Europe increased after the English king
HENRY VIII broke with the Roman Catholic Church in 1533. James V used
this power to obtain money from the papacy* and to arrange marriage
alliances between Scotland and France.
James invested the rewards of his diplomacy in the royal palaces of
Stirling, Falkland, and Holyrood, creating some of the first and finest
Renaissance buildings in Britain. However, his glittering court was torn
by tensions between church officials and educated laypersons influenced
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by humanism. James may have even considered following Henry’s
example in rejecting papal authority and establishing control of the
church in Scotland. But the king died suddenly in 1542 at the age of 30.
The Reformation. Soon after James’s death, his infant daughter
MARY STUART was crowned queen of Scotland. Henry VIII forced the Scots
to agree to a marriage between Mary and his heir Edward (died in 1553).
Mary was secretly sent to France, where she became fluent in French
and married Francis of Valois, the heir to the French throne. In 1561
Mary, a Catholic, returned to Scotland to claim the throne. She was
overthrown six years later. Exiled and imprisoned in England, Mary
continued to hope for the overthrow of Elizabeth, Queen of England,
that would result in her becoming the Catholic queen of England.
Mary’s trial and execution in 1587 opened the way for her son James VI,
the king of Scotland, to become next in line to the English throne.
James VI was baptized a Catholic but raised as a Protestant. His education was supervised by the humanist scholar George Buchanan, who
attempted to teach his pupil respect for classical scholarship and the principles of limited monarchy. As a result of Buchanan’s efforts, James developed a lifelong love of learning and literature. However, he failed to adopt
Buchanan’s political ideas. James developed his own theory of the “divine
right of kings,” based on the belief that a monarch’s authority comes from
God, not the people, and thus cannot be limited by the people.
The king’s determination to maintain the crown’s supremacy over
church as well as state came partly from his concern for maintaining
order in a land torn by years of political and religious turmoil. Although
James tried to control religious matters by appointing his own bishops,
he did not try to suppress the Catholic faith. In fact, many of the king’s
most trusted and influential counselors were Catholics.
James’s reign was marked by a drive to establish law, order, and civility in Scotland. By 1600 the decline of political violence led many rural
lords to abandon fortified castles for more luxurious country estates.
Upon the death of Elizabeth I in 1603, James VI of Scotland took the
English throne as JAMES I. This united the two crowns, but not the kingdoms. Although James I promoted a common “British” kingdom,
Scotland remained a distinct political identity with its own culture. (See
also England.)
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Sculpture
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Sculpture
* relief type of sculpture in which
figures are raised slightly from a flat
surface
D
uring the Renaissance, sculptors produced a remarkable range of
works, from small carved figures and relief* images to massive public monuments and religious statues. In some parts of Europe, particularly Italy, the rise of humanism* led to an interest in the sculptural
styles of ancient Greece and Rome. However, much of the sculpture produced in northern Europe during the Renaissance showed the influence
of the Gothic* art of the Middle Ages.
Italy. The development of Italian Renaissance sculpture can be divided into three periods: 1250 to 1400, 1400 to 1500, and 1500 to 1600.
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THE RENAISSANCE
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* humanism Renaissance cultural
movement promoting the study of the
humanities (the languages, literature,
and history of ancient Greece and
Rome) as a guide to living
* Gothic style of architecture
characterized by pointed arches and
high, thin walls supported by flying
buttresses; also artistic style marked by
bright colors, elongated proportions,
and intricate detail
* medieval referring to the Middle
Ages, a period that began around A.D.
400 and ended around 1400 in Italy
and 1500 in the rest of Europe
* classical in the tradition of ancient
Greece and Rome
* perspective artistic technique for
creating the illusion of threedimensional space on a flat surface
* allegory literary or artistic device in
which characters, events, and settings
represent abstract qualities and in
which the author intends a different
meaning to be read beneath the surface
* Mannerism artistic style of the
1500s characterized by vivid colors and
exaggeration, such as elongated figures
in complex poses
THE RENAISSANCE
During the first period Italian sculpture followed several different
trends, such as the use of massive medieval* forms and the incorporation of Gothic realism. Another trend, which set the stage for the
Renaissance, was the emerging awareness of ancient Roman art. In the
1200s the work of southern Italian sculptors such as Nicola Pisano
showed some of these tendencies, reflecting both ancient Roman and
French Gothic sources.
During the second period of Italian Renaissance sculpture—the
1400s—many outstanding sculptors worked in Italy, especially in
FLORENCE. The start of this period is generally associated with a competition held in 1402 for the creation of bronze doors for the baptistery in
the city. Several prominent sculptors, including DONATELLO, Filippo
BRUNELLESCHI, and Lorenzo GHIBERTI submitted entries. Ghiberti (ca.
1378–1455) won the contest with a relief that displays remarkably realistic human anatomy in a classical* style.
Donatello (ca. 1386–1466), the most outstanding Italian sculptor of
the 1400s, also worked in Florence. His earliest pieces show the influence of ancient Roman sculpture. Over the course of his career,
Donatello’s artistry ranged from powerfully dramatic figures, such as
Mary Magdalen, to captivating images of youth and beauty, such as
David. He experimented with perspective* and with various decorative
effects. To add a sense of drama to his work, he sometimes created vast
scenes filled with agitated figures, such as the bronze reliefs in the sanctuary of St. Anthony at Padua.
During this second period, portraits of individuals became more realistic. Most sculptures of women were still idealized, with perfect, youthful faces and figures. Likenesses of men, however, followed the ancient
Roman custom of including the details of aging and other unflattering
physical elements. Antonio Pollaiuolo (ca. 1431–1498) took this
approach in the tomb of Pope Sixtus IV in the Vatican, which plainly
shows the elderly features of its subject.
In the 1500s MICHELANGELO (1475–1564) dominated Italian
Renaissance sculpture. Some critics, including the art historian Giorgio
Vasari (1511–1574), view Michelangelo’s work as the climax of
Renaissance art. In a career that spanned more than 60 years, the artist
created numerous images of the human body to express his artistic ideas.
For many viewers Michelangelo’s famous statue of David represents
the ideal Renaissance male nude. Its pose, facial expression, and large
scale suggest a tremendous sense of power. Two figures of Slaves that he
created for the tomb of pope JULIUS II have tense muscular poses and
emotionless faces that suggest inner struggle. Michelangelo also
explored the use of allegory*. For the MEDICI tomb in Florence, he produced portraits of Giuliano and Lorenzo de’ Medici that represent
thought and action. Overall, Michelangelo’s depiction of the human
body went beyond traditional realism and introduced an exaggerated
style that became known as Mannerism*.
As the 1500s progressed, powerful rulers often used sculpture to create impressive public monuments. Major works, such as massive fountains, featured images from classical allegory. In Florence, Cosimo I de’
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MEDICI hired the artist Benvenuto CELLINI (1500–1571) to produce a triumphant statue of the mythological hero Perseus. Sculptural decoration
of buildings also became increasing important. The Venetian sculptor
Jacopo Sansovino (1486–1570), for example, freely integrated sculpture
with his architecture, giving it a luxurious appearance. Many of these
elements were further developed in the Baroque* style of the 1600s.
Donatello was the most admired Italian
sculptor of the 1400s. This wooden statue
of Mary Magdalen, carved around 1455, is
one of his most moving and dramatic
works.
* Baroque artistic style of the 1600s
characterized by movement, drama,
and grandness of scale
* Flemish relating to Flanders, a region
along the coasts of present-day
Belgium, France, and the Netherlands
* Protestant Reformation religious
movement that began in the 1500s as a
protest against certain practices of the
Roman Catholic Church and eventually
led to the establishment of a variety of
Protestant churches
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Northern European Sculpture. During the late 1300s and early
1400s, artists in northern Europe created realistic sculptures with intricate detail. Their work had little connection with the classical style that
developed in Italy. Instead, northern sculptors continued to use many
of the artistic techniques found in the great Gothic cathedrals. They
worked in a variety of styles and media, from large figures in wood and
stone to exquisite ivory carvings. The pieces offer a broad range of emotional expression, from dramatic to sensitive.
By the end of the 1300s, northern European sculptors had developed
a form of realism that was highly detailed. Sculptors began creating precise portraits of particular individuals. This realism reached a climax
with the work of Flemish* sculptor Claus Sluter (ca. 1340–1406), whose
images of biblical figures have animated expressions, a sense of movement, and include details such as signs of aging. Another characteristic
of northern European work during this period is the use of paint on
sculptured surfaces. Indeed, in the Netherlands, the development of
painting and sculpture were closely connected.
In the 1400s sculpture in the realistic style appeared in Germany and
Austria. The Dutch artist Nicolaus Gerhaert, who died in the 1470s,
brought the style of Claus Sluter to the region. Notable German sculptural works of the late 1400s and early 1500s include monumental
wooden altarpieces to decorate churches. Some of these pieces combine
sculpture with painting, such as the Isenheim Altarpiece (1515), which
features work by Matthias Grünewald and Nicholas of Hagenau.
In the 1500s the influence of the Italian Renaissance arrived in northern Europe. Flemish and German artists, such as Albrecht DÜRER
(1471–1528), traveled to Italy and brought back Renaissance ideas and
practices. In France and Spain, the monarchs were largely responsible
for introducing Renaissance art. The rulers of both countries commissioned works from leading Italian masters. For example, in the 1540s
the Italian artist Francesco Primaticcio adorned the French royal residence at Fontainebleau with elegant stucco nudes. In turn, many
French and Spanish artists adopted Italian artistic techniques.
The rise of the Protestant Reformation* in German-speaking lands
temporarily put an end to new religious sculpture. The more radical
Protestant reformers were strongly opposed to the religious use of
images, and some removed art from churches in the early 1500s. The followers of Martin LUTHER took a more moderate position, and their acceptance contributed to the re-emergence of religious sculpture in Germany
in the late 1500s. (See also Architecture; Art; Art in Britain; Art in
Central Europe; Art in France; Art in Germany; Art in Italy;
Art in the Netherlands; Art in Spain and Portugal; Baroque;
Classical Antiquity; Decorative Arts; Tombs.)
THE RENAISSANCE
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Servants
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Servants
* dowry money or property that a
woman brings to her marriage
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Seville
See color
plate 5,
vol. 4
THE RENAISSANCE
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ervants made up a fairly large group in Renaissance society. Many
households employed one or more servants, ranging from a sole
farm worker to a staff of 100. By the early 1500s, a third of all families
had live-in servants.
Although aristocratic households employed large staffs of servants of
both sexes, a typical home had far fewer. Most people could afford only
one or two servants, usually women or girls. Female servants made up
12 percent of the population of some European cities. The majority of
these servants were unmarried women and girls, sometimes as young as
seven or eight. They often worked as all-purpose maids, attending to
various tasks such as cleaning bedchambers and helping in the kitchen.
Employing male servants, which was less common, gave status to a
household. English farmers employed servants of both sexes, one or two
to a farm. In exchange for general tasks they received food, lodging, and
a small wage when they left.
Many female servants who worked in cities moved there from the
countryside. Often from poor families or from poverty-stricken regions,
they came to the city hoping to work to save enough money for a
dowry* to attract a husband. This could take many years, as wages were
low, and some never reached their goal. Those who did marry almost
always left service. Servants were typically single, either by custom or
law, and a female servant who became pregnant could be dismissed.
Families found servants through word of mouth, local hiring fairs, or
employment agencies. The conditions of their service varied greatly. All
servants were entirely dependent upon their employers and could be
punished or fired at will. They received little or no time off and worked
long hours for little pay. Employers provided food and lodging, but
quarters might be no more than a cupboard under the stairs or space on
the kitchen floor. In addition, employers and servants lived close together, and female servants were at risk of sexual advances from men in the
household. (See also Social Status.)
L
ocated 70 miles from the Atlantic coast on the Guadalquivir River,
the Spanish port of Seville controlled the burgeoning transatlantic
trade that developed after Columbus’s voyages. Between 1503 and 1717,
the Spanish crown declared that all people and goods headed to
America must be registered at Seville. The city became an international
distribution point that attracted people from all over Europe. By 1600
its population had grown to at least 80,000, with some estimates as high
as 130,000.
Two important institutions in Seville handled matters relating to
Spanish America. The Casa de Contratación (House of Trade) had
responsibility for the commerce, navigation, and movement of people
between Spain and its overseas colonies. It also collected and studied
maps and reports prepared by returning mariners. The Casa Lonja de
Mercaderes (Merchant Hall) oversaw the traders and business transactions that provided supplies for the empire.
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* Jesuit belonging to a Roman Catholic
religious order founded by St. Ignatius
Loyola and approved in 1540
Seville grew into a cultural and intellectual center as well as a commercial capital. Spain’s most active publishing city during the early
1500s, the city boasted a university and several schools founded by the
Jesuits*. Columbus’s son Hernando Colon collected humanist* texts
* humanist referring to a Renaissance
that now form the core of a library at the Cathedral of Seville. The city
cultural movement promoting the study
of the humanities (the languages,
also became a leading center of drama. Examples of Spanish Renaissance
literature, and history of ancient Greece
architecture in Seville include Merchant Hall, the Hospital de las Cinco
and Rome) as a guide to living
Llagas (Hospital of the five wounds), and city hall. In the 1480s, the
* Spanish Inquisition court established monarchs FERDINAND OF ARAGON and ISABELLA OF CASTILE launched the
Spanish Inquisition* in Seville.
by the Spanish monarchs that
investigated Christians accused of
The 1600s marked a period of decline for Seville. Plague* struck
straying from the official doctrine of the
the city in 1599–1601 and again in 1649. Also during this time,
Roman Catholic Church, particularly
Madrid was gaining power as the seat of royal government, and the
during the period 1480–1530
city of Cadiz took over much of the transatlantic shipping once handled by Seville. By 1717 the city had lost its control over trade with
* plague highly contagious and often
fatal disease that wiped out much of
Spanish America. (See also Americas; Art in Spain and
Europe’s population in the mid-1300s and Portugal; Spain.)
reappeared periodically over the next three
centuries; also known as the Black Death
Sexuality and
Gender
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Sexuality and Gender
* adultery sexual relationship outside
of marriage
* courtesan prostitute associated with
wealthy men or men in attendance at a
royal court
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R
eligion played a major role in Renaissance attitudes toward sex and
gender. Both Roman Catholic and Protestant churches regarded sex
as an activity that should occur only within marriage. Sexual behavior
outside that framework—such as prostitution or homosexuality—was
sometimes tolerated but rarely approved by either the church or society
as a whole. The laws and customs that regulated sexual behavior tended to reinforce the inferior role of women in society. For example,
women faced stricter penalties for adultery* than men did. On the other
hand, men usually faced harsher punishment for homosexual acts. Sex
between women went largely unnoticed.
Gender Roles. Men dominated both private and public life in the
Renaissance. Most families were patriarchal, meaning that the male
head of the household controlled the family’s money and made all the
important decisions. Both civil and church law supported this arrangement, which treated the family as a miniature version of the state in
which the ruler held the place of father to his subjects.
A few women did manage to gain some degree of independence. Nuns,
for example, could largely escape the control of men by removing themselves completely from male society. It was also possible for a woman
whose husband had died to inherit his money, which would give her both
economic power and social standing. For most widows, however, the
death of a husband brought financial hardship rather than gain. Likewise,
the life of a prostitute was usually a hard one, but for the upper-class courtesans* of Italy it offered economic and social power. These women
offered refined companionship, as well as sexual services, to their clients.
Writers and painters honored famous French and Italian courtesans for
their glamour and elegance. A few women sought to escape their social
boundaries by passing themselves off as men. Dressed in male clothing,
these “passing women” could gain access to places open only to men.
THE RENAISSANCE
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* theology study of the nature of God
and of religion
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Women in Love?
It is difficult to determine to what
extent sexual relations between
women occurred during the
Renaissance. The concept of “lesbianism” did not exist at the
time, and there is very little surviving evidence about such activities. Thus, scholars can only
guess. For example, some suggest that Queen Christina of
Sweden (ruled 1644–1654) was
a lesbian because she refused to
marry. Other scholars believe
that, like Elizabeth I of England,
Christina may have rejected marriage because she did not want
to share power with anyone, not
even a husband.
THE RENAISSANCE
Attitudes Toward Sex. During the Middle Ages, most of Europe
based its attitudes about sexual desire on theology*. Religious thinkers
such as AUGUSTINE OF HIPPO had seen desire as a force that could either
draw individuals toward God or lure them away from the path of virtue
and into the sins of the flesh. The Roman Catholic Church placed a
higher value on virginity and celibacy (the state of being unmarried)
than on sexual activity. It believed that sex should take place only within marriage, with the goal of producing children.
The Renaissance brought a shift in the church’s attitude toward marriage and family. It began to focus more on love and companionship as
a part of marriage. As a result, it became acceptable for married people
to enjoy—in moderation—sexual pleasure that was not directly related
to producing children. Although society did not openly approve of birth
control, the practice was fairly common.
Society continued to recognize a variety of offenses relating to marriage. Fornication, or sex between unmarried persons, was officially a
crime but seldom carried a severe punishment. Instead, it often served
as a step toward marriage. A more serious offense was adultery, or sex
between a married person and someone other than his or her spouse.
Penalties for adultery varied, and men often faced less severe punishment than women. Social status also played a role in determining the
penalties for this crime. For example, a married aristocrat who had sex
with his female servants was unlikely to be charged with adultery at all.
Although Renaissance society recognized rape as a crime, the punishments for it depended on the age and social rank of the people involved.
To a certain extent, society saw male desire as naturally violent.
Literature, for example, often dealt with cases of a young man forcing
himself on a woman. Thus, the penalties for rape were usually less harsh
than those for homosexuality. Rape carried a severe penalty only if it
involved very young girls—or if it involved a breach of social station, as
in the case of a peasant attacking a noblewoman.
Prostitution. Prostitution was widespread during the Renaissance,
especially in cities. Society appears to have viewed it as a necessary evil
for coping with young men’s sexual desires, which might otherwise pose
a danger to honorable girls and women. In Italian cities, some people
regarded prostitution as a way of encouraging young men to have sex
with women rather than with other men.
The elegant courtesans of Italy and France were the exceptions rather
than the rule. Most prostitutes were poor women who often suffered
from violence and disease. Some women combined prostitution with
other forms of labor, such as sewing, laundering clothes, or selling food
and drink, moving from town to town with other members of the working poor. The few accounts left by these women suggest that they
regarded prostitution primarily as work that paid relatively well. In most
cases, it seems, their neighbors did not shun them because of their occupation.
The status of urban prostitutes changed significantly over the course of
the Renaissance. During the 1300s and 1400s many cities and towns
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The courtesans of the Renaissance offered
refined companionship, as well as sexual
favors, to their upper-class clients. Artists
often celebrated the glamour and elegance of these women, as in the French
painting The Prodigal Son with Courtesans.
* brothel
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house of prostitution
throughout Europe opened official brothels* or set aside certain districts
where prostitution was allowed. Laws regulating the brothels tried to protect both prostitutes and their clients by such measures as forbidding
weapons, banning the sale of women, and checking the prostitutes for
disease. In this era, prostitutes—at least those who lived in the city-run
brothels—were an accepted part of urban society. They appeared as a
group at city festivals and openly welcomed important visitors to the city.
In the later 1400s, however, many cities—especially in northern
Europe—placed greater restrictions on prostitutes. They had to wear
clothing that distinguished them from “honorable” women and stay in
the brothels at all times. Those who lived outside the official brothel or
district faced harsh penalties, such as banishment or mutilation (having
parts of their bodies cut off). German cities closed their brothels altogether in the 1500s, and Spanish cities did the same in the early 1600s.
Major Italian cities did not outlaw prostitution entirely, but they regulated it more strictly.
Scholars once believed that this shift toward tighter control of prostitution was due to the appearance of syphilis, a sexually transmitted
disease. Today, however, most believe that the main cause was the new
moral strictness brought about by the religious reform movements of
THE RENAISSANCE
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* Protestant Reformation religious
movement that began in the 1500s as a
protest against certain practices of the
Roman Catholic Church and eventually
led to the establishment of a variety of
Protestant churches
* humanist Renaissance expert in the
humanities (the languages, literature,
history, and speech writing techniques
of ancient Greece and Rome)
Shakespeare,
William
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1564–1616
English writer
the era. Martin LUTHER, a leader of the Protestant Reformation*, called
prostitutes tools of the devil and accused them of bewitching single
men. Catholic reformers of the time attacked prostitution in equally
vicious terms.
Homosexuality. Since the Middle Ages, European societies had
defined sodomy, or same-sex relations, as both a sin and a crime.
Nonetheless, such activities were widespread in Renaissance society.
Both men and women engaged in sexual activities with others of the
same sex, but male homosexuality attracted much more attention. It
occurred at all levels of society, from kings and nobles to priests, merchants, and sailors. Most relationships between men involved an older
man, often one who was married, and an adolescent. Society viewed the
older man as the more active partner and imposed stricter penalties on
him. Among women, same-sex relations sometimes involved “passing
women,” who sometimes carried their male role so far as to “marry”
other women.
Modern scholars disagree about the nature of homosexuality in the
Renaissance. Most believe that Renaissance culture did not recognize the
concept of “being” homosexual. According to this view, homosexuality
was an act rather than an identity—a sin into which anyone might fall
at some point. A few scholars, however, argue that the Renaissance gave
rise to the first inklings of an idea of “homosexuals” as a group. They
note that the cultures of ancient Greece and Rome, so widely admired
by humanists*, had recognized and accepted sex acts between men.
Humanists such as Marsilio FICINO of Italy penned defenses of male love.
(See also Family and Kinship; Feminism; Love and Marriage;
Women.)
E
nglish playwright William Shakespeare is known throughout the
world as one of the greatest writers who ever lived. His plays cover
a wide range of dramatic forms, including comedy, tragedy, and history.
One of Shakespeare’s greatest skills was his ability to portray every possible emotional state. His works deal with the essential elements of
human life, such as love, friendship, growing old, and facing the
approach of death.
SHAKESPEARE’S LIFE
Shakespeare was born in Stratford-upon-Avon, a market town in central
England. His father, John, kept a large home from which he ran a business manufacturing gloves and other leather goods. As a man of wealth
and social position, he held several positions in local government. Later
in life, however, Shakespeare’s father seems to have lost much of his fortune. Some scholars believe his troubles sprang from his unwillingness
to abandon the Catholic faith when England became a Protestant
nation.
THE RENAISSANCE
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Widely regarded as one of the greatest
writers who ever lived, William Shakespeare
produced dozens of plays during his
lengthy career in the theater. His plays and
poems have influenced a host of writers
over the last five centuries.
William probably attended the King’s New School in Stratford, which
emphasized the study of Latin. As a student there Shakespeare would
have read the works of such ancient Roman authors as VIRGIL, Ovid, and
Seneca. The influence of these writers appears in several of Shakespeare’s
plays. At the age of 18, Shakespeare married Anne Hathaway, who was
eight years older than himself. Their first child was born about six
months later, and within two years, the couple had three children.
Scholars are unsure how he supported his family for the next eight
years. However, they do know that by 1592 Shakespeare had moved to
London, apparently leaving his wife and children behind in Stratford,
and taken up a career as an actor and a playwright. An angry review by
an older playwright offers the first clear record of Shakespeare’s presence
in London.
Shakespeare achieved his first dramatic success with his history play
The First Part of King Henry the Sixth, perhaps as early as 1589. He also
wrote poetry during his early years in London. His two major non-
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* patron supporter or financial
sponsor of an artist or writer
dramatic poems, Venus and Adonis and The Rape of Lucrece, appeared in
print in 1593 and 1594. The author dedicated both of these works to the
Earl of Southampton, who may have been an important patron* for the
young poet.
Shakespeare arrived in London during a bright period in English theater. A new form of drama was taking shape that mixed the native drama
of England with the classical style of ancient Greece and Rome. English
playwrights began to borrow characters from classical sources, such as
young lovers, old misers, and boastful soldiers. The blend of classical
and English traditions gave new life and versatility to English theater.
Drama also took its place at the center of national debate, as both
Catholics and Protestants made it a weapon in their battles of words.
Records show that in 1594 Shakespeare joined the Lord Chamberlain’s
Men, an acting company that performed mostly at a London playhouse
known simply as the Theatre. The building was probably in the shape of
an octagon and could seat about 3,000 spectators. At one end stood a
large rectangular stage with a trap door, partially covered by a roof supported by two pillars. This building was eventually taken apart and
rebuilt on the south side of the Thames River as the famous Globe
Theater, the one most associated with Shakespeare’s name.
SHAKESPEARE’S WORKS
Shakespeare spent at least 19 years writing for the theater. In that time
he produced dozens of plays, along with a variety of long and short
poems. His works remain popular centuries after his death, providing
enjoyment for viewers and readers, as well as inspiration for writers,
around the world.
* convention
custom
established practice,
* ballad narrative poem, often of folk
origin and intended to be sung,
consisting of simple stanzas and usually
having a recurrent refrain
THE RENAISSANCE
Comedies. Shakespeare’s early comedies show strong signs of classical
influence. For example, The Comedy of Errors follows the conventions* of
ancient drama by taking place entirely in one city over the course of a
single day. Shakespeare based this play loosely on an ancient Roman
work by Plautus called The Twins. Shakespeare’s comedy The Taming of
the Shrew also borrows from Plautus. Its secondary plot features several
classical character types, including the young lovers, the anxious father,
and the clever servant. However, the play’s main plot, about a sharptongued woman and the husband who “tames” her, comes from an old
English ballad*. This play illustrates the blend of classical and English
influences popular in the drama of this period.
Shakespeare began to break away from the classical style in his comedy The Two Gentlemen of Verona. The plot centers on two young lovers
who face a series of obstacles to their union—the opposition of their parents, separation, rivalry, misunderstandings, narrow escapes, and sudden changes of heart—plot elements that are hardly typical of classical
drama. Shakespeare’s next romantic comedy, Love’s Labor’s Lost, also
steers away from classical conventions in its plot about courtship and
misunderstanding between the sexes.
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Shakespeare’s distinctive comic form emerged in the late 1590s,
beginning with A Midsummer Night’s Dream. He completely abandoned
the classical mode by weaving together several plots: the troubles of four
lovers who seek shelter in the forest, the quarrels of the king and queen
of the fairies, and the antics of a group of laborers preparing to stage a
play for the wedding of their duke. Through this mixture of stories,
Shakespeare examined the experience of love from several different
angles. The play is also anti-classical in its blend of human characters
and otherworldly spirits.
Shakespeare gave his comedy a darker note in The Merchant of Venice.
The central figure in the play is Shylock, a Jewish moneylender who
threatens the life of a Christian merchant. This comedy narrowly
escapes turning into a tragedy thanks to the cleverness of the heroine,
Portia. Yet this play also features more traditional comic elements in its
secondary plot, a love story about the courtship of Portia and her husband, Bassanio. This blend of straightforward comedy and the threat of
tragedy appears again in Much Ado About Nothing. The first plot features
a misunderstanding between two lovers that nearly destroys the heroine; the other is a joyful comedy about a man and a woman whose bitter rivalry masks a deep affection.
Several of Shakespeare’s comedies feature a woman in male disguise.
This device was particularly amusing in Shakespeare’s time, when all
actors were male, and thus the woman dressed as a man was really a boy
dressed as a woman. Such “breeches parts” play an important role in
two of Shakespeare’s most famous comedies, As You Like It and Twelfth
Night. Disguised as men, the heroines of these two plays become friends
with the young men with whom they eventually fall in love. Thus, their
marriages are founded on a basis of deep friendship and trust.
* genre
literary form
* depose to remove from high office,
often by force
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Histories. The English history play was a fairly new genre* in
Shakespeare’s time, and Shakespeare did more than any other writer to
give it a distinct form. His first four history plays—the three parts of
Henry VI, followed by Richard III—revolve around a prolonged civil war
that divided England in the 1400s. Shakespeare’s play cycle reveals the
brutal chaos of civil war, yet it ends in triumph with the crowning of
Henry VII, the grandfather of ELIZABETH I. This work helped establish the
history play as a truly English form of drama that owed nothing to the
classical tradition.
Shakespeare produced another series of major history plays in the late
1590s. This time, he dealt with an earlier conflict in English history, in
which Henry Bolingbroke deposed* Richard II in 1399 and took the
throne as Henry IV. The play Richard II centers on this transfer of power,
but the next three plays—Henry IV, Parts 1 and 2, and Henry V—focus on
the figure of King Henry’s son, Prince Hal, who will later rule as Henry V.
While Henry IV struggles with military and political rivals, he must also
face his growing concern about his wayward son. The prince spends
most of his time in the tavern with his friend John Falstaff, a drunken,
thieving old knight who is hardly a fitting companion for a prince. Torn
between this friendship and his duty to his stern father, Hal must even-
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tually abandon his careless ways and take his rightful place as England’s
king. In the cycle’s final play, Henry V, the new king triumphs over his
political enemies and leads the British to victory against the French at
the famous battle of Agincourt (1415).
Tragedies. Shakespeare did little work in the tragedy genre during the
1590s. His famous Romeo and Juliet (ca. 1595), though tragic, resembles
a comedy in many ways, with its focus on comic wooing in the first half.
In 1599, however, Shakespeare began work on a series of tragedies that
have earned a place among the greatest plays ever written in the English
language. In his four major tragedies—Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, and
Macbeth—Shakespeare focused on the darkest human emotions: sexual
jealousy, conflict within marriage, and the fears that come with old age.
Hamlet is a “revenge play” about a prince whose murdered father
returns as a ghost to demand that his son avenge his death. The focus of
the play is not the act of revenge, but the effect his father’s command
has on the prince’s mind. He questions the ghost’s reality, his own
strength, and the concept of human happiness. The play ends with a
stage littered with corpses, a reminder of the harsh struggle Hamlet
leaves behind.
The title character of Othello is a tragic hero in the classical sense: a
good man with one fatal flaw that drives him into a destructive action.
As a black man living in European society, Othello appears to doubt that
his young, beautiful, white wife truly loves him. The villain, Iago, plays
on the hero’s jealous insecurity. His cunning lies about the unfaithfulness of Othello’s wife lure the hero into murder.
In King Lear, the lead character is a king driven into madness by his
two ungrateful daughters. To an extent, he is also a tragic hero whose
fatal flaw is insecurity. His obsessive need for assurances of love leads
him to banish his one faithful daughter, Cordelia. The cruelty he suffers
at the hands of his other children leads him to understand the injustice
in the world, hinting at the idea that true wisdom comes about only
through pain and despair.
Shakespeare’s Macbeth involves the murder of a king and the unnatural forces it releases. Macbeth is tempted into his terrible crime by his
own ambition, his wife’s challenges that he prove his manhood, and the
twisted prophecies of three witches who promise that he will one day be
king. Their prediction unleashes Macbeth’s darker nature and leads him
toward his inevitable doom.
While he was producing these famous plays, Shakespeare also created
several tragedies set in ancient Greece and Rome. In Julius Caesar,
Coriolanus, and Antony and Cleopatra, Shakespeare examined the themes of
honor and duty, political struggle, and just rule through the lens of Roman
history. In Timon of Athens he portrayed a generous man who becomes bitter and angry when his friends desert him after he loses his fortune.
Problem Plays and Romances. Between 1601 and 1605 began to
experiment with dramatic forms, producing three plays scholars refer to
as the “problem” plays. While these pieces appear to be comedies, they
also contain darker elements more suitable to tragedy. Within their trou-
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Over the centuries, many readers have wondered whether a
middle-class writer with no university training could have produced such great works as
Shakespeare’s. Some have suggested that his plays were actually the work of a nobleman who
used Shakespeare’s name to
conceal his identity. Several people have been suggested as the
true author, including Sir Frances
Bacon and Edward de Vere, the
earl of Oxford. However, other
readers point out that for the
“real” Shakespeare to hide his
identity would have required a
truly massive cover-up. They see
the desire to assign Shakespeare’s
works to a noble author as a matter of simple snobbery.
* sonnet poem of 14 lines with a fixed
pattern of meter and rhyme
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bled world, morality is unclear and happiness uncertain. For example,
in Measure for Measure, a judge seeks to abuse his position to seduce a
woman in exchange for sparing her brother’s life. He then attempts to
cover up his action by killing her brother anyway. Even the supposedly
good characters in this play are curiously flawed. The sister, who is
about to become a nun, agrees to trick the wicked judge by sending
another woman to take her place in his bed.
A similar “bed trick” occurs in All’s Well that Ends Well, which features
a young gentleman so eager to avoid marriage that he runs away from
his wife. She wins him back only by sneaking into his bed. These twisted stories, with their unclear moral standards, clearly test the boundaries of comedy. The third problem play, Troilus and Cressida, actually
crosses the line into tragedy. Cressida proves unfaithful to her lover,
Troilus, and Troilus’s brother Hector dies a brutal death at the hands of
an enemy soldier.
In his final years of writing (1606–1613), Shakespeare turned to a new
form, the romance. Like his problem plays, these pieces blend sorrow
and joy, but their overall mood is one of hope and wonder. The first two
romances, Pericles and Cymbeline, focus on the joyous reunion of a
father and daughter after a long separation. The father-daughter bond
also plays a strong role in Shakespeare’s other romances, which add an
element of fantasy and magic. The Winter’s Tale concerns a king who
wrongly accuses his wife of being unfaithful. His jealousy leads to her
apparent death and to the loss of his infant daughter, whom he orders
banished because he believes she is not his child. Yet these characters
reappear miraculously in the play’s second half.
The Tempest, commonly seen as Shakespeare’s last complete play,
focuses on the strong bond between an aging magician, Prospero, and his
daughter Miranda, a girl on the edge of womanhood. Cast away on an
island with no other humans, the two have lived for years in the company of two supernatural creatures—the beastlike Caliban and the delicate
Ariel—whom Prospero has enslaved. This plot hints at a variety of issues,
from the justice of colonial rule to the burden of artistic creation.
Other Works. Along with his plays, Shakespeare created a great number of poems. In addition to his longer verses, he wrote more than 150
sonnets*. These short poems deal largely with two major relationships
in the poet’s life. The first is his friendship with a young man, whose
forgetfulness and ungratefulness are a source of pain for the author. The
other is a love-hate affair with a mysterious woman known as the Dark
Lady, who is as unfaithful to the poet as she is to her own husband. The
sonnets also discuss other emotions the author has faced: jealousy of
other writers, concerns about aging, the desire for fame, and the fear of
losing his skill with words.
For centuries Shakespeare’s insights and words have influenced other
important writers, from the late Renaissance poet John MILTON to the
modern American author William Faulkner. His works have spread
throughout the globe, and his famous phrases have also found their way
into the everyday speech of countless generations of readers. As the
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SHIPS AND SHIPBUILDING
English playwright George Bernard Shaw once observed: Shakespeare
has a word for everything. (See also Drama; Drama, English;
English Language and Literature.)
Ships and Shipbuilding
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Ships and Shipbuilding
See color
plate 7,
vol. 4
T
he main difference among various types of Renaissance ships concerned the way they were powered—by oars or by sails. The most
famous oared ship, the galley, was a long vessel with oarsmen on both
sides of the hull. These ships carried passengers and goods, particularly
luxury items, and also found service in warfare. Galleys used oars when
entering or leaving port, during combat, or whenever they needed a
burst of speed. The sails were hoisted for long-distance cruising. Though
fast, galleys had a limited capacity. For transporting larger cargoes, people relied on sailing ships.
During the Middle Ages the sailing ships of northern Europe differed
in style from those of the Mediterranean. The early northern ships featured a rudder in the rear and a single square sail. Southern ships adopted the triangular lateen sails of Muslim vessels. In the 1400s the two
traditions merged to produce the model followed by all later oceangoing vessels. The new ship had a rear rudder, two masts with square sails
and a third mast in the rear of the vessel with a lateen sail. It was balanced and maneuverable in a variety of conditions. The largest of these
vessels were known as carracks (or some variation of that name). The
ships that carried Columbus on his first voyage across the Atlantic were
smaller versions called nao, nef, or nau.
Carracks and similar multi-masted ships had a variety of functions.
Large vessels might be used for trade and transportation, warfare, fishing, or whaling. Smaller craft found service in coastal trade, small-scale
fishing, exploration, and piracy. Often the same ship had several roles
The galleon was the most advanced ship
of the Renaissance period. The Elizabethan
galleon shown here features the four
masts, crescent profile, and low front deck
typical of such ships.
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during its career. Shipbuilders developed numerous variations on the
carrack with different numbers of masts or types of sails. Each seafaring
country had its own fleet of sailing ships, similar to but not exactly the
same as that of its neighbor.
The galleons, sailing ships used widely in the late 1500s and early
1600s, appeared in numerous versions but shared certain common features. Marked by a crescent profile, galleons generally had three or four
masts, a low deck in front called the forecastle, and two full decks above
the waterline on which to mount artillery. The ship’s hull was sturdy
enough to withstand rough seas and the hazards of combat. The oceangoing galleons were the most advanced vessels of the age, combining technology from fields such as forestry and metallurgy (the science of metals).
(See also Economy and Trade; Exploration; Transportation and
Communication.)
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* feudal referring to an economic and
political system in which individuals
gave service to a lord in return for
protection and use of the land
* humanist referring to a Renaissance
cultural movement promoting the study
of the humanities (the languages,
literature, and history of ancient Greece
and Rome) as a guide to living
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F
or most of the Renaissance, the Mediterranean island of Sicily (now
part of Italy) was part of the political world of Spain. The island’s
main distinction during this time came from its role in ancient Greek
and Roman history. The few Sicilian scholars and artists of note sought
fame elsewhere.
Sicily was linked to the mainland kingdom of NAPLES until 1282,
when it revolted against Charles of Anjou, the French ruler of the two
kingdoms. Sicily then came under the control of the Spanish kingdom
of Aragon. It remained in Spanish hands for more than 400 years,
except for a few years in the mid-1400s, when it was temporarily reunited with Naples. Sicily’s monarchs usually ruled from afar, and powerful
local barons and their followers had considerable influence. The feudal*
nobility generally supported the monarchs, to whom their privileges
were tied. But the nobles’ resistance to urban growth and Aragonese fiscal policy revealed their power. Sicily passed to the Spanish HABSBURGS in
1516.
Before the 1300s the island’s economy was dominated by the western
part of Sicily and the city of Palermo, which produced grain and wine.
Later, economic power shifted to the east and the city of Messina, which
had silk, sugar, wine, and oil. The founding of universities in Catania
(1445) and Messina (1590s) reveal the increasing importance of Sicily’s
eastern region. The overall trend during the Renaissance, however, was
toward greater poverty and outlawry in Sicily.
The island appears in a few literary works of the Renaissance.
MACHIAVELLI’s The Prince (1513) mentions Sicily only in connection with
an ancient story of the king of Syracuse (in Sicily). SHAKESPEARE set his
comedy Much Ado about Nothing (1600) in the court of an Aragonese
prince in Messina, and scenes of his play A Winter’s Tale also take place
in Sicily. In addition, the island produced several notable figures,
including the scholar Marineo Siculo (ca. 1444–1536), who established
a humanist* school in Spain, and the painter Antonello da Messina (ca.
1430–1479), who worked in Naples and northern Italy. (See also Naples;
Spain.)
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Sickness and
Disease
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* elite
privileged group; upper class
D
uring the Renaissance, disease was a common part of life for all
social classes. However, illness took a much harsher toll on the
poor than it did on the rich. Members of the elite* might live to an
advanced age, managing their chronic ailments with the help of physicians. The poor, by contrast, had limited access to medical help. Any disease could pose a threat to their lives by endangering their ability to
earn a living.
Types of Sickness. Perhaps the most feared disease during the
Renaissance was PLAGUE. This highly contagious illness swept across
Europe in the mid-1300s, killing as much as a third of the continent’s
population. After that, it returned at least once in every generation.
Other diseases also struck rich and poor alike. These included cancer,
fevers, tuberculosis, and painful joint ailments such as rheumatism and
gout.
Renaissance physicians had to treat a variety of previously unknown
medical problems, such as gunshot wounds and new illneses. Chief
among these was the sexually transmitted disease syphilis. Renaissance
people called this illness the “great pox” to distinguish it from smallpox,
which became a serious epidemic in the late 1500s. Epidemics of typhus,
a severe fever spread by body lice, appeared suddenly during the wars of
the early 1500s. Long sea voyages and the colonization of tropical
regions introduced Renaissance Europeans to scurvy (a disease caused by
lack of vitamins) and yellow fever (a tropical illness spread by mosquitoes). Another mosquito-carried illness was malaria, which causes severe
chills and fever. A few diseases were work-related, such as those suffered
by miners in the Alps and in the silver mines of the Americas.
Disease and Social Class. To some extent, the upper classes could
escape disease epidemics by retreating to country estates, away from
crowded urban centers of infection. When they did become sick, they
could afford to treat themselves with special diets, imported wines, costly medicines, and visits to hot springs or baths thought to have healing
powers. The great majority of people, however, lacked the means to pay
for such treatments.
Physicians came to associate some diseases, such as plague, with the
lower classes. Cities introduced public-health rules to keep the poor
masses away from members of the elite during epidemics. However,
physicians believed that the upper classes were particularly subject to a
few illnesses. In the mid-1500s the Italian scientist Girolamo Fracastoro
wrote about a disease he called lenticular fever that tended to attack
“those who are rather delicate and less robust.” This ailment, Fracastoro
noted, had less effect on the hearty peasant classes “because they exert
themselves strenuously [vigorously] and their diet is more frugal
[thrifty].” An English disease called “sweating sickness” also tended to
strike the wealthy.
The experience of sickness undoubtedly varied according to social
and economic class, but some problems cut across class lines. One example was infant death. A quarter of all babies, whether born into wealth
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One of the most feared diseases of the
Renaissance was the plague. Highly contagious and often deadly, it struck repeatedly throughout the period, wiping out large
parts of Europe’s population. This painting
of plague sufferers shows the large
swellings, or buboes, caused by the disease.
or poverty, died before their second birthdays. Infectious diseases may
have been more common among the poor, but they could still torment
the rich and famous. Many members of Italy’s powerful MEDICI family,
for example, struggled with tuberculosis, and England’s King HENRY VIII
suffered from ulcers—painful and ugly sores—on his legs that refused to
heal. People who underwent surgery, whether for toothache, bone fractures, or even complications of childbirth, might experience persistent
sores as a result.
Illness posed a great threat to rural and urban day laborers, who
depended upon wages from daily work. Sickness, like any other disaster,
could plunge a family into deeper poverty. Hospitals and traditional
charities rarely helped families cope with this challenge. As a result, the
gap between rich and poor grew wider during the late Renaissance. The
effects of disease were only one of the many ways in which the contrast
between social classes became more visible at this time. (See also Death;
Medicine.)
Philip
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Sidney, Philip
1554–1586
English poet
P
hilip Sidney was one of the leading poets of Renaissance England.
His work had a major influence on the flowering of English literature, arts, and music in the late 1500s and early 1600s. A member of the
nobility, Sidney held a place in the inner circle of writers, artists, scientists, and men of action at the court of ELIZABETH I. His death while fighting Spanish soldiers in the Netherlands turned Sidney into a national
hero.
Life and Times. Although relatively poor by noble standards,
Sidney’s family had connections among the wealthiest and most powerful figures in England. His mother, Mary Dudley, was a lady-in-wait-
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ing to Queen Elizabeth; she tended the queen when she came down
with smallpox (and caught the disease herself as a result). His uncle,
Robert Dudley, was one of Elizabeth’s favorite courtiers and, according
to rumors, her lover. Sidney himself was named after the Spanish king
PHILIP II, who attended his christening and referred to him as “my godson.” Other members of Sidney’s family were famous as traitors. Several
of his relatives lost their heads for their involvement in a plot—which
succeeded briefly—to place Sidney’s aunt, Lady Jane GREY, on the
English throne.
At the age of 13, Sidney entered Oxford University. There he received
an excellent education centered on the Bible and on Latin and Greek literature. When he was 22, Sidney took a three-year grand tour of continental Europe. During his years abroad he mastered a number of
languages and met with many of the leading artists, scientists, and
scholars of his day. He also witnessed the St. Bartholomew’s Day
Massacre in France in 1572, in which Catholics murdered thousands of
Huguenots. This event may have influenced Sidney’s writings, which
contain many descriptions of mass violence.
After returning to England, Sidney became a favorite at the royal
court and was knighted in 1583. A year later he signed on with Sir
Francis DRAKE to explore the New World. When Queen Elizabeth discovered his plans, however, she put a stop to them by sending Sidney to
the Netherlands as the new governor of the town of Flushing. At the
time England controlled this town as part of an agreement to assist the
Dutch, who were involved in a struggle against Catholic Spain. In 1586
Sidney died of injuries suffered during an attack on Spanish supply lines.
* romance adventure story of the
Middle Ages, the forerunner of the
modern novel
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Literary Achievements. Sidney’s literary reputation rests chiefly on
three major works. The first is his Defence of Poetry, one of the
Renaissance’s greatest critical writings. In this influential text, Sidney
praised poetry as an art form with more power to cure the soul than
either history or philosophy. He argued that poetry—a term he used to
refer to all forms of imaginative writing—made the bitter truths of
philosophy more acceptable by hiding them under the sweet coating of
an appealing story. A poetic work, Sidney claimed, inspired its readers to
improve themselves morally by making them identify with the heroes
and heroines who face moral conflicts in the story. He saw the world of
the imagination as superior to the natural world, since the poet is free
to describe things that never were real but that might have been or even
should have been. Sidney’s work also reviewed the course of English literature and challenged his fellow writers to imitate, in English, the great
achievements of the ancient Greek and Roman poets.
Scholars have described Sidney’s second major work, Arcadia, as the
first English novel. The modern writer Virginia Woolf claimed that
Sidney’s romance* contained “all the seeds of English fiction.” It blended a variety of styles, including letters, stories within stories, and tales
told from both the first-person and the third-person viewpoint. It also
established certain themes that became standard in later English novels,
such as escapes from drowning, crowd scenes, and events set in courts
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* sonnet poem of 14 lines with a fixed
pattern of meter and rhyme
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Siena
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* republic form of Renaissance
government dominated by leading
merchants with limited participation by
others
* Black Death epidemic of the
plague, a highly contagious and often
fatal disease, which spread throughout
Europe from 1348 to 1350
* Holy Roman Emperor ruler of the
Holy Roman Empire, a political body in
central Europe composed of several
states that existed until 1806
* siege prolonged effort to force a
surrender by surrounding a fortress or
town with armed troops, cutting the
area off from aid
Sixtus IV
of law and in royal courts. Sidney’s work also portrayed female characters with unusual skill and sensitivity.
Sidney’s third notable work was Astrophel and Stella (1581), a series of
love sonnets* about a brilliant, yet self-deceiving young man who pursues the charming Stella, a young woman unhappily married to another man. Astrophel and Stella offers a marvelous psychological study of the
foolishness of human desire, the joy of poetic ambition, and the sorrows of love. Throughout the work Sidney mocks his own use of such
concepts as the notion of the ideal and the lasting power of love.
Sidney’s other works include a short, humorous drama, another collection of sonnets, and part of a translation of the biblical Book of
Psalms. Sidney’s sister Mary completed this work after his death. (See
also English Language and Literature; France; Netherlands;
Poetry, English.)
S
iena, an independent republic* in northern Italy, was an important
center of commerce and learning during the Middle Ages. The citystate gained its wealth from banking, commerce, and wool manufacturing. Before the Black Death*, Siena ranked as one of the largest cities in
Italy with about 65,000 people. The plague reduced the population to
about 15,000, a decline from which the city recovered very slowly.
Like other republics of the region, Siena had a complicated political
structure. From 1285 to 1355 its Government of the Nine, dominated by
merchants, brought relative stability to the city. However, during the
late 1300s and the 1400s, sharp divisions between ancient noble families, nobles from the countryside, and wealthy merchants characterized
political life in Siena. Governments favoring tradesmen and shopkeepers alternated with those serving the interests of the nobles. After a period of economic decline and political unrest, noble families gained the
upper hand in the city in the mid-1400s. Pandolfo Petrucci, a prominent Sienese nobleman, took personal control of Siena in 1487, and he
and his heirs ruled the city until 1523.
Siena lost its independence during the WARS OF ITALY (1494–1559).
Florence had long wanted to gain control over Siena. In 1530 the Holy
Roman Emperor* CHARLES V (Charles I of Spain) forced Siena to accept
his protection and a Spanish garrison. The Sienese threw the Spanish
troops out in 1552, which led to a three-year siege* of the city. After
Siena finally surrendered in 1555, the Spanish gave the city to its ally,
Cosimo I de’ MEDICI, the ruler of Florence.
Culturally, Siena was renowned for its university, which emphasized
law and attracted students from many countries during the Renaissance.
Pope PIUS II, St. Catherine of Siena, and St. Bernardino of Siena are
among the best-known people of this time from the city. Various Sienese
artists made significant contributions to Renaissance painting and
sculpture. (See also Art in Italy; Florence.)
See Popes and Papacy.
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* artisan
skilled worker or craftsperson
* Black Death epidemic of the
plague, a highly contagious and often
fatal disease, which spread throughout
Europe from 1348 to 1350
By the time of the Renaissance, Italy was
one of the few European countries where
slavery still existed. This engraving from
the 1500s shows a Venetian galley slave in
ankle chains.
S
lavery existed in Europe in ancient times and continued in some
regions for centuries. By the time of the Renaissance, it could still be
found in Italy, Spain, and Portugal but was uncommon in the rest of
Europe. Slavery also existed in the Muslim world, and contact with
Muslim communities reinforced the practice in Europe. In the 1500s the
slave trade spread to the Americas. Europeans carried great numbers of
African slaves across the ocean to work in colonies in the New World.
Conditions of Slavery. Ancient Roman law included a set of rules
governing the ownership and treatment of slaves. During the
Renaissance, interest in ancient cultures strengthened the influence of
Roman law on European society. Although all slaves had the same or
similar status under the law, their circumstances varied.
Slavery was different in rural and urban areas. Most rural slaves
labored on farms, though some worked in manufacturing on country
estates. Most urban slaves served as servants, guards, or sexual partners.
Those owned by artisans* often worked in their masters’ workshops.
Other slaves provided labor in city ports, factories, warehouses, or markets. In both Europe and the Muslim world, slavery took place on a
small scale. Artisans bought one or two slaves and wealthy families had
a few more. Large-scale or gang slavery, as practiced in ancient Rome
and the Americas, did not exist in Europe.
In Renaissance Europe slaves were either born into slavery or captured
in a war or raid. Masters had legal control over slaves and could sell or
transfer them as they pleased. Still, the law allowed slaves to become free
in several ways. Masters could set them free, and slaves who had been
captured might be ransomed or exchanged for other prisoners. In addition, slaves could purchase their freedom. Although former slaves never
had the full legal standing of those born into freedom, their children
were completely free under the law.
Slavery increased in Italy, Spain, and Portugal in the late 1300s. This
was partly due to the Black Death*, which swept across Europe and
killed as much as one-third of the population. The loss of large numbers
of workers created a labor shortage that allowed individuals who might
have become servants to find better jobs. People were needed to take
over the lowest level of work. Meanwhile, some well-to-do survivors
were able to hire more workers or purchase slaves with riches inherited
from deceased relatives. These two factors produced a demand for slaves.
Italy. In 1363 the Italian city of Florence allowed residents to import
slaves, as long as the slaves were not Christians. Venice, Genoa, and
other Italian cities also permitted slave trading. Although Venice banned
slave auctions in 1366, citizens could still buy slaves privately.
Slaves in Italy came from a variety of racial and ethnic groups, such
as Russians or other peoples from the region around the Black Sea. They
also included Muslims purchased from North Africa, Spain, or Portugal.
Black slaves were fairly common in Sicily and southern Italy but rare in
the northern Italian cities.
THE RENAISSANCE
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Spain and Portugal. Spain and Portugal were close to the Muslim
lands of North Africa, which served as a source of non-Christians who
could be captured or enslaved. This ready supply of slaves meant that
slavery gained a stronger hold in Spain and Portugal than elsewhere.
Portugal and Spain were the first European nations to become
involved in the slave trade in black Africans. Some Africans were taken
to islands in the Atlantic and others to the Americas. Blacks had been
present in Europe in small numbers since ancient times, and since the
800s Muslim traders had brought black slaves across the Sahara desert
for sale in Mediterranean ports. Still, during the Renaissance blacks
remained rare in Europe outside of Spain, Portugal, and Italy.
The Portuguese were the main slave traders of Europe in the late
1400s and early 1500s. In the capital city of Lisbon, the crown administered the slave trade. By the mid-1500s black slaves and former slaves
made up 2.5 to 3 percent of the total population of Portugal. In southern Portugal and Lisbon, the figure was as high as 10 percent.
The Spanish city of Seville was also noted for its many black and
Muslim slaves—7.4 percent of the city’s inhabitants in 1565. During
much of the Middle Ages, large areas of Spain—including Seville—were
under Muslim rule. The population at that time included large numbers
of slaves. Later, the Christians fought to regain control of Spain, and
many Muslims were captured and enslaved. (See also Agriculture;
Economy and Trade; Servants; Social Status.)
Status
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* hierarchy organization of a group
into higher and lower levels
* prelate high-ranking member of the
clergy, such as a bishop
R
enaissance society recognized many different degrees of social rank.
Since the Middle Ages, the social hierarchy* had contained three
broad groups: the CLERGY (known as the First Estate), the nobility (the
Second Estate), and the commoners or workers (the Third Estate).
Within each estate were many ranks that sometimes overlapped.
However, not everyone fit neatly into this structure. Beginning in the
late Middle Ages, a new category—the middle class—had emerged and
grown to include many levels of its own. Also, certain groups of people
were outsiders, with no fixed position on the social ladder.
The First Estate: Clergy. Members of the clergy had high status in
Renaissance society, which saw their spiritual activities as vital to the public welfare. The highest-ranking clergy members—popes, cardinals, patriarchs, and bishops—were mostly of noble birth. Urban and rural priests
occupied a much lower place on the social scale. They generally fell far
below the high-ranking prelates* in terms of wealth and education.
The clergy also included members of RELIGIOUS ORDERS: monks and
nuns who lived apart from the everyday world. The leaders of these
orders usually came from the ranks of the nobility. Some orders ranked
higher on the social scale than others and tended to attract people from
wealthy noble families.
The Second Estate: Nobility. Originally, membership in the nobility depended on birth and family background. By the 1500s, however,
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THE RENAISSANCE
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* coat of arms set of symbols used to
represent a noble family
* elite
privileged group; upper class
* artisan
skilled worker or craftsperson
* guild association of craft or trade
owners and workers that set standards
for and represented the interests of its
members
THE RENAISSANCE
more individuals were gaining noble rank either by buying land and
titles or by earning distinction in battle. Three factors affected the status
of a noble: birth, political power, and wealth. People valued land above
other forms of wealth and looked down on money gained through trade
or manufacturing. Thus, stark differences of rank existed within the
noble classes. Some families controlled large estates with authority over
many peasants, while others had fallen in fortune and had little left to
them but their titles.
The highest-ranking members of the nobility, such as dukes and
barons, often associated themselves with the royal courts. The lesser
nobles and the gentry stood one rung below them on the social ladder.
These social categories were not always clearly defined. Their members
came from varied backgrounds and drew their status from many sources:
military service, government offices, success in business, or marriage
into higher-ranking families. The lesser nobles and gentry worked to
increase their prestige by acquiring land and making desirable marriages. Some eventually created their own coats of arms* as a symbol of
their rank.
The Third Estate: Commoners. The Third Estate was the most complex and changeable part of society. Originally defined simply as the
working class, by the Renaissance it included high-ranking professionals
and the entire, growing middle class. Moreover, the makeup of the Third
Estate varied across rural and urban settings.
Most Europeans lived in the countryside. The highest classes of commoners in rural areas were the landlords who leased land from members
of the clergy or nobility and rented it out. Below them were small farmers and peasants who rented the land they worked. Next came landless
laborers who moved about in search of jobs. During the Middle Ages,
most rural laborers were serfs, tied by law to the lands that they worked.
By the time of the Renaissance, serfdom had fallen into decline in western Europe, but in eastern regions it expanded, and many peasants fell
to the status of serfs.
Those who lived in Renaissance cities tended to look down on country
dwellers, except for those who owned large amounts of land. In addition
to these social boundaries between city and country, deep divisions existed within urban society. In many areas, for example, the citizens of a city
or town enjoyed special status and privileges that the rest of the city’s residents did not share. In northern Italy and parts of Germany, Spain, and
the Netherlands, only citizens could hold public office. These citizen
elites* overlapped with the ranks of the gentry and lesser nobility.
The urban middle class covered a broad range of social rank, based on
such factors as education, profession, and wealth. Lawyers and judges,
with their high levels of education and positions of social power, held
the highest positions in urban society—sometimes even higher than the
lesser nobles. Government officials, physicians, and intellectuals also
stood high in the middle-class social order. Just below them in status
were merchants and artisans*, especially those who belonged to local
guilds*. Guild membership set artisans apart from low-ranking laborers,
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who were usually poor and enjoyed few legal rights. Even within this
class, however, differences in status existed based on working skills.
Laborers whose work required more strength than skill fell nearly at the
bottom of the social scale. Only household servants had lower status.
Outsiders. Some groups, such as Muslims, JEWS, gypsies, and slaves,
existed outside the structure of the three estates. Usually poor, they had
limited legal rights and often lived apart from the rest of society.
Women were also a group apart. A woman held no social rank in her
own right, but shared that of her father and later, if she married, her
husband. Aside from these relations, her status depended to a large
degree on her “honor”—that is, on her observance of a strict social code
that prohibited sex and childbirth outside marriage. (See also
Aristocracy; Bourgeoisie; Cities and Urban Life; Family and
Kinship; Peasantry; Servants; Slavery; Women.)
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* Iberian Peninsula part of western
Europe occupied by present-day Spain
and Portugal
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n the 1400s the Iberian Peninsula* contained five separate kingdoms—Aragon, Castile, Navarre, PORTUGAL, and Granada. The first
four kingdoms were Christian, but Muslims from North Africa—known
as Moors—ruled the southern kingdom of Granada. Many Europeans
used the term Spain to refer either to Castile or to the whole Iberian
Peninsula except Portugal. Eventually, the Christians drove the Moors
out of the region and established a unified kingdom. During the 1500s,
Spain emerged as a major European power and empire with territories
around the world.
HISTORY
* Holy Roman Empire political body
in central Europe composed of several
states; existed until 1806
During the Renaissance a series of strong monarchs succeeded in unifying Spain and increasing its political power. Spain became part of the
Holy Roman Empire* and established a network of colonies that helped
spread Spanish culture to other lands.
Moorish Spain. In the 1400s the population of the Iberian Peninsula
was mostly Catholic, but it also included large numbers of Muslims and
Jews. Muslims had first arrived in the early 700s from North Africa. The
Moors conquered most of the peninsula and built a brilliant civilization
there. Spain became an important part of the Islamic world.
The Muslims failed to conquer all of Iberia. Small Christian strongholds remained in the mountainous north and became the basis for the
Christian kingdoms. From the 700s on, the Christians fought to regain
control of Spain. Throughout this effort, known as the Reconquest,
episodes of warfare between Christians and Muslims alternated with
periods of relative peace. The Christians learned a great deal from the
Moorish culture and also benefited economically. Nevertheless, as the
Reconquest moved south, tensions between the two groups increased.
By the 1400s relations had become hostile.
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THE RENAISSANCE
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Vizcaya
Santander
Asturias
Santiago de
Compostela
Bilbao
Alava
León
Galicia
León
KINGDOM
OF NAVARRE
N
Pamplona
Aragon
Saragosa
Old Castile
Catalonia
Barcelona
K ING DOM
OF AR AG ON
Mediterranean Sea
Madrid
KINGDOM
OF CASTILE
AND LEÓN
Estremadura
KINGDOM OF
PORTUGAL
New Castile
Valencia
Majorca
Murcia
Córdoba
Jaén
Seville
Seville
Palos
Granada
Cadiz
0
0
50
50
100 mi.
Spanish Kingdoms, 1492
City
100 km
Ferdinand and Isabella. In 1469 the Christian monarchs FERDINAND
ARAGON and ISABELLA OF CASTILE were married, technically uniting their
two kingdoms. In reality, the various kingdoms of Spain remained divided as a result of geography and history. The kingdom of Castile dominated the center of the Iberian Peninsula. The kingdom of Aragon, to
the east, consisted of three distinct areas: Aragon, Catalonia, and
Valencia. The kings of Aragon also ruled a Mediterranean empire that
included SICILY, Sardinia, and the kingdom of NAPLES. Surrounding the
united kingdoms were Navarre in the north, Granada in the south, and
Portugal in the west.
In 1492 Ferdinand and Isabella conquered Granada, the last remaining Moorish region in Europe. Determined to create an entirely
Christian kingdom, the two monarchs ordered Jews in Spain to convert
to Christianity or leave the country. About half the Jewish population
left, settling mainly in North Africa and Portugal. The rest converted. In
1500 the king and queen gave the Muslims the same choice—either
adopt Christianity or leave. Most chose to convert and remain.
By the early 1500s, there were two significant minority groups in
Spain: the conversos (Christians of Jewish origin) and the Moriscos
(Christians of Muslim origin). Old Christians resented and feared the
converts, viewing them as poor Christians and a threat to religious
unity. The Spanish Inquisition* addressed the problem by attempting to
enforce Christian beliefs and practice among the converts.
Ferdinand and Isabella also focused on foreign policy. They built
alliances through marriages with members of the HABSBURG DYNASTY and
the royal families of England and Portugal. Ferdinand ended revolts in
Aragon and consolidated his power there. Meanwhile, Isabella increased
OF
* Spanish Inquisition court
established by the Spanish monarchs
that investigated Christians accused of
straying from the official doctrine of the
Roman Catholic Church, particularly
during the period 1480–1530
THE RENAISSANCE
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Spanish Monarchs
Ferdinand V = [2] Germaine
1452–1516
de Foix
king of Aragon
(Ferdinand II,
king of Castile)
Maximilian I = Mary of Burgundy
1457–1482
1459–1519
Holy Roman
Emperor
Margaret
of Austria
1480–1530
= Mary
Manuel
1469–1521 d. 1517
king of
Portugal
= Philip I
Juana
Habsburg
"La Loca"
1478–1506
1479–1555
king of Castile
queen of Castile
Isabella = Charles I
1500–1558
king of Spain
(Charles V,
Holy Roman Emperor)
Ferdinand I = Anne
of Bohemia
1503–1564
Holy Roman
Emperor
Mary = Maximilian II
1527–1576
Holy Roman Emperor
Mary I
=
1516–1558
queen of England
[2] Philip II [4]
=
Anna
1527–1598
king of Spain
Philip III
1578–1621
king of Spain
= : Marriage
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Defending Christianity
Some Spanish nobles and clergy
belonged to religious military
orders, which were founded in
the 1100s to help with the
Reconquest of the Iberian peninsula. These orders received huge
grants of land, authority over
about a million people, and the
right to bestow the title of
caballero (knight). The religious
military orders provided positions
of respect and influence for members of noble families. But the
wealth and power of the orders
also made them threats to the
crown, and Spanish monarchs
took steps to control the religious
military orders more closely.
100
her power in Castile by working out arrangements with Castilian
nobles. Gradually, the two rulers unified much of Spain. In addition,
they sponsored the voyages of Christopher COLUMBUS, who searched for
a westward route to Asia and, in the process, claimed land in the
AMERICAS for Spain. After Isabella’s death in 1504, Ferdinand married
Germaine de Foix, heir to the throne of Navarre. Their marriage led to
the incorporation of much of Navarre into Castile.
Charles I. When Ferdinand died in 1516, his grandson Charles took
the throne as Charles I, ruling a territory that corresponded roughly to
modern Spain. Three years later Charles was elected Holy Roman
Emperor, succeeding his Habsburg grandfather, MAXIMILIAN I, and
became CHARLES V. With these legacies, Charles controlled the largest
empire in Europe. In addition to Spain, his territories included much of
central Europe, the NETHERLANDS, lands in the Mediterranean, and
colonies in the Americas.
Born and raised in the Netherlands, Charles was considered a foreigner by many of his Spanish subjects. Spanish discontent led to a
series of revolts in Castile and Valencia in the 1520s. However, the
revolts failed, leaving Charles with peace in Spain. Elsewhere, Spanish
forces took control of territories in North Africa and Italy. Charles, who
viewed himself as a protector of Catholicism, also spent considerable
THE RENAISSANCE
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* Ottoman Turks Turkish followers of
Islam who founded the Ottoman
Empire in the 1300s; the empire
eventually included large areas of
eastern Europe, the Middle East, and
northern Africa
* plague highly contagious and often
fatal disease that wiped out much of
Europe’s population in the mid-1300s
and reappeared periodically over the
next three centuries; also known as the
Black Death
effort fighting the Ottoman Turks* in the Mediterranean and
Protestantism in Germany.
In 1556 Charles I gave up his crowns and retired to a monastery.
Before stepping down, he divided his empire. Charles’s younger brother
Ferdinand assumed the position of Holy Roman Emperor; his son Philip
became king of Spain, the Netherlands, part of Italy, and the colonies in
the Americas.
The reign of PHILIP II (1556–1598) was a mixture of successes and failures. In Spain, uprisings in Granada (1566–1571) and Aragon (1591,
1592) threatened the peace. However, both were put down. In the
Netherlands, opponents of Spanish rule rebelled in 1566, and the revolt
led to the loss of the northern Dutch provinces. In 1571 a Christian
force led by Spain won a great victory over the Turks at the battle of
Lepanto, temporarily halting Ottoman advances. Nine years later, Philip
won the throne of Portugal, adding the Portuguese possessions in Africa,
South America, and Asia to the Spanish Empire. Then, in 1588, the great
Spanish Armada (naval fleet) failed in its attempt to attack England. The
defeat dealt a serious blow to Spain’s prestige and marked the beginning
of a period of decline.
In the 1590s, the Spanish monarchy faced a series of difficulties,
including bankruptcy and widespread plague* and famine. Philip III
took the throne in 1598. During his reign, Spain began adjusting to its
status as a secondary power in Europe.
SOCIETY AND ECONOMY
Spain’s historical circumstances led to the development of a distinct
Spanish culture during the Renaissance. The Roman Catholic Church
played a major role in the kingdom, and the church and local traditions
shaped Spanish society. At the same time, a vigorous economy based on
agriculture and trade helped support the growing Spanish Empire.
* hierarchy organization of a group
into higher and lower levels
* monastic relating to monasteries,
monks, or nuns
* Jesuit refers to a Roman Catholic
religious order founded by St. Ignatius
Loyola and approved in 1540
THE RENAISSANCE
The Catholic Church. Throughout the Renaissance, the Catholic
Church had enormous power in Spain. Members of the church enjoyed
certain rights and privileges as well as wealth and status according to a
well defined hierarchy*. Various monastic* orders occupied a prominent
place in Spanish society, and some groups, such as the Jesuits*, conducted important educational and missionary activities. According to
estimates, the Spanish clergy in the late 1500s included about 91,000
members, slightly more than 1 percent of the total population.
The church had always had a close relationship with the Spanish
crown. In 1478 at the request of Ferdinand and Isabella it launched the
Inquisition. The governing council of the Inquisition was part of the
royal administration, and the crown appointed all members of the
Inquisition courts. Besides punishing those who practiced Judaism,
Islam, or Protestantism, the courts also reviewed the religious ancestry
of candidates for high office and censored works.
With the conquest of Granada, Ferdinand and Isabella won the right
to name candidates for the office of bishop there. This gave them con-
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The Spanish city of Seville, shown here,
was a major center of trade in Europe. In
the 1400s it became home to many Italian
merchants, whose banking activities
helped fund the voyages of Christopher
Columbus.
102
trol over the direction of church policy. The right of naming candidates
was later extended to other church offices in all Spanish lands. From the
church, the monarchy also acquired important sources of revenue.
Society. The militant Christianity of the Middle Ages continued into the
Renaissance in Spain. The Reconquest encouraged the view among some
Spaniards that wealth could be gained from the armed conquest of alien
peoples and that the survival of Christian society depended on unity and
a militant defense of the faith. Still, the social structure and occupations
of the Spanish people were similar to those of other European peoples.
Spanish society was overwhelmingly rural—four out of every five
people worked on the land. The majority did not have property or animals of their own and worked for others. Some hired out on a day-today basis; others had labor contracts for a season or a year. Most of the
agricultural workers lived in small villages or towns and traveled back
and forth to labor in the fields and pastures.
THE RENAISSANCE
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▲
▲
1492
Ferdinand and
Isabella conquer
Moorish kingdom of
Granada
▲
800
1469
Ferdinand of Aragon
and Isabella of
Castile marry
1516
Charles I inherits
Spanish kingdoms
▲
600
▲
a
700s
Muslims conquer
much of Iberian
peninsula
1556
Philip II
becomes king
1000
1200
▲
1400
1600
1571
Christian forces led
by Spain defeat
Turks at battle of
Lepanto
▲
1800
1588
Defeat of the
Spanish Armada
THE RENAISSANCE
At the upper end of society was the nobility, whose ancestors had
received land and status, usually for military service to the monarchy.
The nobility was divided into three groups. The hidalgos, the lowest
group, could claim a certain amount of local prestige and exemption
from some taxes. The señores, in the middle, controlled small territories.
The top level consisted of titled nobles, often called the títulos or grandes.
These individuals possessed great wealth and power, and vast landholdings—sometimes even including towns.
The nobles of Castile tended to live in towns and cities and to dominate local government. The highest-ranking nobles followed the royal
court, seeking to gain control over important offices and to influence
foreign commerce. Political power brought Spanish nobles greater
wealth and social status. By the mid-1400s, a small group of noble families had amassed great amounts of land, titles, wealth, and government
positions.
The legal system of Renaissance Spain was based on ancient Roman
law. It developed from a code adopted by King Alfonso X of Castile in
the mid-1200s. In the 1500s Spanish monarchs sought to impose royal
law throughout the various kingdoms, but local traditions limited what
they could do. In addition, some provinces preferred law codes from the
Middle Ages that offered protection against the abuse of royal power.
Economy. Beginning in the late 1400s, the Spanish economy expanded, especially in terms of long-distance trade. The largest and most
important economic activity was agriculture, ranging from cereals and
livestock in Castile to rice, vegetables, and fruits in Granada, Valencia,
and Aragon. Although the Spanish consumed most of their farm products, they exported large quantities of wine, olive oil, fruits, and other
items.
Spain also developed successful industries, including the production
of woolen cloth and shipbuilding. By the 1400s the kingdom of Castile
had become one of western Europe’s main suppliers of high quality
wool. Cities such as Barcelona and Bilbao were important shipbuilding
centers.
Trade played a vital role in the Spanish economy. Since the 1200s
Spanish merchants had developed strong trading networks in the
Mediterranean. Later, trade routes connected Spain to England, France,
and the rest of northern Europe. In Castile, foreign trade increased along
with religious pilgrimages. The route of the Way of St. James pilgrimage
drew large numbers of Europeans across northern Spain to the shrine of
St. James in the city of Santiago de Compostela. During the 1400s busy
trade fairs in Castile brought merchants together. The most important
fair, in the town of Medina del Campo, attracted traders from all over
Europe. By the 1500s the town had become the financial center of
Castile.
Spain’s strong trading network encouraged interest in overseas exploration. It also helped develop the organizational skills and business techniques that were used to manage the country’s vast overseas empire. In
1436 Castile created a convoy system, which involved sending armed
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ships with merchant vessels to protect them against piracy and other
threats. This type of convoy system was later used to protect ships traveling to Spain from the Americas.
Many Italian merchants settled in Spain and married into the local
nobility. By the 1400s Italians from GENOA were prospering as bankers
in SEVILLE. Merchants such as these helped finance the voyages of
Christopher Columbus, and later expanded their trading operations in
Spain’s American empire.
EUROPEAN TIES
* patron supporter or financial
sponsor of an artist or writer
Spain and Portugal,
Art in
Spanish Language and
Literature
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* classical in the tradition of ancient
Greece and Rome
* Iberian Peninsula part of western
Europe occupied by present-day Spain
and Portugal
104
Spain maintained close relations with the rest of Europe during the
Renaissance. Like other Catholic countries, it had strong ties with Rome.
Spanish clergy lived in Rome and played a significant role in church
affairs. Many Spanish students traveled abroad to study. Similarly, foreign students attended Spanish institutions such as the prestigious
University of Salamanca.
Artists came to Spain from various parts of Europe, especially the
Netherlands, and Spanish monarchs, nobles, and clergy collected
Netherlandish art. Italian artists also found patrons* at the Spanish
court. Scholars from across Europe worked in Spain, and Spanish
became a common second language among the upper classes in France,
Italy, and the Netherlands.
Spain’s vast European and overseas empire helped make it the world’s
first superpower. However, maintaining this empire was very costly. As
a result, Spain entered a period of decline in the 1600s. Although it kept
its American empire, it gradually lost influence in Europe as other
nations took the lead. (See also Armada, Spanish; Art in Spain and
Portugal; Catholic Reformation and Counter-Reformation;
Cortés, Hernán; Drama, Spanish; Exploration; Madrid;
Spanish Language and Literature; Toledo; Universities.)
See Art in Spain and Portugal.
Spain and Portugal, Art inPortugal.
[PN:ART C-White Text tag is doctitle]
S
pain, like other parts of Europe, was influenced by the revival of
classical* languages and culture during the Renaissance. While
scholars in other regions sought to restore the Latin of ancient Rome, in
Spain the Renaissance focused mainly on the use of classical forms and
styles in Spanish. During this period, the Spanish language took on a
standard form that gradually replaced the local dialects used in different
parts of the Iberian Peninsula*. Spanish authors published works in a
variety of literary forms, including poetry, drama, and religious writing.
In addition, several Spanish writers, most notably Miguel de CERVANTES
SAAVEDRA, played a major role in the development of the novel.
THE RENAISSANCE
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DEVELOPMENT OF THE SPANISH LANGUAGE
The poems of Garcilaso de la Vega set new
standards for verse writing in Spain.
Inspired by the work of Italian humanists,
he introduced a variety of new forms into
Spanish poetry.
* Moor Muslim from North Africa;
Moorish invaders conquered much of
Spain during the Middle Ages
* humanist Renaissance expert in the
humanities (the languages, literature,
history, and speech and writing
techniques of ancient Greece and
Rome)
* medieval referring to the Middle
Ages, a period that began around A.D.
400 and ended around 1400 in Italy
and 1500 in the rest of Europe
* sonnet poem of 14 lines with a fixed
pattern of meter and rhyme
THE RENAISSANCE
In the early Middle Ages the inhabitants of Iberia spoke a variety of different dialects. Beginning in the 700s, soldiers from the northern kingdom of Castile gradually gained control of much of the peninsula,
slowly driving out the Moors*. As the Castilians moved south, they
spread their language. In the 1200s Alfonso X, king of Castile and León,
used Castilian Spanish, rather than Latin, to conduct official business.
He also ordered translations of works from Arabic and Latin into
Spanish. These actions helped standardize the Spanish language.
In the 1400s the culture of the Italian Renaissance began to influence
the Spanish tongue. Words borrowed from Italian and Latin came into
use, sometimes replacing words borrowed from Arabic. Antonio de
Nebrija, the first major Spanish humanist*, studied in Italy and learned
classical Latin. In 1481 he published the first Latin textbook in Spain.
Eleven years later, Nebrija published a Spanish grammar—the first grammar textbook in any modern European language. This text established
Castilian as the language of Spain.
Spanish continued to evolve during the 1500s. Pronunciation began
to change, taking on the forms now part of modern Spanish. New patterns of speech also developed. In 1611 Sebastián de Covarrubias y
Orozco compiled a dictionary called Treasury of the Castilian or Spanish
Language, which set forth the rich vocabulary of Renaissance Spanish.
All these changes in vocabulary and language structure affected the
development of new styles in literature.
SPANISH LITERATURE IN THE RENAISSANCE
Some scholars have described the 1500s and 1600s as a golden age of
Spanish literature. A variety of new literary forms emerged during this
period. Classical studies, religious reforms, and medieval* styles all
played a role in shaping the literature of this time.
Poetry. During the 1400s, Spanish poets began to adopt the styles of
classical Latin and Renaissance Italian verse. At the beginning of the
century, many Spanish poets were writing love poems in a style borrowed from the popular songs from the Middle Ages, which had short
lines of about eight syllables. Juan de Mena broke away from this style,
developing a poetic form with longer lines, based on ancient Latin verse.
Around 1450 the Marquis de Santillana produced a collection of sonnets* in the Italian style.
Italian forms continued to influence the development of Spanish poetry in the 1500s. At a royal wedding in 1526, a number of Spanish authors
met Italian humanists and discussed writing with them. This meeting
inspired two of the Spanish writers, Juan Boscán and Garcilaso de la Vega,
to experiment with various forms of verse. Their work, published jointly
in 1543, introduced distinctive new styles into Spanish poetry.
Garcilaso wrote few poems, yet his pieces set new standards for verse
writing in Spain. He did most of his work in NAPLES and often followed
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* elegy type of poem often used to
express sorrow for one who has died
* pastoral relating to the countryside;
often used to draw a contrast between
the innocence and serenity of rural life
and the corruption and extravagance of
court life
* ode poem with a lofty style and
complex structure
* Spanish Inquisition court
established by the Spanish monarchs
that investigated Christians accused of
straying from the official doctrine of the
Roman Catholic Church, particularly
during the period 1480–1530
* epic long poem about the
adventures of a hero
* mystical based on a belief in the
idea of a direct, personal union with the
divine
* theology study of the nature of God
and of religion
* elite
privileged group; upper class
* romance adventure story of the
Middle Ages, the forerunner of the
modern novel
* chivalry rules and customs of
medieval knighthood
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the examples of Italian writers such as Jacopo SANNAZARO and Bernardo
Tasso. Garcilaso’s poems include sonnets, elegies*, pastoral* love poems,
and an ode*. Scholarly editions of his work, published between 1570
and 1580, helped establish him as a leading Renaissance poet.
Luis de León (1527–1591), another notable poet, taught at the
University of Salamanca and became the leader of a group of humanist
writers and translators. A member of a Catholic religious order, he was
descended from conversos (Christian converts from Judaism) and specialized in the study of the Hebrew Bible. Because of these connections
with Judaism, he was imprisoned and tried by the Spanish Inquisition*.
León wrote a number of poems modeled on those of Garcilaso. Some
explore Christian themes and others tell pastoral stories. A few describe
the injustices León received at the hands of the Inquisition. Circulated
in manuscript form, León’s poems gained a wide readership.
Spanish writers published more than 50 epic* poems in the 1500s.
The main model for these works was the Aeneid, by the ancient Roman
poet Virgil. Some of the best Spanish epic poems dealt with religious
subjects. However, the greatest Spanish epic, La Araucana by Alonso de
Ercilla y Zúñiga (1533—1594), tells the story of the conquest of Chile.
Religious Works. During the Renaissance, religion in Spain focused
increasingly on the inner life of the spirit. Religious reformers such as
TERESA OF ÁVILA helped promote this tend through their writings. Teresa,
a Carmelite nun, became the most important writer of spiritual literature in Renaissance Spain. Her autobiographical Book of Her Life, written
in the 1560s, described her own spiritual journey. In Interior Castle
(1588), she analyzed the different forms of religious experience.
Another religious reformer who played a role in literature was Juan de
Yepes, also known as St. John of the Cross. His superb mystical* poetry
used erotic images to describe intense religious experience. He also
wrote commentaries explaining the theology* behind his poems.
One major form of religious writing in Spain was the sermon. In
Spain, as in the rest of Europe, sermons provided an important link
between the “high” culture of the Latin-speaking elite* and the popular
culture of the masses. The sermons people heard each Sunday focused
on moral, theological, and political themes. Their authors drew on a
variety of sources, including the Bible, humanist writings, traditional
tales, and medieval bestiaries (books about animals whose behavior
offered moral lessons). A few of the many sermons delivered during this
period became available in either manuscript or print form for study.
Fiction. During the 1500s, many types of fiction appeared in Spain. In
the first part of the century, romances* in the tradition of chivalry* were
extremely popular. These works combined tales of skill and courage
with scenes of courtly love. They often portrayed knights as models of
Christian virtue. Nevertheless, some preachers disapproved of romances
because of their love scenes.
Pastoral romances told stories about characters living in peaceful,
rural settings. Often echoing Renaissance theories of love, they appealed
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The Moorish Novel
Although Spain drove the last of
the Moors out of its territory in
1492, they remained a presence
in the nation’s literature. A type
of fiction called the Moorish
novel described the relations
among Christian and Islamic
knights and ladies in highly idealized form. The most successful
work of this type was The Civil
Wars of Granada, by Ginés Pérez
de Hita, published in two parts
(1595 and 1619). Viewed as the
first historical novel in Spain, it
later became the basis for The
Alhambra, a collection of stories
and essays written in 1832 by
American author Washington
Irving.
* picaresque refers to a type of fiction
dealing with the adventures of a rogue
or rascal
Edmund
eSpenser, e
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ca. 1552–1599
English poet
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to more sophisticated readers than chivalric romances. The first pastoral
romance in Spanish, Diana (1559) by Jorge de Montemayor, dealt with
the lives and loves of a group of shepherds and shepherdesses. Other
writers, including Gaspar Gil Polo and Miguel de Cervantes, based
romances on Montemayor’s model.
A more realistic form known as the picaresque novel focused on the
adventures of a pícaro (rascal). The earliest known example is The Life of
Lazarillo de Tormes, written by an unknown author in 1554. A later work,
Guzmán de Alfarache (1599–1602) describes the life of a man who has
had a religious conversion. After each episode, the narrator explains
what he learned from his experience.
Spanish Renaissance fiction reached its peak with the novel Don
Quixote by Miguel de Cervantes. Part 1, published in 1605, met with
immediate success. Part 2 appeared ten years later, shortly before the
author’s death. Widely hailed as the world’s first modern novel, it tells
the story of a minor nobleman who sets out as a wandering knight to
right the wrongs of the world. The complex treatment of character, plot,
and themes in Don Quixote has had a lasting impact on the development
of the novel. Cervantes’s Exemplary Novellas (1613) also explored new
ground. A collection of experimental short novels, it combines elements
from romances, the picaresque* novel, and Italian fiction, told from various points of view.
Drama, History, and Other Forms. Spanish drama developed slowly during the Renaissance. The first significant drama of the period,
Celestina by Fernando de Rojas, appeared in 1499. However, it was not
written for the stage, but rather as a novel in dialogue form. Toward the
end of the 1500s Spanish writers began to experiment with plays intended for the theater. By the 1600s, playwrights such as Lope Félix de VEGA
CARPIO had established drama as a lively art form in Spain.
Another popular prose form in Spain was history. Several Spanish historians recorded the events surrounding their country’s conquests in the
AMERICAS. They based their works on various ancient and medieval traditions. In the early 1500s some Spanish authors produced works that
mixed different forms of writing, including information, advice, and fiction. Antonio de Guevara’s Dial of Princes; or, Golden Book of the Emperor
Marcus Aurelius (1529) combines fictional letters by the Roman emperor
with fables and other lore. Guevara’s Familiar Epistles, written about ten
years later, contains fictional letters along with advice, sermons, and
short novels. (See also Biography and Autobiography; Conversos;
Drama, Spanish; History, Writing of; Humanism; Inquisition;
Literature; Pastoral; Poetry; Religious Literature; Spain.)
B
orn a commoner in London, Edmund Spenser became both a gentleman and the leading English poet of his day. Scholars view him
as one of four authors whose work forms the foundation of English literature, along with medieval* author Geoffrey Chaucer, William
SHAKESPEARE, and John MILTON. Spenser produced memorable and dis-
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* medieval referring to the Middle
Ages, a period that began around A.D.
400 and ended around 1400 in Italy
and 1500 in the rest of Europe
* humanist referring to a Renaissance
cultural movement promoting the study
of the humanities (the languages,
literature, and history of ancient Greece
and Rome) as a guide to living
* patron supporter or financial
sponsor of an artist or writer
* pastoral relating to the countryside;
often used to draw a contrast between
the innocence and serenity of rural life
and the corruption and extravagance of
court life
* woodcut print made from a block of
wood with an image carved into it
* epic long poem about the
adventures of a hero
* allegory literary or artistic device in
which characters, events, and settings
represent abstract qualities, and in
which the author intends a different
meaning to be read beneath the surface
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tinctive verse in every major form and invented a variety of new verse
and stanza forms. He also developed the idea of poetry as a noble calling, which inspired many later writers.
Spenser’s Life. Scholars know little about Spenser’s early life. Some
evidence indicates that his father was a poor cloth maker. As a boy
Spenser attended the Merchant Taylors’ School, which promoted the
humanist* ideals of scholarship and public service. After receiving his
bachelor’s and master’s degrees from Cambridge University, Spenser
became secretary to Dr. John Young, the bishop of Rochester. He later
entered the service of the earl of Leicester, who became his patron* and
introduced him to several other poets. In 1579 Spenser married
Machabyas Chylde, who bore him two children.
A year later Spenser became private secretary to Lord Grey of Wilton,
the new lord deputy of IRELAND, then a colonial possession of England.
Spenser moved with Lord Grey to Ireland and lived there for the rest of
his life. He did, however, return to England several times to deliver messages to the queen and to oversee the publication of his books. In the
late 1580s Spenser acquired Kilcolman Castle in Ireland, along with
3,000 acres of surrounding land.
In 1594 Spenser, whose first wife had died, married Elizabeth Boyle.
A year later he lost his estate when an uprising broke out in Ireland and
rebels looted and burned Kilcolman. In December 1598 Spenser made
his last trip to England, where he died the following month. Many of
England’s noted poets attended his funeral, held in London’s
Westminster Abbey, and the queen, ELIZABETH I, ordered a memorial for
him (although none was ever actually built).
Spenser’s Works. Spenser’s first major work, The Shepheardes Calender,
appeared in 1579. The book contains a dozen poems in the pastoral*
style, one for each month of the year. The 12 sections tell the story of
Colin Clout, a lovesick shepherd-poet who represents the author. This
character later reappeared in The Faerie Queene and in a minor work
called Colin Clout’s Come Home Againe. Each verse begins with a woodcut* illustration and a brief summary of its content and ends with a
motto, followed by scholarly notes. These notes, together with an introduction in which the poet praises his work, make the entire collection
look like an edited classic. He dedicated The Shepheardes Calender to his
friend, the poet Philip SIDNEY.
In 1590 Spenser gained literary fame for his publication of The Faerie
Queene, an epic* about the growth of the English nation. Spenser did not
deal directly with the military and political struggles of his time in this
work, but instead created a lengthy allegory* set in a mythical
Faeryland. Each section of the poem follows the adventures of a wandering knight or knights who represent a particular virtue, such as holiness, justice, or purity. These knights battle fantastic creatures that stand
for various vices. Spenser links these tales together through the character of the legendary King Arthur. Arthur appears in this work not as
England’s national hero but as a youthful wanderer on a quest to find
Gloriana, the queen of the fairies, who has appeared to him in a dream.
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* romance adventure story of the
Middle Ages, the forerunner of the
modern novel
* sonnet poem of 14 lines with a fixed
pattern of meter and rhyme
* stanza section of a poem;
specifically, a grouping of lines into a
recurring pattern determined by meter
or rhyme scheme
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* medieval referring to the Middle
Ages, a period that began around A.D.
400 and ended around 1400 in Italy
and 1500 in the rest of Europe
* elite
privileged group; upper class
* Holy Roman Emperor ruler of the
Holy Roman Empire, a political body in
central Europe composed of several
states that existed until 1806
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The Faerie Queene blends together many literary forms, including folklore, romance*, and political theory.
Throughout the 1590s Spenser produced a variety of shorter poems.
He described his Complaints, published in 1591, as “sundrie [assorted]
small poemes of the worlds vanitie.” His next collection, Amoretti and
Epithalamion, is a series of sonnets* celebrating his courtship of and marriage to Elizabeth Boyle. He later produced another “marriage poem,”
entitled Prothalamion, in honor of the weddings of four English nobles.
Spenser’s works influenced many generations of poets. The nine-line
stanza* he created for The Faerie Queene, for example, was copied by several major English poets, including John Keats and Alfred, Lord
Tennyson. Spenser’s portraits of feminine experience strongly influenced the late-Renaissance poet John MILTON in his own portrayals of
female characters, such as Eve in the epic Paradise Lost. For more than
two centuries, Spenser’s most original creation—his mythical
Faeryland—became English literature’s chief symbol for the poetic imagination. For authors of the Renaissance and later periods, Spenser
became a model of the poet as a spokesman for his culture’s lasting values. (See also English Language and Literature; Pastoral; Poetry;
Poetry, English.)
D
uring the Renaissance, people of all social classes engaged in
sports, many of which had medieval* origins. Some of these
sports, such as tournament jousting, are no longer common. However,
Renaissance Europeans also played tennis and a variety of ball games
that were much like modern football or soccer.
Jousting tournaments were mock battles in which mounted warriors
tried to knock each other from their horses using long lances. Originally
a pastime of medieval knights and lords, they remained popular among
Renaissance nobles. Courtiers also practiced other military sports,
including archery, swordplay, and horse racing.
One of the most popular sports among the upper classes of the
Renaissance was tennis. This game originated in medieval France, and
as it spread across Europe, regional variations developed. In 1555 a
monk standardized the sport by setting forth rules and a scoring system.
Another sport of the elite* was golf, an ancient Scottish game revived by
James VI of Scotland. Although elite men sometimes competed against
members of the lower classes, Baldassare CASTIGLIONE advised in The Book
of the Courtier that they do so only when they were certain to win. He
declared that “it is too sad and shocking, and quite undignified, when a
gentleman is seen to be beaten by a peasant.”
The sports played among the elite varied little throughout Europe.
Monarchs set the tone for sport, and royalty from different countries
sometimes met to compete. For example, in 1523 HENRY VIII of England
joined Holy Roman Emperor* CHARLES V in a doubles match of tennis
against the princes of Orange and Brandenburg. Few noble women
engaged in sports during the Renaissance. Though MARY STUART, the
mother of James VI, enjoyed golf, sports were generally seen as an activ-
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Renaissance Europeans played a variety of
ball sports similar to modern football and
soccer. This wall painting by Jan van der
Straet, dating from 1555, shows ball players in a public square in Florence.
* humanist Renaissance expert in the
humanities (the languages, literature,
history, and speech and writing
techniques of ancient Greece and
Rome)
110
ity for men. Castiglione wrote that a court lady’s role in sports was to
stand by and cheer for her man.
The sports of the lower classes varied by region. In France, men
played games such as la soule, a ball game in which opposing teams tried
to drive a ball forward and past a goalpost with the foot, the hand, or a
stick. The English game of football, or soccer, may have been based on
la soule—although a popular myth claimed that the game had originated in the 1000s when Englishmen kicked around the severed head of a
Danish foe. Another English game, stool ball, is said to have begun
among milkmaids who tried to knock over their milking stools by
throwing balls at them. By the Renaissance, stool ball was associated
with courtship and the Easter season. It later developed into the modern games of cricket and rounders. In Italy, the Easter season brought
games to public squares throughout the country, where noblemen
kicked and hurled a leather ball filled with animal hair while spectators
cheered.
Many humanists* of the early Renaissance regarded athletic ability as
a necessary skill for an educated man to have. They approved of any
sport that had been practiced in ancient Greece, such as swimming, running, or wrestling. However, athletic events also had their critics.
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Authorities worried about the problems that accompanied sports, such
as violence, gambling, and dice games. Some people considered sports
“devilish pastimes,” especially when people played them on Sunday.
Various Protestant states or communities banned or strictly limited
sporting activities, considering them signs of the sin of idleness. (See also
Tournaments.)
Strozzi, Alessandra
Macinghi
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Florentine letter writer
Strozzi, Alessandra Macinghi
* plague highly contagious and often
fatal disease that wiped out much of
Europe’s population in the mid-1300s
and reappeared periodically over the
next three centuries; also known as the
Black Death
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lessandra Macinghi Strozzi of Florence wrote an extensive and
unique collection of letters to her sons during the mid-1400s.
These letters provide a firsthand account of the life of a Renaissance
woman, as well as a glimpse of the social and political climate of
Florence during that time.
Born into an upper-class Florentine family, Alessandra received the
basic education common for women of her standing. In 1422 she married a merchant named Matteo Strozzi. After 12 years of marriage and
several children, her husband was exiled to the Italian city of Pesaro for
being a political opponent of the ruling MEDICI family. His family followed him into exile, and soon afterward Matteo and three of the couple’s children died of the plague*. Alessandra returned to Florence a few
months later. She never remarried, and she spent a great deal of her time
trying to arrange good marriages for her children and to establish her
sons in business.
Seventy-three of Alessandra’s letters to her sons in other cities survive
today. A keen observer, Alessandra reported on current political events
and circumstances. She also offered ordinary details such as food prices
and the family’s financial situation. Alessandra’s letters show that she
was a devoted mother, though like most Renaissance mothers, she was
closer to her sons than to her daughters. As one of few large collections
of correspondence written by a woman, these letters provide an intimate look into the life of a Florentine family that few other sources can
offer. (See also Medici, House of; Women.)
T
he Stuart dynasty—a succession of rulers from the same line of
descent—occupied the thrones of Scotland and England during the
Renaissance. Its turbulent history included civil wars, international
intrigues, religious controversies, and the death by violence of six Stuart
monarchs.
The family originated in Scotland as the Stewarts, who rose to power
after half a century of Scottish civil war. The man who became King
Robert II of Scotland in 1371 was the founder of the dynasty. Although
some disputed his claim to the throne, many of his 21 children became
nobles or married into noble families. By the time Robert’s son was
crowned King James I of Scotland in 1406, the dynasty’s hold on the
throne was secure. Ruling Scotland was, however, a dangerous occupation. James I was murdered, the next three kings (all Jameses) died in
battle; and two Stuart monarchs were executed for treason.
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Artist Paul van Somer created this portrait
of the man who ruled Scotland as James VI
and England as James I. The son of the
Scottish queen Mary Stuart, James
became the first Stuart monarch of
England in 1603.
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James IV
ruled Scotland 1488–1513
James V
ruled Scotland 1513–1542
Mary Stuart
ruled Scotland 1542–1587
James VI
ruled Scotland 1587–1625, ruled
England 1603–1625 as James I
Charles I
ruled Scotland and England
1625–1649
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The fortunes of Scotland and England were joined in 1503 when
James IV of Scotland wed the daughter of King HENRY VII of England.
The marriage was designed to seal a peace treaty between the two kingdoms. For a hundred years the Stuarts (as they now spelled their name)
continued to rule their northern kingdom. Scotland was far smaller
than England in both size and population, and its political and economic systems were less developed than those of England. Despite the
peace treaty, the Scots felt threatened by their larger and more powerful
neighbor to the south. To protect their country from England, the
Stuarts built relationships with other nations by marrying into
European ruling families. They also formed military alliances with
France. As a result, in 1513 and 1542 Scotland became involved in conflicts between France and England, and it launched failed attacks on
northern England.
These disasters forced Scots to consider the long-term future of their
country. Some saw Scotland as a province of England, others as a colony
of France. This difference turned into a religious divide. England
became officially Protestant in 1559, and the Scots who favored England
also became Protestants. But although Scotland adopted Protestantism
as the official religion in 1560, those who sided with France—including
the Stuarts—remained Roman Catholic.
Meanwhile, the English throne passed to HENRY VIII (ruled
1509–1547) and eventually to Henry’s daughter, ELIZABETH I (ruled
1558–1603). During Elizabeth’s reign, MARY STUART inherited the
Scottish throne. Mary spent many years in France before returning to
Scotland to rule in 1561. But six years later her controversial actions led
to an uprising and the loss of her throne. She fled to England, where her
cousin Elizabeth imprisoned her and in 1587 authorized her execution.
Elizabeth later died childless. The closest heir was James VI of Scotland,
Mary Stuart’s son. While remaining king of Scotland, he became JAMES I
of England in 1603.
James’s son, CHARLES I, believed that it was his god-given right as king
to rule with absolute authority, without regard to Parliament. He was
also determined to reverse some aspects of the PROTESTANT REFORMATION
in England. These policies plunged the kingdoms into civil war and led
to Charles’s trial and execution. The Scots, however, crowned his son
Charles II as their king in 1651. Nine years later the monarchy and the
Stuart dynasty were restored in England when Charles II came to the
English throne. Charles died without an heir, and his brother became
King James II.
A Catholic, James wanted to change England’s constitution to guarantee civil and religious rights for Catholics. This policy alarmed the
majority of the English, who wanted a Protestant king and kingdom.
William of Orange, a Protestant ruler from Europe, was James’s nephew
and son-in-law, which gave him a claim on the throne. After a son was
born to the elderly James in 1688, William arrived in England with an
army to protect that claim. James fled, and William and his wife, Mary,
became monarchs. For 20 years, James and later his son and his grandson (known respectively as the Old Pretender and the Young Pretender)
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tried to reclaim the thrones of England and Scotland. Despite support in
the Scottish Highlands and parts of Ireland, and encouragement from
France and other enemies of England, they failed, and the Stuart
dynasty came to an end. (See also Scotland.)
I
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Turkish sultan
Süleyman I
* Ottoman Turks Turkish followers of
Islam who founded the Ottoman
Empire in the 1300s; the empire
eventually included large areas of
eastern Europe, the Middle East, and
northern Africa
* Holy Roman Empire political body
in central Europe composed of several
states; existed until 1806
* Protestant Reformation religious
movement that began in the 1500s as a
protest against certain practices of the
Roman Catholic Church and eventually
led to the establishment of a variety of
Protestant churches
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K
nown as “the Magnificent” and “the lawgiver,” Süleyman I was one
of the most famous rulers of the Ottoman Turks*. Through military
victories, he greatly expanded the boundaries of the Ottoman Empire.
He also waged a jihad (holy war) in Europe at a time when the Holy
Roman Empire* under the HABSBURG DYNASTY was expanding rapidly and
battling the spread of Protestantism.
Süleyman I, the son of Selim I, took power in 1520. During the early
years of his reign, he defeated the armies of Louis II of HUNGARY in the
battle of Mohács (1526). His numerous military expeditions into that
country led to the conquest of central Hungary and control over
Transylvania in present-day Romania. After the Ottomans took the
Mediterranean island of Rhodes in 1522, the Turkish fleet led by the
famous pirate Barbarossa (Khayr ad-Din) conducted constant raids on
ships and coastal areas.
Süleyman’s military successes had a substantial impact on the
Protestant Reformation* in Germany. In 1536 Süleyman formed an
alliance with the French king FRANCIS I against the Habsburg emperor
CHARLES V. Protestant princes in Germany took advantage of Charles’s
military engagements with Süleyman and the French to advance their
goal of establishing the Lutheran church in Germany.
Süleyman’s reputation as a lawgiver is based on laws to eliminate corruption and restore the basic principles of Ottoman legislation handed
down by MEHMED II in the 1400s. Süleyman’s greatest achievement was
in maintaining and enlarging the Islamic empire. After his death, however, internal and external forces worked to undermine the stability and
power of the Ottoman rulers, leading to a period of decline. (See also
Holy Roman Empire; Ottoman Empire; Piracy.)
T
he modern nation of Switzerland began to take shape during the
Renaissance. In 1386 several independent cantons (states) came
together to form the Swiss Confederation. By 1513 the confederation
included 13 cantons, along with allies and subject territories. During the
late 1400s and 1500s Switzerland fought wars with Burgundy and the
HABSBURG DYNASTY. The confederation also participated in the WARS OF
ITALY (1494–1559), which brought it Italian-speaking territories and the
attention of Europe. The Swiss War of 1499 began the process of
Switzerland’s separation from the Holy Roman Empire, which was not
completed until 1648.
During this period Europeans began to take notice of Switzerland.
The country appeared on maps as a distinct geographical region with
the ancient Roman names of Helvetia and Rhaetia. Church COUNCILS
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* mercenary
hired soldier
* humanism referring to a Renaissance
cultural movement promoting the study
of the humanities (the languages,
literature, and history of ancient Greece
and Rome) as a guide to living
* Protestant Reformation religious
movement that began in the 1500s as a
protest against certain practices of the
Roman Catholic Church and eventually
led to the establishment of a variety of
Protestant churches
* Gothic artistic style marked by bright
colors, elongated proportions, and
intricate detail
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Italian poet and dramatist
Tasso, Torquato
* epic long poem about the
adventures of a hero
* Spanish Inquisition court
established by the Spanish monarchs
that investigated Christians accused of
straying from the official doctrine of the
Roman Catholic Church, particularly
during the period 1480–1530
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held in the Swiss cities of Constance (1414–1418) and BASEL
(1431–1449) brought additional attention to Switzerland. The country
also became known for its mercenaries*, who gained a reputation as
fierce and effective soldiers. Various European observers commented on
the Swiss political systems. The Italian political writer Niccolò
MACHIAVELLI praised Switzerland’s republican government and its soldiers, while French author Jean BODIN used the confederation as an
example of how popular government leads to anarchy.
The influence of humanism* began to be felt in Switzerland in the
late 1400s. Swiss humanists wrote national histories, some praising their
system of government, others criticizing it for overthrowing the power
of nobles. The city of Basel became the center of Swiss humanism in the
1500s thanks to its publishing industry, university, and trade links to
Italy and other centers of Renaissance thought. The great Dutch humanist Desiderius ERASMUS made his home in Basel. After 1520, however, the
Protestant Reformation* brought religious conflict to Switzerland.
Thinkers had to choose between Catholicism and Protestantism, dividing the humanist community. Basel joined the Protestant camp, and
Erasmus left the city.
The areas of Switzerland south of the Alps were much more open to
Renaissance ideas in art than were the alpine regions. Swiss churches
and palaces in the south were decorated in versions of Renaissance style,
while those in the north generally remained faithful to Gothic* design.
Basel was the only city strongly influenced by Italian art. Hans HOLBEIN
the Younger, the famous German Renaissance painter, worked in Basel
for about 12 years. On the whole, though, the artistic ideas of the
Renaissance appear in Switzerland more as features of individual works
than as a widespread movement. (See also Humanism; Protestant
Reformation.)
T
orquato Tasso was the last major poet of the Italian Renaissance. His
artistic style combines intense emotion with a serious moral tone.
In his most famous work, the epic* Jerusalem Delivered, he explored the
themes of love and heroism, providing a rich and complex account of
the tensions between the two. This work made Torquato famous as one
of the greatest poets of his day.
Tasso’s Life. Tasso was born in Sorrento, in southern Italy. His father,
Bernardo, was a court poet in the city of NAPLES, which at the time
belonged to Spain. In 1547 Bernardo Tasso became involved in a resistance movement against the introduction of the Spanish Inquisition*
into Naples. He eventually had to flee the city, along with his son. Tasso
spent the 1550s moving from court to court in central and northern
Italy. In the course of his travels, he acquired an excellent education and
became familiar with the literary culture of Italian courts.
Tasso studied at both the University of Padua and the University of
Bologna, but he never received a degree. Instead he traveled to Ferrara
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* patronage
sponsorship
support or financial
* pastoral relating to the countryside;
often used to draw a contrast between
the innocence and serenity of rural life
and the corruption and extravagance of
court life
* lyric refers to a type of verse that
expresses feelings and thoughts rather
than telling a story
* classical in the tradition of ancient
Greece and Rome
* pagan referring to ancient religions
that worshiped many gods, or more
generally, to any non-Christian religion
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and became a member of the household of Cardinal Luigi d’ESTE. He also
enjoyed the patronage* of the cardinal’s brother, Alfonso II, the duke of
Ferrara. In 1575 Tasso completed the first draft of his epic Jerusalem
Delivered. Before publishing it, he sought comments from five noted critics, hoping that their approval would protect him from later attacks on
its political and religious views. Instead, the critics attacked his work so
vigorously that the strain of defending it caused Tasso to have a nervous
breakdown. He became suspicious of the court and all those around
him. In the summer of 1577 he tried to stab a servant whom he accused
of spying on him. Placed under strict guard for this crime, he managed
to escape and fled south to Sorrento—leaving behind the precious manuscript of his epic.
When Tasso returned to Ferrara in 1579, he could not get his manuscript back. In a fit of anger he publicly attacked Alfonso II and his court.
Tasso was taken to a nearby hospital, declared insane, and imprisoned
for seven years. During this period, he recovered the text of Jerusalem
Delivered and completed the poem, which appeared in 1581. After his
release, Tasso spent the rest of his life wandering restlessly around Italy,
producing various works of poetry and prose. He died in Rome.
Major Works. Like other Renaissance writers, Tasso aimed to master
as many different literary forms as possible. He worked in the pastoral*,
epic, lyric*, tragedy, and a variety of other forms. Tasso’s great pastoral
drama, Aminta (1573), relates the love of Aminta, a young shepherdpoet, for Silvia, a woman who at first rejects his advances. Aminta’s love
leads him into despair and attempted suicide before the two lovers finally unite. Tasso sets his work in an ancient golden age, a common
Renaissance theme. However, his tone clearly shows that this idealized
world is a fantasy as unrealistic as it is beautiful.
Renaissance authors viewed the epic as the highest form of poetry. In
Jerusalem Delivered, Tasso attempted to live up to the classical* ideal that
an epic should both delight and instruct. The poem, set during the period of the First Crusade (1096–1099), presents a contrast between the
ideas of love and honor. In two different episodes, a hero must resist the
temptations of a love that runs counter to his duty. Like other classical
and Renaissance epics, Jerusalem Delivered contains many battle scenes,
and Tasso combined the violent action of the battles with powerful emotional experience. Tasso’s work expresses both the sorrows of war and
the glory of military heroism, both pagan* and Christian.
Aside from these two famous works, Tasso is best known for his lyric
poetry, which focuses on such typical Renaissance themes as love, religion, and the glory of his patrons. He also produced a tragic drama, a
lengthy religious poem about the creation of the world, dialogues on a
variety of topics, and works of literary criticism. These works earned
Tasso a lasting reputation as one of the greatest poets of the Renaissance.
Although his reputation declined during the 1900s, he remains a significant figure in the history of Renaissance literature. (See also Chivalry;
Italian Language and Literature.)
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Taxation and
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* monopoly exclusive right to engage
in a particular type of business
F
inancing the activities of the state was the greatest challenge faced
by Renaissance rulers. Increasing costs, especially those associated
with warfare, forced rulers to find new ways to raise money from their
subjects. Their efforts produced solutions that had a significant impact
on both finance and politics.
Taxation. All rulers raised money through taxes. They taxed merchandise, exports and imports, salaries, property, land, and other items.
In the 1400s northern and central Italian cities had the most sophisticated tax schemes. Many charged a tax called the gabelle on certain
goods and services, wages, and criminal proceedings. A major source of
revenue was the state salt monopoly* called the dogana. Government
control of salt involved both the amount available and the price. During
times of emergency, rulers raised the price of salt and forced citizens to
buy a certain quantity. In 1427 FLORENCE instituted the catasto, a tax
based on wealth.
French citizens demonstrated a greater resistance to paying taxes
than the Italians. The French tended to see taxes as temporary measures
that could be used in emergencies but were not needed in times of
peace. In the late 1300s public pressure led the French king to cancel
taxes temporarily. Such measures decreased revenues. To make up for
the shortage, French monarchs often resorted to debasing the currency
(reducing the amount of precious metal in the coins). In the late 1400s
a land tax called the taille became the major source of revenue. The
French king Louis XI (ruled 1461—1483) raised two-thirds of his government’s income from the taille. Other taxable items included wine
and salt, although in France the salt tax brought in only a fraction of
the money that it did in Italy.
Rulers needed the consent of the people to raise taxes. For this reason, monarchs and representative assemblies often struggled over the
issue of taxation. Even when the public approved taxes, they were not
easy to collect. Many Italian cities employed tax farmers, who received
a fixed fee in exchange for the right to collect taxes. This was helpful in
times of war, when rulers needed money as soon as possible. Tax farming also occurred in France and England. Tax farmers were often
charged with unfair practices, such as collecting more money than citizens owed.
Borrowing and Debt. Taxes rarely covered all of a state’s expenses,
and most governments raised money by borrowing money from the
clergy and from banks. Sometimes public officials forced citizens to lend
money to the state at a fixed rate of interest. Occasionally, governments
offered a higher rate of interest to citizens who agreed to make voluntary loans.
In times of crisis, many citizens avoided loaning money to the state
for fear that it would not be repaid. In such cases public officials often
sought loans from Jews, threatening them with imprisonment or expulsion if they refused to cooperate. In Italy, lending by Jews rose sharply
in the 1400s.
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Repaying large loans was difficult since the amount borrowed was
often far more than a state could collect through taxation. Several states
addressed this problem by consolidating their loans into a single debt,
called a monte (mountain) in Italy. In many places citizens were able to
invest in the state’s debt, buying shares that paid interest and could be
freely sold. In the 1400s almost every prosperous family in Florence had
some of its wealth invested in the public debt.
The funding of public debt was just one of the new financial practices
that evolved during the Renaissance. Over time, these practices led to
the idea of a national budget. In addition, the growing reliance of rulers
on wealthy individuals for revenue created common interests between
the two. This bond was an important condition for the growth of the
modern state. (See also Accounting; Economy and Trade;
Mercantilism; Money and Banking.)
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* medieval referring to the Middle
Ages, a period that began around A.D.
400 and ended around 1400 in Italy
and 1500 in the rest of Europe
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T
he Renaissance period witnessed many advances in the “mechanical arts,” a broad field that covered activities ranging from craft production to the design and operation of machines. However, most new
developments built on earlier advances that had taken place during the
Middle Ages. Traditional methods in such areas as farming, cloth making, and carpentry remained common throughout the Renaissance, and
changes in these fields usually came about gradually.
Agriculture and Water Use. In most regions, agricultural practices
changed little during the Renaissance. One of the most important problems in farming was controlling the water supply to irrigate dry fields or
drain marshy ground. Medieval* techniques involving irrigation canals,
wells, and dams remained in use, but some new methods emerged as
well. English farmers, for example, flooded entire fields periodically to
produce “floating meadows.” This technique protected the fields from
frost and deposited fresh layers of silt (river mud).
In the Netherlands, elaborate techniques existed for draining marshlands. Since the 1000s farmers had built dikes to protect land from the
sea. Construction methods varied from place to place, but the basic dike
had an earth core covered by clay and straw, seaweed, or bundles of
reeds. By the 1500s, engineers in the Netherlands were draining small
lakes to make more land available for farming. The process involved
building an earthen bank around the lake, then cutting a channel
around the bank and pumping the lake water into it. These large projects led to the invention of many new types of pumps and other
drainage devices such as the drainage mill, which operated by wind
power.
In Italy, large-scale projects focused on controlling river flooding, digging canals for transportation, and draining swamps. Engineers built
stone walls, dikes, and various other structures to hold back the floodprone rivers. The canals designed to carry away floodwaters also became
useful for transportation. The ruling Sforza family in Milan built the first
navigable canals in Italy in the late 1400s. Around the same time, engi-
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Brunelleschi’s Dome
The dome of the cathedral of
Santa Maria del Fiore in Florence
is one of the period’s greatest
technical achievements. The
space beneath the dome was
too vast for a traditional wooden
supporting structure, so architect Filippo Brunelleschi distributed the dome’s weight on
several stone ribs that met at the
top of the dome. He built the
dome as a smaller inner shell surrounded by a larger outer shell,
with a stairway between the two
leading to the lantern atop the
dome. The bricks in each shell
were laid in a pattern that
enabled them to support themselves during construction.
* classical in the tradition of ancient
Greece and Rome
* artisan
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skilled worker or craftsperson
neers explored ways to drain the huge, malaria-ridden Pontine Marshes
near Rome. A solution came from artist and scientist LEONARDO DA VINCI,
who suggested reopening an ancient Roman canal and building another canal at a right angle to it to carry away water flowing down the nearby Lepini Mountains. However, work on this project did not begin until
many years after Leonardo’s death. Major drainage projects also took
place in France and England.
Construction. Building techniques in the Renaissance remained
much the same as they had been during the Middle Ages. Building
styles, by contrast, changed substantially as classical* designs became
popular. Renaissance Europe experienced a building boom as the upper
classes demanded spacious, comfortable homes that displayed their
wealth. Construction projects fueled a demand for brick, stone, timber,
gravel, and lime (used in mortar).
Bridge construction required advanced techniques to lay foundations
in riverbeds. One method involved sinking large wicker containers of
rubble in the river to create an island on which stone piers could be
built. Another way to create these islands involved driving columns,
known as piles, into the riverbed to form an underwater enclosure and
filling the enclosure with rubble. In other cases, engineers would sink
the foundations directly into the ground below the riverbed. This
method required diverting or draining the river temporarily, often by
building a watertight enclosure in one area of the river and pumping
out the water.
Crafts. The manufacture of cloth was a basic part of the Renaissance
economy, employing people in a wide range of skilled and unskilled
occupations. Techniques varied based on the kind of fiber used. Making
woolen cloth involved at least ten separate processes, from shearing the
sheep and cleaning the wool to dyeing, stretching, and finishing the
fabric.
Spinning was often hired out to peasant women in what was known
as the putting-out system. During the Renaissance, the use of spinning
wheels replaced hand spinning. The spinning wheel had appeared in
Europe in the 1200s, but early models required two separate actions to
spin the fibers and wind the yarn. A device called the flyer, invented
around 1480, combined these two processes. Another improvement, the
treadle, appeared in the early 1500s. This was a foot pedal that allowed
a seated spinner to turn the wheel with her feet while using her hands
to work the yarn.
Other tasks associated with textile manufacture occurred on a larger
scale. Master weavers and their assistants, working in central locations,
wove the yarn on looms. The fulling process—beating woolen cloth
with a mixture of water and other substances to thicken and strengthen it—usually took place in mills located near fast-flowing rivers.
Waterwheels powered the hammers that beat the cloth.
Aside from cloth, most craft goods in the Renaissance were still produced by hand in the shops of artisans*. Carpenters and smiths made
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farm implements, as well as the tools used by more specialized craft
workers, such as wheelwrights (wheel makers) and coopers (barrel makers). Potters created plates and bowls, while glassmakers produced vases,
windows, drinking glasses, and many other glass items. Glassmaking
was a complex industry, involving many specialized processes that varied from one place to another. The most famous and sought-after glassware came from Venice, and the city’s glassmakers guarded their trade
secrets closely.
Books on the “mechanical arts,” which
ranged from craft making to machine
design, began spreading throughout
Europe in the early 1400s. Many of these
texts featured stunning illustrations. This
image of a mechanical well appeared in
Various and Ingenious Machines, published
in 1588 by Italian engineer Agostino
Ramelli.
Tools and Machines. Instrument making became a specialized craft
during the 1400s. Instrument makers produced various devices to aid in
navigation, such as the quadrant and the cross staff, which helped
sailors establish their position at sea by measuring the location of heavenly objects. Versions of these tools were useful to surveyors and
astronomers as well. Instrument makers also constructed timekeepers,
such as sundials and clocks, as well as tools for military purposes.
Optical instruments, such as the telescope, became important near the
end of the Renaissance period.
The Renaissance brought significant improvements to various types
of machines, including mills, pumps, and cranes. Mills served a variety
of purposes, including grinding grain, making paper, and fulling cloth.
Many of these machines were human- or animal-powered, using either
a horse turning a mill or a human walking on a treadmill. Mills could
also be powered by waterwheels or by wind. The expansion of the mining industry led to improvements in suction pumps, which drew water
out of deep mine shafts. Other inventions in the field of mining included the blast furnace, which used waterwheels to power the huge bellows
that supplied air for the fire, and wheeled vehicles on rails to carry ore.
Some improvements to machines centered on specific parts, such as
gears and screws. Machines that used the screw, such as the lathe (a cutting device), improved significantly during the Renaissance. An old
technology called the screw press found new functions during this period in stamping coins and, even more importantly, in printing books.
Writings on Mechanical Arts. Starting in the early 1400s, books on
crafts and mechanical arts spread throughout Europe. Their subjects
included machines, engineering, architecture, military technology,
painting, sculpture, and navigation. Most of these texts were not primarily how-to manuals on mechanical arts. Instead, they served to feed
the popular interest in skilled craftwork and how it was produced. They
also represented the power and glory of the princes who sponsored the
works. The texts reflected a pride in fine craftsmanship and helped to
raise the status of the mechanical arts in the eyes of the public.
Some scholars have suggested that the artisans of the Renaissance
made a significant contribution to the development of modern science.
At the outset of the Renaissance, a sharp distinction existed between the
mechanical arts and natural science, a form of philosophy. By the 1600s,
however, scientists were relying heavily on physical instruments to test
their theories about the natural world. As a result, an alliance between
science and technology emerged that has lasted for centuries. (See also
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Agriculture; Artisans; Clocks; Fortifications; Industry;
Mining and Metallurgy; Printing and Publishing; Science;
Scientific Instruments; Transportation and Communication;
Warfare.)
Ávila
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1515–1582
Spanish mystical writer
* mystic believer in the idea of a
direct, personal union with the divine
* allegory literary or artistic device in
which characters, events, and settings
represent abstract qualities and in
which the author intends a different
meaning to be read beneath the surface
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eresa of Ávila was a noted mystic* religious reformer of the 1500s.
Born Teresa Sánchez in the city of Ávila in central Spain, she
received no formal education, although she read a great deal as a child.
In 1535 Teresa entered the religious order of Our Lady of Mount Carmel
(known as the Carmelites). Around age 40 Teresa began to hear voices
and see visions. At first the Carmelite priests were concerned about
these experiences, but in time they came to agree with her view of them
as evidence of a connection with God.
In 1562 Teresa founded a small convent called Saint Joseph’s of Ávila.
There she introduced such reforms as a simple lifestyle, devotion to
inward prayer, and the rejection of racial prejudice. In 1567 she met the
Carmelite priest who would later become St. John of the Cross. A great
poet and mystic, he helped Teresa spread her religious reforms to other
Carmelite institutions. By the time of her death in 1582, Teresa had
founded 17 convents. Forty years later the Catholic Church declared her
a saint. In 1970 she became the first woman to receive the title of Doctor
of the Church, an honor granted to a select group of religious writers.
Scholars have viewed Teresa both as a model of womanly obedience
and as a feminist who challenged the exclusion of women from positions of power in the church. Her three most famous works are her autobiography, entitled Book of Her Life; an allegory* called The Interior
Castle; and The Way of Perfection, a guidebook to mental prayer. This text
offered a strong defense of women’s right to pursue a mystical path. (See
also Religious Literature.)
F
ew permanent theaters existed in Europe during the Middle Ages.
Even in the Renaissance, many dramatic performances took place in
temporary theaters set up in inns, public buildings, or private houses.
Often, troupes of traveling actors moved from town to town presenting
their work in a variety of spaces. However, by the 1500s permanent theaters with stages, dressing rooms for the actors, and seating for the audience began to appear in Italy, Spain, and England.
Temporary Theaters. Many Renaissance theaters could be set up for
a particular occasion and then taken apart and stored until the next
event. Temporary theaters in royal courts tended to be more elaborate
than those in inns and town halls. The Great Hall at Whitehall Palace
near London was equipped with moveable bleacher-like seats and possibly a stage. Around 1620 the English architect Inigo JONES built a new
Banqueting House at Whitehall. It included moveable theater equipment such as a broad stage, seven rows of stepped seating, and a
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The Teatro Olimpico in Vicenza, Italy, is
one of the few surviving Renaissance theaters. Designed by Andrea Palladio in the
1500s, the structure features columns and
statues in a classical style.
gallery—a raised seating area projecting over the main floor. The queen’s
palace in Somerset House also featured a portable theater setup, known
as a “frame.”
In England, Oxford and Cambridge colleges held performances of
plays in their halls. A theater built in 1605 for the hall at Christ Church,
Oxford, had scenes designed by Inigo Jones and an auditorium inspired
by Sebastiano Serlio, an Italian architect. Serlio’s designs adapted many
of the elements of ancient Roman theaters to fit them into a Renaissance
courtyard or hall.
* classical in the tradition of ancient
Greece and Rome
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Italy and Spain. Many of the ruling families of Italy, such as the
dukes of FERRARA, set up temporary theaters at their palaces. Italian academies (informal groups of scholars) also staged plays in their halls. By
the late 1500s permanent theaters began to appear in towns such as
Vicenza, Sabbioneta, Piacenza, and Parma. In 1588 the Italian architects
Andrea PALLADIO and Vincenzo Scamozzi built a theater for an academy
in Vicenza. Scamozzi also built the Teatro Olimpico at Sabbioneta
between 1588 and 1590. This theater featured a semicircular auditorium
with stepped seating and classical* columns and statues. Part of this
building still stands today.
Charitable organizations built some of the most important theaters in
Spain as a way to raise funds for hospitals. Two major theaters in
MADRID, the Corral de la Cruz and the Corral del Principe, began as simple courtyard auditoriums in the late 1570s and early 1580s. Over a period of decades, they developed into complex playhouses with roofs and
galleries, including a special screened gallery where women sat apart
from men. Theaters of the early 1600s, such as the Coliseo in SEVILLE, feature designs that blend different styles of architecture.
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England. The first public theaters in England opened up around
London in the mid- to late-1500s. The Red Lion (1567) consisted of a set
of galleries erected in a yard behind a farmhouse. The galleries surrounded a stage with a tall structure in the center that may have served
as a dressing room and an upper acting area. Nine years later, the owner
of the Red Lion opened another establishment—known as the
Theater—north of the city, with galleries on three levels, a raised stage,
and formal entrance doors for the actors. This design, inspired by
ancient Roman theaters, became the model for English playhouses.
Other important London theaters included the Curtain, built near
the Theater, and the Rose, located on the south side of the Thames
River. A 14-sided timber-frame structure, the Rose measured 74 feet
across. The stage was open to the sky, but a thatch roof protected the
galleries. In 1592 Philip Henslowe, the owner of the Rose, pulled down
its stage and rebuilt it a few feet farther back, changing the theater’s outline to a D-shape with the stage at the flat end. He also added a roof over
the stage, supported by columns at the corners. The Rose is no longer
standing, but in 1989 workers unearthed its remains, revealing details of
its design.
In 1599 the owners of the Theater dismantled their building and took
it across the river to a site near the Rose. There they rebuilt it and
renamed it the Globe. This theater would become famous as the place
where many of William SHAKESPEARE’S plays first appeared on stage. Both
the galleries and the stage of the Globe had thatched roofs. In 1613 one
of these roofs caught fire and the Globe burned down. It was promptly
rebuilt, this time with a tile roof.
Shortly after the new Globe opened, the actor Edward Alleyn
financed a new theater north of London, the Fortune. Like the rebuilt
Globe, the Fortune featured a tile roof. Nevertheless, in 1621 the
Fortune burned down, and the owners replaced it with a brick theater,
probably round in shape.
In addition to the public theaters, London also developed private
playhouses. Fully enclosed and lit by candles, these theaters were smaller than the public ones and charged more for seating. Unlike the public
houses, which allowed some spectators to stand in the open space in
front of the stage, private theaters provided seating for all and served a
more exclusive audience. London’s most important private theater, the
Blackfriars, had a U-shaped auditorium of two or three galleries, a balcony, and a raised stage with a trap door. In 1609 it became the winter
home of the King’s Men, Shakespeare’s acting company. (See also
Architecture; Drama; Drama, English; Drama, French; Drama,
Spanish.)
Theology
See Religious Thought.
Theology
[PN:ART C-White Text tag is doctitle]
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* Holy Roman Emperor ruler of the
Holy Roman Empire, a political body in
central Europe composed of several
states that existed until 1806
* prince Renaissance term for the ruler
of an independent state
* sovereignty
authority
supreme power or
T
he Thirty Years’ War (1618–1648) was an extended conflict between
the Holy Roman Emperor* and the princes* of individual territories
within the empire. It began as a struggle over the crown of BOHEMIA but
eventually developed into a political and religious war that raged over
much of central Europe and involved most of the major powers of
Europe. The war also marked the political end of the Renaissance.
Progress of the War. The central issue of the war was sovereignty*.
Who had ultimate authority in the states that made up the Holy Roman
Empire—the emperor or the prince of each state? The war had its roots
in a religious and political crisis in Bohemia, where an angry mob of
Protestant nobles tossed two ministers of the Catholic King Ferdinand
out of Prague Castle. From there, the conflict gradually expanded, playing itself out in several stages. The first phase, which ended in 1621, saw
the Protestant nobles defeated. During the next two phases, which lasted until 1629, the Holy Roman Emperor strengthened his control over
the German states.
From 1629 to 1632 the Swedish King Gustavus Adolphus turned the
tide in favor of the Protestants. However, his death at the battle of
Lützen in 1632 caused Sweden’s German allies to abandon the fight. A
brief peace was signed at Prague in 1635, but soon after the French
entered the conflict. The French minister Cardinal Richelieu hoped to
use the war to attack and weaken his Spanish and Austrian enemies. The
final phase of the war lasted until 1648, by which time exhaustion had
set in and everyone wanted to end the fighting.
Several factors drove the participants of the war, including religious
differences, the rights of sovereign states, and defense of traditional systems. In addition, many international interests became entangled in the
war. This combination of factors meant that victory in one area of the
war might have unexpected consequences in another. As a result, military victories did not prove decisive. The conflict was finally settled at
the negotiating table, not on the battlefield. The Peace of Westphalia
ended the Thirty Years’ War in 1648.
Aftermath of the War. The Thirty Years’ War was bitterly fought and
terribly destructive. Its impact left deep and lasting scars on both political leaders and the public. A strong feeling that no clear winner had
emerged from this devastating event helped promote a more peaceful
mood after the war.
Several trends that had begun in the 1500s accelerated as a result of
the Thirty Years’ War. The conflict between the emperor and the rulers
of individual states helped define the nature of sovereign state authority. At first the war strengthened ties between church and state, but the
long period of indecisive warfare ultimately weakened those links. In
addition, the war marked the end of a long period of economic expansion and prosperity. Finally, the war was concluded by a peace treaty
that set the model for international relations in the post-Renaissance
era. Because of these developments, many historians regard 1648 as a
dividing line that marks the beginning of modern Europe. (See also Holy
Roman Empire; Palatinate; Saxony.)
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1518–1594
Venetian painter
* narrative
storytelling
* apprentice person bound by legal
agreement to work for another for a
specified period of time in return for
instruction in a trade or craft
* confraternity religious and social
organization of Roman Catholics who
were not members of the clergy
* patronage
sponsorship
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support or financial
ne of the major Venetian artists of the Italian Renaissance,
Tintoretto was known for his bold brushwork, startling lighting
effects, and dramatic treatment of narrative* scenes. His works cover a
range of subjects, with particular emphasis on biblical, mythological,
and historical themes. Tintoretto had great admiration for both TITIAN
and MICHELANGELO—Titian for his use of color and Michelangelo for his
skill in drawing. Tintoretto often used Michelangelo’s work as models
for his own drawing and adapted these models in his compositions.
Born Jacopo Robusti in Venice, Tintoretto got his name (which
means “little dyer”) from his father’s occupation as a cloth dyer.
Information about the artist’s training is sketchy, but according to one
tradition Tintoretto served briefly as an apprentice* to Titian. His earliest paintings suggest the influence of a number of other Italian painters,
including Bonifazio de’ Pitati. Whatever his training, by 1539,
Tintoretto was working as an independent artist.
In 1548 Tintoretto attracted much attention with his painting for the
meeting hall of the Scuola Grande di San Marco (St. Mark), an important confraternity* in his native Venice. The work, St. Mark Rescuing a
Slave, caused a sensation and was initially rejected by the members of
the organization. It featured a dynamic use of space and human figures
that were shorter than normal, which gave the illusion of depth.
Tintoretto’s style differed from traditional Venetian mural painting,
which had a flat, one-dimensional quality. The work also caused controversy because it had been painted so quickly, with rapid brushwork
that made it seem unfinished to many people. Between 1562 and 1566
Tintoretto produced three more paintings of scenes from the life of St.
Mark, the patron saint of Venice, for the Scuola di San Marco.
Although many continued to find fault with Tintoretto, he enjoyed
considerable success. In 1564 the artist was hired to create a painting for
the ceiling of a meeting room in the Scuola Grande di San Rocco.
Instead of submitting a small model for approval, the customary procedure, Tintoretto presented the finished painting as a gift. While criticized for not following the usual practices, Tintoretto continued to
create other pieces for the room. Among these is a huge Crucifixion, generally considered his grandest painting. Tintoretto became a member of
the Scuola di San Rocco and arranged to continue his decorative work.
In 1575–1576, he painted the central scene on the ceiling of the organization’s large meeting hall, as well as a series of painting on the walls
below that illustrate scenes from the life of Christ (1579–1581).
Tintoretto’s main patronage* came from within Venice. In addition to
his work for San Marco and San Rocco, he played a major role in the
redecoration of Venice’s Ducal Palace and worked extensively for the
city’s lesser confraternities. For these groups he painted a number of versions of the Last Supper of Christ, which featured figures and scenes in a
humble style. Tintoretto’s paintings of the Last Supper differ considerably in this respect from those of Paolo VERONESE, another Venetian artist
of the time. Various assistants contributed to Tintoretto’s later works. His
son Domenico, his chief assistant, continued to run the family workshop after Tintoretto’s death. (See also Art in Italy; Confraternities.)
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Italian painter
* patron sponsor or financial
supporter of an artist or writer
* apprentice person bound by legal
agreement to work for another for a
specified period of time in return for
instruction in a trade or craft
* fresco
wall
mural painted on a plaster
* plague highly contagious and often
fatal disease that wiped out much of
Europe’s population in the mid-1300s
and reappeared periodically over the
next three centuries; also known as the
Black Death
* altarpiece work of art that decorates
the altar of a church
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T
iziano Vecellio, called Titian, was the leading Venetian painter of
the 1500s. He achieved great fame and success in his lifetime, serving as the official painter of VENICE and accepting commissions from
powerful patrons* throughout Italy and Europe. Titian also transformed
the art of oil painting with new techniques that changed the way that
Renaissance artists used paints.
Artistic Training. Much of what is known about Titian’s life comes
from Lodovico Dolce’s Dialogue on Painting (1557). According to Dolce,
Titian was born into a prominent family in a small town in northern
Italy and moved to Venice at the age of nine. The boy served as apprentice* to a local artist, who recognized Titian’s extraordinary talent and
sent him to the workshop of Gentile BELLINI. After studying briefly with
Gentile’s brother, Giovanni, Titian became an assistant to GIORGIONE, a
Venetian artist known for experimenting with techniques.
From Giorgione, Titian learned a new method of handling oil paints.
Venetian artists had begun to work on canvas because the high humidity of the island city damaged fresco* paintings. Accordingly, Giorgione
developed his technique to suit the canvas surface. Before, oil paints had
been applied in the form of glazes that allowed the underlying layers to
show through. This technique created a luminous effect. Giorgione,
however, began mixing additional pigment into his paints, making
them more densely colored. Artists who used this technique could cover
earlier work or scrape off paint. Painting became looser and less polished—but more vibrant and personal.
In 1508 Titian assisted Giorgione on a major assignment, decorating
a warehouse in Venice’s commercial center. Dolce wrote that the young
Titian received more praise than the master painter for this project.
Titian’s rise to fame had begun.
Early Career. In 1510 Titan moved to the Italian city of Padua, perhaps to escape an outbreak of plague*. There he produced his first largescale designs, three murals representing the life and works of St.
Anthony, the city’s patron saint. Returning to Venice, Titian offered to
paint one of the halls in the ducal palace. Through this work he hoped
to be chosen to succeed Giovanni Bellini as the official state painter. In
1516 Bellini died, and Titian won the position.
Meanwhile, Titian painted a number of significant landscapes, continuing a Venetian tradition of depicting outdoor scenes. In these works
he often used forms from nature in a symbolic manner. In Sacred and
Profane Love (1514), for example, a hilly, wooded landscape on one side
of the picture (representing earthly concerns) is contrasted with a spacious, open scene on the other (representing the spiritual world). Titian
also created altarpieces*, including the massive Assumption of the Virgin
(1518) in the church of Santa Maria Gloriosa dei Frari in Venice. More
than 22 feet high, it fills the space above the high altar. Another remarkable altarpiece, The Martyrdom of St. Peter Martyr (completed 1530,
destroyed by fire 1867), showed angels descending in a blaze of glory to
the murdered saint, while a terrified companion flees.
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Many of Titian’s works used scenes from
nature in a symbolic manner. In Sacred
and Profane Love, shown here, the hilly,
wooded landscape at left represents earthly concerns, while the spacious, open
scene on the right represents the spiritual
world.
* naturalistic realistic, showing the
world as it is without idealization
* classical in the tradition of ancient
Greece and Rome
* antiquity era of the ancient
Mediterranean cultures of Greece and
Rome, ending around A.D. 400
* Holy Roman Emperor ruler of the
Holy Roman Empire, a political body in
central Europe that was composed of
several states that existed until 1806
See color
plate 7,
vol. 1
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Having achieved fame in Venice, Titian went on to establish a reputation in the rest of Italy. At the courts of various ruling families, such as
the ESTE in Ferrara and the GONZAGA in Mantua, he produced portraits of
princes with their wives and mistresses. Painted in a naturalistic* style,
the works make elements such as flesh, fur, cloth, and armor seem real.
Like many Renaissance artists, Titian became interested in classical*
culture and sought to revive it. Often, he tried to recreate works from
antiquity* by following descriptions in ancient texts. Like other artists
of the time, he also sought to surpass the accomplishments of the great
Greek and Roman artists. Titian painted a series of mythological scenes,
including Bacchus and Ariadne (1523), for Alfonso d’Este.
Later Works. In the 1530s Titian began to work for prominent
patrons outside Italy. He painted several portraits of the Holy Roman
Emperor* CHARLES V, receiving in return substantial sums of money as
well as the title “Count Palatine and Knight of the Golden Spur.” In one
portrait Titian showed the emperor after an important victory, recording every detail of the triumphant leader’s armor and horse. Painted in
the style of certain classical portraits, the picture became a model for
later artists.
Titian also worked for Charles’s son, PHILIP II, king of Spain and ruler of
the Netherlands. He painted a portrait of Philip around 1550. Then he
sent Philip a series of paintings that he called poesie, celebrations of the
nude female body in mythological scenes. Titian expanded Philip’s understanding of Renaissance art and benefited from the king’s patronage.
With his titles, privileges, and wealth, Titian enjoyed very high status
for an artist. He continued to run a family workshop in Venice with his
son Orazio, but as time passed he distanced himself from the world in
which most artists moved. He purchased a grand house on the northern
edge of Venice and took for his motto the Latin phrase Natura Potentior
Ars (“art more powerful than nature”).
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A New Way of Seeing the
World
One of Titian’s friends and
admirers was the Italian writer
Pietro Aretino, whose published
letters contain accounts of gatherings at the painter’s home. In a
1544 letter, Aretino relates how
Renaissance painters were teaching people to view the world
around them with the eyes of an
artist. Describing a sunset over
Venice’s Grand Canal, Aretino
says, “Oh with what beautiful
strokes of nature’s brush was the
atmosphere pushed back, clearing it away from the palaces, just
as Titian does in painting landscapes!”
* pietà image of the Virgin Mary
holding the lifeless body of Christ
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* Spanish Inquisition court
established by the Spanish monarchs
that investigated Christians accused of
straying from the official doctrine of the
Roman Catholic Church, particularly
during the period 1480–1530
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By the mid-1500s critics considered Titian and MICHELANGELO to represent the two main styles of Italian art. Titian and the Venetian school
emphasized color and created natural appearances through broad and
open brushwork. Michelangelo and the central Italian painters emphasized form, precise drawing, and clear outlines. According to Giorgio
Vasari, who wrote biographies of many Renaissance artists,
Michelangelo visited Titian’s studio and declared that, although no one
was better than Titian at imitating nature through coloring, it was a pity
that Venetian artists never learned to draw. For centuries, art critics continued to discuss the characteristics of these two styles of painting.
In the 1540s Titian visited Rome. The trip exposed him to many
examples of ancient art and allowed him to study the works of painters
such as Michelangelo and RAPHAEL. At the time, Titian was moving
toward larger and more complex arrangements of figures in his own
work. The influence of the Roman painters and ancient pieces is clear in
his later works.
Meanwhile Titian continued to develop his skill as a portrait artist. In
Rome he painted Pope Paul III, showing the aged pope with his two
grandsons. Although unfinished, the moving scene fully exhibits
Titian’s ability to portray the personalities of his subjects.
Some of Titian’s late works, including The Flaying of Marsyas, reveal
the touch of the painter’s hand. In his final years the artist sometimes
abandoned the brush and applied paint to the canvas with his fingers.
Critics remarked on the development of a new quality in his work. In
1566 Vasari noted that Titian’s later pieces “are carried out in bold
strokes … in such a manner that they cannot be looked at closely but
from a distance appear perfect.”
Shortly before his death, Titian painted a pietà* that he intended for
his own tomb. Within the painting is a smaller picture of two kneeling
figures—Titian and his son Orazio. Although the cause of Titian’s death
is unknown, he died during a plague that later claimed Orazio. But
Titian’s influence remained strong on the young artists of his own day
and on the great masters of the next century—Rembrandt, RUBENS, and
Velázquez. (See also Art in Italy.)
O
ne of the foremost cities of Spain during the Renaissance, Toledo
was a major commercial, cultural, and religious center. It served as
the headquarters of the Spanish church and the site of various church
COUNCILS. By 1571 Toledo had become the country’s second largest city
after Seville. However, after King PHILIP II (1527–1598) established Madrid
as his capital, Toledo lost prestige and began a period of decline. Between
1571 and 1639, its population shrank from about 60,000 to 24,000.
Before this decline, Toledo was a dynamic and varied place. From
1519 to 1522 it emerged as the center of resistance to the new HABSBURG
rulers. Many of Toledo’s residents worked in the manufacture of wool
and silk cloth. Almost 20 percent were conversos—Jews who had converted to Christianity because of the Spanish Inquisition*—and they
dominated the city’s economy.
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The University of Toledo, founded in the mid-1500s by a family of
converso origin, was only one example of the city’s cultural vitality.
Toledo also had several important printing presses as well as prominent
literary circles and groups of reformers. The most famous artist of
Renaissance Toledo was the Greek-born painter Domenikos
Theotokopoulos, better known as EL GRECO. He painted scenes of the
city and some of its prominent citizens. (See also Madrid; Spain.)
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* classical in the tradition of ancient
Greece and Rome
* Gothic style of architecture
characterized by pointed arches and
high, thin walls supported by flying
buttresses; also, artistic style marked by
bright colors, elongated proportions,
and intricate detail
* coat of arms set of symbols used to
represent a noble family
* effigy
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representation of a person
T
he tradition of building memorial tombs to honor prominent individuals continued from the Middle Ages into the Renaissance.
Sculptors created thousands of tombs, mixing architectural elements
with carved human images and decorations. Many of these works feature classical* designs. However, Gothic* style tombs remained popular
in Italy well into the 1400s and even later in northern Europe.
Renaissance tombs fall into three basic types: tomb slabs, wall tombs,
and freestanding memorials. Tombs were often placed in churches, as
close to the high altar as possible, depending on the wealth and importance of the person honored. Some are located in private chapels. Tombs
mark the location of a body and have certain common features. They
give the name of the deceased and usually the date of death. Some display a family coat of arms* and an inscription indicating the person’s
social status. Other inscriptions might describe the individual’s virtues
and accomplishments or appeal to God for the salvation of his or her
soul.
The least expensive type of tomb marker in the Renaissance was a
small plate set in the church floor. A large slab, about the size of the
grave beneath it, was also popular. Made of marble or sometimes
bronze, these tomb slabs usually contained only inscriptions and coats
of arms, though some also had carved effigies*. In the 1420s the Italian
sculptor DONATELLO designed a bronze tomb slab for Bishop Giovanni
Pecci (Cathedral, Siena) that includes an effigy of the bishop. The use of
tomb slabs decreased in the 1500s, as tastes changed and available floor
space in churches became scarce.
Wall tombs, more expensive than slabs, consist of carvings and architectural structures placed against the walls of churches or other buildings. Some have a sarcophagus (stone coffin) in an arched recess raised
on brackets. Relatively small and simple, these raised memorials were
very popular in the late 1400s. Most Renaissance wall tombs, however,
sit at floor level. They often contain classical-style arches and columns
and feature delicate sculptural portraits and details. Variations of the
wall tomb include multilevel structures with life-size, freestanding figures of the deceased along with saints, warriors, and other individuals.
MICHELANGELO designed two famous wall tombs (1521–1534) for
Giuliano and Lorenzo de’ MEDICI, young princes of the ruling family of
FLORENCE.
Freestanding tombs featuring a simple sarcophagus and effigy became
popular in the Middle Ages in northern Europe. During the Renaissance,
northern sculptors continued to produce them, usually in a Gothic
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* Holy Roman Emperor ruler of the
Holy Roman Empire, a political body in
central Europe composed of several
states that existed until 1806
eTournaments
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See color
plate 12,
vol. 2
* classical in the tradition of ancient
Greece and Rome
* chivalric referring to the rules and
customs of medieval knighthood
THE RENAISSANCE
style. The most important examples are memorials dedicated to German
and French royalty. In Innsbruck, Austria, the tomb of the Holy Roman
Emperor* MAXIMILIAN I is flanked by 28 life-size bronze figures, creating
a moving scene. In France, the freestanding memorials of Louis XII,
FRANCIS I, and Henry II and their queens (in the church of St. Denis)
include traditional French elements, such as kneeling figures at prayer.
In Italy, Michelangelo designed a massive freestanding tomb for Pope
JULIUS II in 1505. The plan called for a three-level structure with some 40
oversized figures. However, the design was abandoned and replaced by
a wall tomb incorporating some of Michelangelo’s sculpture, including
the famous figure of Moses. (See also Art; Death; Sculpture.)
E
xhibitions of military skill, known as tournaments, began in Europe
some time after A.D. 1000. They continued to be held during the
Renaissance, though their form and purpose changed considerably over
the years. Early tournaments often featured a mêlée, a combat between
groups of men. The fighting was generally conducted in deadly earnest
and resulted in numerous casualties. Eventually mêlées were replaced by
the joust, which involved two mounted knights who charged at one
another with lances. The introduction of blunted weapons and a tilt
(barrier) to prevent the horses from colliding made jousting safer.
However, jousting could still be a dangerous affair, as shown by the
death of France’s King Henry II in Paris in 1559 as a result of a wound
suffered in a joust.
Banned at times by church or state officials, tournaments remained
extremely popular throughout the Renaissance. They were valued as
training in martial arts, as a sport, and as a grand spectacle.
Tournaments often took place to celebrate occasions of state, such as
royal births and weddings or visits by foreign dignitaries. Participants
wore elaborate armor and costumes, and special parades might be held
before the tournament to show them off. In time the pageantry of the
tournament came to be more important than the fighting.
Many Renaissance tournaments adopted themes from classical* or
chivalric* literature. A tournament held at the Spanish city of León in
1434 was centered on the theme of a knight supposedly trying to free
himself from enslavement to a lady. In other cases, knights would imitate heroic literature by declaring their intention to defend a certain
place against all challengers. Around 1460 René of Anjou wrote a
detailed, illustrated text describing how tournaments should be staged,
and many similar works appeared in the later years of the Renaissance.
By the 1500s it was common for tournaments to have a fictional
framework or storyline. For example, a tournament held to celebrate the
birth of an heir to King HENRY VIII of England featured a challenge from
four “visiting” knights of the mythical land of Ceure Noble. One of the
knights was played by the king himself. The outcome of many combats
in these themed tournaments was decided beforehand. A tournament
held for England’s Queen ELIZABETH I included the staged failure of four
knights to capture the Fortress of Perfect Beautie, which represented the
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The Renaissance tournament combined
military training, sport, and spectacle.
Most tournaments featured jousting, in
which two mounted knights charged each
other with lances, as shown here.
Queen’s virginity and moral integrity. These late Renaissance tournaments were usually staged to celebrate the reigning dynasty, and those
who took part were more like actors than combatants. The tournaments
eventually came to include music and displays of horsemanship and
may have played a role in the early development of OPERA. (See also Arms
and Armor; Chivalry; Duel; Honor; Parades and Pageants.)
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* humanist Renaissance expert in the
humanities (the languages, literature,
history, and speech and writing
techniques of ancient Greece and
Rome)
* vernacular native language or
dialect of a region or country
* Ottoman Turks Turkish followers of
Islam who founded the Ottoman
Empire in the 1300s; the empire
eventually included large areas of
eastern Europe, the Middle East, and
northern Africa
* medieval referring to the Middle
Ages, a period that began around A.D.
400 and ended around 1400 in Italy
and 1500 in the rest of Europe
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T
ranslation made both ancient and modern works available to a
much wider audience during the Renaissance. Although many
humanists* stressed the need to read ancient Greek and Roman works
in their original languages, translations opened up these texts to the
large number of readers who did not know those languages. Scholars
translated many volumes from Greek to Latin and from both Greek and
Latin into vernacular* tongues. At the same time, translations from one
vernacular language to another brought books to readers in different
parts of Europe.
From Greek to Latin. Few Europeans knew ancient Greek before
1397. In that year, the Greek scholar Manuel Chrysoloras arrived in
Italy. Other learned Greeks followed, especially after 1453, when the
city of Constantinople, a center of Greek culture, fell to the Ottoman
Turks*. These scholars helped spread knowledge of the language and literature of ancient Greece.
Italian humanists learned to read Greek texts and began to translate
them into Latin. They also produced improved versions of texts translated during the Middle Ages. Renaissance scholars pointed out many
mistakes in medieval* versions of ancient works. Most of these were
word-for-word translations, which simply replaced each word in one
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* epic long poem about the
adventures of a hero
* ethics branch of philosophy
concerned with questions of right and
wrong
* rhetoric art of speaking or writing
effectively
language with its nearest equivalent in the other. Humanists aimed to
translate the true meaning of the text, even if it meant changing the
wording.
During the 1400s, some of the most important efforts in the field of
translation involved works of philosophy. The Italian humanist
Leonardo BRUNI, a leading translator of the early 1400s, created Latin
versions of many Greek texts, including works by the philosopher PLATO.
In the late 1400s another Italian scholar, Marsilio FICINO, produced the
first translation of Plato’s complete works. His translation made all of
Plato’s writings available for the first time in western Europe. Humanists
also produced new translations of works by Plato’s student ARISTOTLE, but
these texts did not completely replace medieval Latin translations.
Several Renaissance scholars translated the writing of GALEN, a Greek
physician from the A.D. 100s whose ideas formed the core of Renaissance
medicine. A new, ten-volume Latin edition of Galen’s works appeared in
1541. First published in Venice, it included several pieces that had never
appeared in Latin before.
Various literary scholars produced Latin versions of the works of the
ancient Greek poet Homer. In the 1430s Lorenzo VALLA translated part of
Homer’s epic* the Iliad. About 40 years later, Angelo POLIZIANO translated the entire poem, dedicating his edition to the Florentine statesman
Lorenzo de’ MEDICI. In Germany, the poet Helius Eobanus Hessus produced a verse translation of the Iliad in 1540.
From Latin and Greek to the Vernacular. Renaissance readers
who did not know Latin or Greek also wanted information about
ancient cultures. To meet this demand, vernacular translations of
ancient works began to appear in the 1500s. Some writers made careers
out of translating Latin and Greek classics into local languages. Ancient
works on such topics as ethics* and rhetoric* often appeared in the vernacular, but professional works about science and law rarely did.
New Renaissance works in Latin might be translated into vernacular
languages if they attracted enough attention. One example was Utopia
(1516), a Latin work of social criticism by the English author Thomas
MORE. Scholars also translated the Latin Praise of Folly (1511), by the
Dutch humanist Desiderius ERASMUS. This work attacked human foolishness and corruption in the church and urged readers to live according to
the example of Christ.
In Britain, learning to translate ancient works from Latin and Greek
was an important part of a humanist education. Publishers issued
English versions of many works of history, biography, and moral philosophy. William SHAKESPEARE used English editions of Lives, by the Greek
biographer Plutarch, and Metamorphoses, by the Roman poet Ovid, as
sources for his plays. In the early 1600s the scholar George Chapman
translated both of Homer’s epics, the Iliad and the Odyssey, into English.
Vernacular Works. Renaissance writers translated some popular
works from one vernacular language to another. One example was The
Book of the Courtier (1528), a book about courtly life by Baldassare
CASTIGLIONE of Italy. Written in Italian, it later appeared in English,
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French, Spanish, and Latin. At about the same time, the Spanish scholar Antonio de Guevara published The Golden Book of Marcus Aurelius, a
partly fictional biography of an ancient Roman emperor. Translated into
Dutch, English, French, German, Italian, and Latin, the book became a
European best-seller.
Scholars translated some works because they viewed them as literary
classics. In 1591 Sir John Harington published an English version of
Ludovico ARIOSTO’s epic Orlando Furioso. Nine years later Edward Fairfax
produced an English edition of another Italian work, Torquato TASSO’s
epic Jerusalem Delivered. Fairfax gave his version a new title, Godfrey of
Bulloigne. Changes of this sort were fairly common. In fact, many
Renaissance translators freely added, removed, or rearranged material
while preparing an edition in another language. (See also Classical
Scholarship; Greek Émigrés; Humanism; Ideas, Spread of;
Latin Language and Literature; Literature; Poetry; Printing
and Publishing.)
Transportation and
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* diplomacy formal relations between
nations or states
D
uring the Renaissance, both merchants and governments depended on the regular flow of goods and information. In general, sea
transportation was quicker and more efficient than land transportation.
However, advances in both land and sea travel occurred over the course
of the Renaissance. Communication also improved significantly during
this period with the appearance of the first postal networks in Europe.
People traveled for a variety of reasons during the Renaissance.
Explorers sailed far from Europe to discover new territories for their
monarchs and to win glory and riches for themselves. Most voyages,
however, were far more routine in nature. Business, politics, and diplomacy* accounted for much, if not most, travel at this time. Other reasons for trips included PILGRIMAGES (journeys to sacred places) and
pleasure travel.
Land and Sea Transportation. The poor state of roads throughout
Europe made overland travel slow and difficult, especially in winter,
when many roads could not be navigated by wheeled vehicles. Most
people traveling overland went on foot or rode mules or donkeys. Rich
people tended to ride horses, although many of them preferred welltrained mules. Wealthy or sickly individuals might ride in litters or
sedan chairs, carried either by animals or by several servants. People of
all classes also accepted rides on carts carrying goods to market. Several
models of wagons and carts existed for different road conditions. Pack
animals, such as horses, mules, and oxen, were used to transport goods
as well.
The first passenger coaches appeared in Hungary in the early 1400s.
These were essentially heavy wagons pulled by two or more pairs of horses. More advanced coaches, which were easier to turn, came into use during the 1500s. These new models could carry up to eight people with
luggage. Smaller and lighter coaches also became available at this time.
They often had the passenger compartment suspended on straps to pro-
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Wagons and carts were common modes
of transportation for people of all social
classes. In Travelers in a Landscape (1616)
by Jan Brueghel the Elder, wagon drivers
navigate the rough terrain of a country
road.
vide a more comfortable ride. In the 1600s private carriages became fashionable among the upper classes. Despite their relative comfort, however,
coaches often moved more slowly than foot traffic on Europe’s poor roads.
Overall, the speed of overland travel changed little until the late 1700s.
Sea travel increased during the Renaissance. Shipbuilders produced a
variety of ships of different types and sizes for transportation, trade, fishing, exploration, or warfare. Ships ranged from single-person fishing vessels to large carracks that could hold 1,000 passengers and up to 2,000
tons of cargo. Travel time was difficult to estimate. The length of time it
took to sail from one port to another varied according to the season, the
weather, the tides, the cargo, the crew, and a host of other factors.
Communication. The merchants of the Middle Ages established the
earliest communication networks in Europe. The Hanseatic League, an
association of trading towns in northern Europe, set up regular courier
services among its members in the 1200s. Venice also had a well-established trading network, and its couriers connected the Christian and
Islamic worlds. By 1400 universities often ran their own messenger services to deliver letters for professors and students. Louis XI of France may
have created the first national postal service in 1464. Spain founded its
own national post not long afterward.
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* Holy Roman Empire political body
in central Europe composed of several
states; existed until 1806
* papacy
pope
office and authority of the
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* diplomacy formal relations between
nations or states
During the reign of MAXIMILIAN I, the Holy Roman Empire* established an imperial postal service. This courier network, perhaps the
most famous of its time, linked the far-flung territories of the HABSBURG
family in Spain, the Netherlands, Germany, and Italy. The papacy* also
ran its own postal service, which supplemented that of the Habsburgs.
In the late 1550s Rome became the most important communications
center in Europe.
Despite the existence of these established services, both governments
and individuals often used private messengers. Independent couriers
were more flexible than the official services and sometimes faster as
well. Providing fresh horses at regular intervals helped speed couriers on
their way. By changing to a new horse every 12 miles, the average courier could cover about 35 to 50 miles per day; a fast messenger might travel 75 miles or more per day under exceptional conditions. (See also
Economy and Trade; Exploration; Ships and Shipbuilding;
Travel and Tourism.)
R
enaissance Europeans had a passion for travel. They journeyed both
within and beyond Europe for a variety of reasons, including religion, exploration, trade, and diplomacy*. Travel as a form of education
also became popular at this time among the upper classes. Michel de
MONTAIGNE, a French writer of the 1500s, declared that he had visited
foreign countries “to notice unknown things.”
Types of Travel. Many Renaissance travelers made their journeys as
part of their jobs. Explorers and conquerors voyaged to the fringes of the
known world seeking wealth, glory, and new territory for their countries. Merchants sailed in search of goods and markets, soldiers traveled
to wars in other countries, and ambassadors represented their nations at
foreign courts.
Some people traveled for religious reasons. Missionaries, for example,
journeyed to Asia, Africa, and the Americas with the goal of spreading
their Christian faith. Many of them wrote accounts of the distant lands
they visited and the peoples they encountered on their journeys.
Another form of religious travel was the PILGRIMAGE, a visit to a holy
place. Many printers published guidebooks for pilgrims. Wynkyn de
Worde’s Informacion for Pylgrymes unto the Holy Londe (1498) was one of
the first books published in England.
Pleasure travel was rare before the Renaissance. In 1336 the Italian poet
PETRARCH wrote one of the first accounts of travel as a pleasurable experience, describing a trip he had made to the top of Mount Ventoux in
France. Over the course of the Renaissance, the growing middle class
began to view visits to foreign countries—especially Italy—as a desirable
goal for learned people. Beginning in the mid-1550s, a growing number
of young English noblemen rounded out their education with a “grand
tour” of the European continent, lasting two or three years. While they
often studied at European universities and met with local scholars during
their travels, they also made time for sightseeing. Sir Philip SIDNEY’s grand
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Young men of the upper class often took a
“grand tour” of Europe as part of their
education. Such tours usually included a
visit to the Italian city of Rome, where travelers could see ancient ruins such as the
Colosseum, pictured here.
tour, which lasted from 1572 to 1575, included France, Germany, the
Netherlands, and Italy. Over the course of his travels he learned languages,
studied the ways of foreign courts, and admired scenery and architecture.
Parents, schools, and even the royal court might provide funds for the
grand tour. ELIZABETH I sometimes paid the travel expenses of one of her
subjects in the hope that the trip would make that person useful to her
in the future as a diplomat or an expert in foreign trade. The grand tour
almost always included the Italian cities of ROME and FLORENCE, and
returning travelers brought back knowledge of ancient cultures and of
the new styles of the Italian Renaissance. Architect Inigo JONES, who
made the grand tour in 1613, introduced to England the pure classical
style of Italian architect Andrea PALLADIO. Thomas Howard, the earl of
Arundel, accompanied Jones on his tour and came home with a collection of ancient statues. Visits to Europe’s chief cultural and artistic sites
remained a vital part of the education of an English gentleman until the
end of the 1700s.
Conditions of Travel. The journey from England to Italy was a difficult and uncomfortable one. Most people had to travel by land, as sea
voyages between the two countries were rare due to the threat of piracy
in the Mediterranean. Those who did venture out to sea ran the risk of
encountering not just pirates but also storms, shipwreck, and disease.
The overland journey, however, had its share of hardships too.
Travelers had to spend many days riding on horseback through
unknown territories on barely marked roads, which could turn suddenly into rivers during the rainy season. They passed their nights in flealaden inns, sleeping three or more to a bed, often in the company of
bandits or rogues. Some English gentlemen disguised themselves as poor
peasants in an effort to avoid being attacked or robbed on the roads.
Travelers bound for Italy could “post,” renting horses from a series of
stations along the road, or they could pay to join a convoy, a group trav-
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eling under the guidance of a director. Such groups sometimes included
soldiers to protect the travelers in dangerous areas. At the end of the
1500s a new method of transportation appeared: coaches began to
replace riding horses on the most level and well-used roads.
Money posed a practical problem for all travelers. Most countries had
severe restrictions limiting the use of foreign currency. To get around
these laws, travelers carried letters of credit from their own countries,
which they could exchange for cash in the places they visited.
Travel was essentially a male activity during the Renaissance. Society
looked on religious pilgrimages as the only respectable form of travel for
a woman, and only a few women braved the dangers of such journeys.
Lady Whetenall, one of the first Englishwomen to undertake the grand
tour, died in childbirth in 1650 in the Italian city of Padua.
* narrative
story
* conquistador
conqueror
military explorer and
eTrent, Council
eof
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* theologian person who studies
religion and the nature of God
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Travel Literature. Many Renaissance travelers wrote books about
their journeys. Explorers returning from distant lands often shared their
experiences in order to spread their own fame. Their accounts introduced knowledge of new regions, cultures, plants, and animals into
Europe. Collections of these writings, such as Richard HAKLUYT’s Principal
Navigations (1589) and Pierre Bergeron’s Travel to the New World (1629),
enjoyed a great deal of success with the reading public.
Many forms of travel literature existed, ranging from guidebooks to
personal narratives*, journals, and letters. Authors often combined
descriptions of journeys with history, geography, or even fiction.
Writers such as Miguel de CERVANTES SAAVEDRA of Spain and Luíz Vaz de
CAMÕES of Portugal blended tales of their own travels into their fictional works. Spanish conquistador* Álvar Nuñez Cabeza de Vaca wrote a
gripping account of his trip from Florida to Mexico in the mid-1500s.
Dutch scholar Desiderius ERASMUS included lively descriptions of his
wanderings through Europe in letters to his friends. After the grand tour
became popular, many Englishmen published descriptions of their
journeys to Italy.
By the end of the 1500s, writers and scholars had developed a travel
journal method for formulating a precise picture of a foreign land. It
told travel writers how to examine a new land, what order to follow in
observing and reporting, and what questions to ask the local people.
This method remained in use through the late 1700s and produced a
large body of travel literature. (See also Exploration; Missions,
Christian; Transportation and Communication.)
I
n 1545 Pope Paul III called bishops and theologians* together in the
northern Italian city of Trent to respond to the challenges raised by
Protestants and by reformers within the Roman Catholic Church. This
meeting, known as the Council of Trent, met over three distinct periods
between 1545 and 1563. The decisions it reached had a major impact on
the later history of the church.
Political, military, and religious conflicts threatened the council
throughout its duration. When its first session opened in 1545, only 31
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* prelate high-ranking member of the
clergy, such as a bishop
* papal referring to the office and
authority of the pope
* sacrament religious ritual thought
to have been established by Jesus as an
aid to salvation
* diocese geographical area under the
authority of a bishop
* humanist referring to a Renaissance
cultural movement promoting the study
of the humanities (the languages,
literature, and history of ancient Greece
and Rome) as a guide to living
* medieval referring to the Middle
Ages, a period that began around A.D.
400 and ended around 1400 in Italy
and 1500 in the rest of Europe
THE RENAISSANCE
prelates* attended, and the number present never exceeded 200.
Although papal* delegates presided over the council, the popes were
only partly successful in controlling its agenda. Moreover, the council
was often torn by conflict and sharp debate. The council’s first session
broke up in 1547; the second session, which met in 1551, ended a year
later, and the council took ten years to regroup. Many people believed it
would never end successfully.
Reforms of the Council of Trent. The council’s two chief goals were
to respond to questions of religious doctrine raised by Protestant reformers, especially Martin LUTHER, and to deal with demands from both
Catholics and Protestants for church reform. By the time the council
met, any real chance of healing religious divisions between Protestants
and Catholics had faded. Instead, the council reaffirmed the Catholic
position on disputed issues, making the break with Protestants final.
The Council of Trent did not try to issue a full statement of Catholic
belief. Instead, it responded only to questions raised by the Protestant
reformers. One of these concerned Martin Luther’s view of the Scriptures
as the only proper basis for religious teachings. The council’s response
to this issue was twofold. It established an official body of religious texts
for Catholics, but it also affirmed the importance of church traditions in
addition to Scripture. Next, the council dealt with Luther’s idea that
humans were saved solely through their faith in Christ and not through
good works. The council declared that salvation involved both God’s
grace and human responsibility. Finally, the council discussed the sacraments*. Luther had reduced the number of sacraments from the traditional seven to two and had redefined the nature of those two. The
Council of Trent reemphasized the traditional sacraments and declared
that Christ had established all seven of them.
The council also had a clear goal of reforming the offices of popes,
bishops, and priests. Attempts to reform the papacy met with little success, but the council set many new requirements for bishops. It issued a
decree insisting that bishops live in their dioceses* and forbidding them
to hold more than one office at a time. The council also tried to establish a closer relationship between bishops and the local clergy. It
required bishops to hold regular meetings with their clergy, visit and
oversee local parishes, be selective in choosing priests, and promote
preaching on Sundays and feast days. The council emphasized the role
of the parish as the proper site for tending to a congregation’s spiritual
needs and required every diocese to establish a seminary to train poor
boys for the priesthood.
The Council of Trent and the Renaissance. The Council of Trent
gave the Catholic Church an opportunity to react to the new ideas of
the Renaissance. Although the council issued no statement about the
new humanist* learning, it focused on medieval* traditions in the language used in its own decrees. It also based its debates on the Latin
Vulgate Bible, the version used throughout the Middle Ages. Many saw
this decision as a warning against the new humanist emphasis on
returning to original Greek and Hebrew texts of the Bible. The council
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* vernacular native language or
dialect of a region or country
* classical in the tradition of ancient
Greece and Rome
* rhetoric art of speaking or writing
effectively
* treatise
long, detailed essay
Tudor Dynasty
also failed to make any mention of new vernacular* Bibles, opening the
door to later efforts to suppress such works. At the same time, its decision to keep Latin as the language of church ritual helped promote the
study of classical* languages among Catholics.
At the same time, the Council of Trent reflected the influence of
Renaissance ideas. The council said little about the humanist goal of
applying principles of classical rhetoric* to the practice of preaching,
but it did stress preaching as the chief duty of bishops and pastors. This
emphasis contributed to a revival of preaching and to the writing of
treatises* on how to preach that were based on humanist principles. The
council also reaffirmed the value of “holy images,” which many
Protestants had criticized. This decision gave support to the outpouring
of art, especially religious art, during the late Renaissance. At the same
time, the council issued warnings about superstition and sexual elements in painting. These statements led to treatises on what was appropriate in “sacred art” and to attempts to censor it. (See also Bible;
Catholic Reformation and Counter-Reformation; Councils;
Preaching and Sermons; Religious Thought.)
See Henry VII; Henry VIII; Edward VI; Grey, Jane; Mary I; Elizabeth I.
Tudor DynastyJane; Mary I; Elizabeth I.
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U
niversities first appeared in Europe during the Middle Ages. By
1400, a total of 29 existed throughout the continent. Another 46
opened their doors over the next 200 years, mostly in Germany, Italy,
France, and Spain. Like their modern counterparts, Renaissance universities offered advanced education and provided a setting for research.
They made an immense contribution to scholarship and trained many
of the leaders of society.
FUNCTIONS AND STRUCTURE
Cities and towns opened new universities for a variety of reasons. Some acted
in response to the rising demand for trained professionals. Others gained
political or economic benefits from having a school. Regardless of the reasons for their founding, all universities shared certain common features.
* theology study of the nature of God
and of religion
138
Functions. Renaissance universities trained many students for careers
in government, law, medicine, and the clergy. The growing governments of the day required educated civil servants, lawyers, and judges.
The demand for physicians to work in cities, towns, and royal households drew large numbers of students to study medicine. Other students
earned degrees in theology* to prepare for careers in the church.
Some cities and towns founded universities for financial reasons.
Attending a local school cost students far less than traveling to a distant
town. Thus, building a university could help citizens save money. In
addition, it might produce income for the town by attracting out-oftown students who would purchase food, lodging, and other necessities.
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Universities in
the Renaissance
*
Uppsala*
Founded before 1301
Founded 1301–1400
Founded 1401–1500
Founded 1501–1625
See notes
Aberdeen c. 1500
Universities in
Spanish America
St. Andrews c. 1410
Glasgow 1451
Santo Domingo after 1538
Mexico 1551
Lima 1571
Charcas 1622
Baltic
Sea
Copenhagen 1475
Edinburgh 1582
North
Sea
Griefswald 1456
Groningen 1614
Cambridge
1233
Oxford
1190s
Nantes 1461
Mainz
1476
Heidelberg 1385
Strasbourg 1621
Orleans c. 1235
Angers 1229
Bourges 1464
Wittenberg 1502
Leipzig 1409
Jena 1558
Marburg 1527
Erfurt 1379
Cologne 1388
Paris c. 1200
Frankfurt an der Oder
1506
Helmstedt 1575
Leiden 1575
Louvain 1426
Trier 1473
Caen 1439
Königsberg
1544
Rostock
1419
Cracow*
Prague 1348
Würzburg*
Ingolstadt 1472
Vienna 1365
Tübingen 1472
Freiburg 1460
Basel 1460
Dôle 1422
Poitiers 1431
ATLANTIC
OCEAN
Turin
1411
Bordeaux 1441
Grenoble 1339
Cahors 1332 Valence 1452
Oviedo
1604
Toulouse 1229
Montpellier 1220–1230
Valladolid
c. 1250
Huesca
1354
Salamanca*
Sigüenza 1489
LisbonCoimbra*
Lérida
1300
Saragossa
1583
Orange 1365
Avignon 1303
Aix 1409
Perpignan 1379
Padua
1222
Pavia
1361
Parma
1601
Ferrara*
Bologna c. 1150–1200
Florence*
Pisa 1343
Siena c. 1240
Macerata
1540–1541
Perugia 1308
Girona 1587
Rome 1240s
Barcelona 1450
Acalá 1509
Naples 1224
Salerno c. 1592
Valencia 1500
Palma 1483
Mediterranean Sea
N
0
0
100
100
Messina 1596
Catania 1445
200 mi.
200 km
Notes
Cracow: 1364, stopped 1370, renewed 1400
Ferrara: 1391, stopped 1402, renewed 1442
Florence: 1348, moved to Pisa 1473
Lisbon-Coimbra: 1290 at Lisbon; settled in Coimbra, 1537
Salamanca: 1400s
Uppsala: 1477, stopped 1515, renewed 1595
Würzburg: 1561–1583
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The University of Paris was the largest
European university of the Renaissance.
This illustration from a French work of the
early 1500s shows a gathering of Paris
professors.
* Protestant Reformation religious
movement that began in the 1500s as a
protest against certain practices of the
Roman Catholic Church and eventually
led to the establishment of a variety of
Protestant churches
140
Universities also brought prestige to cities and their rulers by highlighting their commitment to learning. Many governments played an
active role in higher education. They controlled the appointments and
salaries of professors and the subjects taught. In many cases, they forbade citizens to study at foreign universities in order to increase enrollment at the local school. After the Protestant Reformation*, many
towns set specific religious requirements for students and professors.
Structure. At all Renaissance universities, students attended lectures
for several years and then took examinations to qualify for a degree.
Receiving an advanced degree in a particular subject gave the student
the right to teach it. A bachelor’s degree in the arts required 1 to 3 years
of study, a doctorate in law or medicine took 5 to 7 years, and a doctorate in theology required more than 12 years. In practice, some students
graduated in less than the required time.
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All lectures, debates, and examinations were conducted in Latin.
Professors focused on the great works in their field. For example, philosophy centered on the writings of ARISTOTLE and medicine on those of
GALEN. Because of this uniformity in content, students could easily
switch their studies from one university to another.
Some universities emphasized certain subjects and levels of training.
Schools in Paris and Oxford focused on arts and theology. The Italian universities, by contrast, stressed law and medicine at the doctoral level. By the
early 1400s they had completely ceased to offer bachelor’s degrees.
Universities also varied greatly in size. Paris, the largest, had 12,000 to
15,000 students and several hundred teachers. Large Italian universities
boasted between 1,500 and 2,000 students and perhaps 100 professors. The
typical university had 30 to 40 professors teaching 300 to 500 students.
* humanism Renaissance cultural
movement promoting the study of the
humanities (the languages, literature,
and history of ancient Greece and
Rome) as a guide to living
Humanism. The influence of humanism* dramatically changed the
course of studies at Renaissance universities. In the early 1400s professors began teaching ancient Latin and Greek texts and stressing the use
of the original languages. For example, they read the works of Aristotle
in Greek rather than relying on Latin translations from the Middle Ages.
Some even produced new, more accurate Latin versions of these texts.
Humanist professors also considered texts in their historical context.
Legal scholars, for instance, looked at Roman law against the background of ancient Roman society. French universities, in particular,
favored this approach.
PROMINENT UNIVERSITIES
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Beginning in the Middle Ages,
university students formed themselves into groups called “nations”
based on their homelands. Each
nation elected a member to represent it to the host city. The
University of Paris, for example,
included four nations: France,
Normandy, Picardy, and Germany.
For a while, student nations exercised considerable power and
were even able to help choose
their own professors. However,
during the Renaissance, the
nations lost much of their influence. Civil governments took control of the appointment of
professors and other aspects of
universities.
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Three of the top universities of the Renaissance were Oxford University
in England, the University of Paris, and the University of Padua in Italy.
Founded in the Middle Ages, all three became major centers of scholarship and influenced intellectual activity across Europe.
Oxford. Formal lectures began at Oxford in the 1100s, and by 1310
the school had grown to some 2,000 students. During the Middle Ages,
Oxford was largely free from government rule. The masters (teachers)
elected their own head and voted on school regulations.
In the 1500s, however, the university lost most of its independence. At
that time, the English king HENRY VIII became involved in a dispute with
the Roman Catholic Church over his marriage to Catherine of Aragon. In
1530 the king asked Oxford for an opinion about the dispute, and the
university hesitated to support him. When Henry broke with the church
over the matter, Oxford found itself in an awkward position. As England
became increasingly Protestant, Henry and his successors saw Oxford as a
center of pro-Catholic feeling. They took measures to ensure that the university remained loyal to the English church. They also tried to control
the curriculum. In 1570 Oxford lost the right to appoint its own leaders.
During the Renaissance Oxford’s curriculum expanded, partly as a
result of humanist influences. In the mid-1400s wealthy nobles introduced humanist ideas to Oxford by donating many books from their
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libraries, especially Italian texts, to the school. Not long afterward,
Oxford began hiring permanent lecturers to teach certain subjects, such
as theology, in place of the recent graduates who had formerly served as
teachers. During the 1600s the school added new professorships in several fields, including geometry, history, and Arabic.
* ethics branch of philosophy
concerned with questions of right and
wrong
* rhetoric art of speaking or writing
effectively
* dissect to cut open a body to
examine its inner parts
142
Paris. The University of Paris included four faculties: arts, church law,
medicine, and theology. Established around 1200, the school fell into a
decline in the early 1400s. However, a series of reforms in the mid-1400s
made it the best university in northern Europe.
Like Oxford, the University of Paris was caught up in the politics of
the Protestant Reformation. Catholic clergy members controlled the
course of study in Paris. They promoted a tradition known as
Scholasticism, which stressed logic, natural philosophy, and ethics*.
Humanist critics attacked this course of study. They called for the teaching of rhetoric* and ancient languages and literature. However, most
members of the faculty opposed the humanists and warned against the
dangers of allowing them to set the curriculum.
In 1521 the university condemned the teachings of the Protestant
reformer Martin LUTHER. The king, FRANCIS I, who saw himself as a tolerant and cultured ruler, tried to protect humanists and religious reformers. He occasionally opposed the powerful Faculty of Theology, which
had considerable influence over matters of faith. However, he also
reacted against critics who went too far in attacking the Catholic
Church. In 1543 Francis approved the Articles of Faith, a document that
bound faculty members to uphold Catholicism. Despite reforms in the
late 1500s that allowed new subjects in the curriculum, Scholastic
thought dominated the University of Paris until the 1700s.
Padua. Founded in the 1200s, the University of Padua became the
most famous university in Italy. Its importance grew after Venice conquered Padua in 1405. The leaders of Venice strongly supported the
school in Padua. They decided that it would be the only university in
the state and threatened to fine any Venetian who studied elsewhere.
After a drop in enrollment in the late 1400s, the state took measures
to strengthen the school. They added professorships, raised salaries,
recruited leading teachers from other universities, and restricted the
number of local instructors on the faculty. These reforms helped keep
key positions filled with distinguished scholars from around Europe.
The University of Padua suffered a severe setback in 1509, when the
city’s leaders briefly threw off Venetian rule. Professors and students fled
the city, and the university closed down. It did not reopen until 1517,
after Venice had recaptured Padua and all the other territory it had lost.
The Venetians quickly rebuilt the school, and by the 1560s it boasted an
enrollment of some 1,600 students.
Padua was particularly influential in the field of medicine. In 1537
the medical scholar Andreas VESALIUS came to the school to teach anatomy. Through techniques such as dissecting* human bodies, he revolutionized his field. Padua also established the first professorship in the
study of “simples,” or medicinal plants. In the 1540s it opened one of
the first botanical gardens in Europe.
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In addition to medicine, Padua had leading schools of natural philosophy (also known as natural science), law, and mathematics. Galileo GALILEI
taught mathematics there from 1592 to 1610. Many famous thinkers studied at Padua, including Francesco GUICCIARDINI, Giovanni PICO DELLA
MIRANDOLA, and Pier Paolo VERGERIO. The renowned German philosopher
NICHOLAS OF CUSA obtained a doctorate from Padua in 1423. William HARVEY,
the English scientist who discovered the circulation of blood, received his
medical degree there in 1603. Other outstanding graduates hailed from
Spain, Greece, Hungary, and even America. (See also Academies;
Classical Scholarship; Education; Humanism; Ideas, Spread of.)
Urbanism
See Cities and Urban Life.
Urbanism
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* prince Renaissance term for the ruler
of an independent state
* confraternity religious and social
organization of Roman Catholics who
were not members of the clergy
See color
plate 6,
vol. 3
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he ancient Roman city of Urbino, located in central Italy, was an
important administrative center in the Renaissance. In the 1400s
the city enjoyed fame and great prosperity, due largely to the military
reputation of the ruling princes* of the MONTEFELTRO FAMILY.
Urbino was a walled city that closed its gates at night. Officials divided the city into administrative quarters, each associated with particular
crafts, religious orders, and confraternities*. The city’s confined area and
small population encouraged social unity.
When Count Antonio da Montefeltro became Urbino’s ruler in 1375,
he promised to uphold the city’s laws. His pledge continued a tradition
of self-rule with a council of elected citizens, subject to the prince.
Citizenship was usually restricted to sons of citizens living in Urbino.
The population also included a small community of Jews, who helped
develop the city’s commercial interests but had no citizenship rights.
For centuries the princes of Urbino came from the Montefeltro family. They commanded the military and supervised the city administration, holding public audiences to hear complaints and mediate disputes.
The prince received a salary and dues of various kinds. He was expected
to use some of his wealth for religious and civic buildings. Between 1465
and 1482, Duke Federico undertook extensive renovations in the city,
and many of the city’s leading families rebuilt their palaces in
Renaissance style. After the death of the last Montefeltro prince in 1508,
Urbino began a period of decline. (See also Italy.)
I
n 1516 the English writer Thomas MORE published Utopia, his vision
of an imaginary, ideal society. The book’s title was a pun on Greek
words meaning “no place” (ou topia) and “the good place” (eu topia).
More’s work became the first in a series of Renaissance texts that
described various writers’ ideas of the perfect society.
Utopias drew attention to the flaws of Renaissance states and offered
visions of a better organized and more just society. Many Renaissance
writers set their utopias in remote parts of the world, cut off from other
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* medieval referring to the Middle
Ages, a period that began around A.D.
400 and ended around 1400 in Italy
and 1500 in the rest of Europe
eValla, Lorenzo
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1407–1457
Italian scholar and humanist
* humanist referring to a Renaissance
cultural movement promoting the study
of the humanities (the languages,
literature, and history of ancient Greece
and Rome) as a guide to living
144
societies. Their citizens tended to live highly ordered lives under the
strict control of the government. Many utopias featured a communal
lifestyle, with residents sharing all their property and raising their children as a group. Medieval* writers had also created portraits of ideal
societies. These earlier visions depended either on a perfect world, in
which nature provided everything humans could need, or on morally
perfect human beings. More broke with these patterns and built his
ideal state around institutions, such as law, government, and education,
that would overcome the flaws of imperfect humans in an imperfect
world. These institutions would control every aspect of life, keeping
wealth, status, work, food, dress, leisure, marriage, and the household
much the same for all citizens. The social structures of More’s Utopia
programmed its residents to be virtuous and dealt with those who
strayed.
Two other major works about the idea of a utopia came in the 1600s.
Italian writer Tommaso CAMPANELLA based his The City of the Sun (1623)
on the idea that no one should own property. According to his views,
private ownership damaged society by placing personal concerns above
those of the group. Campanella’s ideal city also rested on a perfect
understanding of the natural world. All scientific knowledge was carved
on the city’s walls, eliminating the need for any further research. In
Francis BACON’s The New Atlantis (1627), by contrast, science was an
ongoing and powerful activity. Scientific research had the power to
reshape the relationship between society and the natural environment,
thus changing the nature of the utopia itself. The power of science in
society was a major theme in utopian writings of the late Renaissance.
Some utopias had strong religious elements. For instance,
Christianopolis (1619), by Lutheran pastor Johann Valentin Andreae,
addressed the problem of building a godly community in a sinful world.
His answer centered on education as the force that held society together. Other utopias focused on designing the ideal constitution and government. In Oceana (1656), one of the last great utopian texts of the
Renaissance, author John Harrington defined military service as the
path to citizenship. In his utopia, all men between the ages of 18 and
30 followed a detailed course of military service. Harrington’s state also
featured elaborate structures at every level of government.
L
orenzo Valla, a central figure of the humanist* movement in Italy,
focused his attention chiefly on the subjects of religion and language. Valla’s writings greatly advanced the study of classical* Latin, the
language of ancient Rome. They also encouraged the re-examination of
many religious traditions dating from the late Middle Ages.
Born to a minor noble family in Rome, Valla studied under many of
the Greek and Latin scholars who served at the court of Pope Martin V.
At the age of 20 Valla produced his first scholarly work, a comparison of
the ancient Roman writers Cicero and Quintilian. Valla favored
Quintilian’s detailed, grammar-based approach to rhetoric*. However,
his support of Quintilian angered followers of Cicero, including the
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* classical in the tradition of ancient
Greece and Rome
* rhetoric art of speaking or writing
effectively
* philology
language
* papacy
pope
scholarly study of
office and authority of the
* heresy belief that is contrary to the
doctrine of an established church
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scholar Poggio Bracciolini. Poggio became a lifelong critic of Valla and
influenced the pope not to employ him in his Curia (the body that
aided the pope in governing the Roman Catholic Church).
Valla took up a career teaching rhetoric. He spent time in several
Italian cities, including Naples, where he served at the court of Alfonso
of Aragon, king of Naples and Sicily. There he completed one of his
major works, The Elegances of the Latin Language (printed in 1471, after
his death). This text analyzed the Latin tongue in detail and praised its
immense variety. Valla stressed the importance of Latin as the basis for
Europe’s high level of civilization. He claimed that recovering the language in its ancient form would revive cultures that had fallen into
decay during the Middle Ages. This emphasis on language has led some
scholars to call Valla the founder of philology*.
In 1439 Valla completed the first version of another work on language
that would come to be known as the Dialectica. This text challenged the
views of the ancient Greek thinker ARISTOTLE, whose works had formed
the basis of scholarship throughout the Middle Ages. Aristotle’s philosophy had centered on abstract ideas such as “the good” and “the true.”
Valla, by contrast, focused on the concept of verba et res, or words and
things. Thus, his work made grammar and rhetoric central to the study
of philosophy. The Dialectica greatly influenced many later humanists,
including Angelo POLIZIANO and Desiderius ERASMUS.
The following year Valla issued two works attacking powerful church
institutions. The first revealed that the Donation of Constantine, an
ancient document used by the papacy* to defend its political powers,
was actually a FORGERY. The second criticized the idea that members of
RELIGIOUS ORDERS had a better claim to salvation than ordinary Christians.
Outrage over these works caused Pope Eugenius IV to ban Valla from
Rome and investigate him for heresy*. Valla made a formal apology to
the pope and earned the right to return to Rome in 1447. That same
year, Eugenius died and the humanist NICHOLAS V became the new pope.
Nicholas welcomed Valla back to his beloved Rome and showered him
with honors and church offices. Valla remained in Rome until his death,
writing texts on religion and translations of ancient Greek works. (See
also Classical Scholarship; Humanism; Latin Language and
Literature; Logic.)
T
he ruling dynasty of France during much of the Renaissance, the
Valois gained the throne in 1328 when the last king of the Capetian
dynasty died without an heir. Philip of Valois, a cousin of the king, took
the throne as Philip VI. Another cousin with a claim to the French
throne, Edward III of England, challenged the legitimacy of the Valois.
In 1337 he declared war, launching the Hundred Years’ War between
England and France.
After driving the English from most of France in 1453, the Valois king
Louis XI focused attention on the dukes of BURGUNDY, his cousins and
rivals. The rivalry lasted for decades. To protect themselves against
France, the Burgundians made a number of marriage alliances with the
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Valois Dynasty
Jeanne of Burgundy
d.1348
Louis XI
=
1423–1483
king of France
Charles VIII
1470–1498
king of France
Charlotte
of Savoy
d. 1483
[1] Anne of Britany [2] = [2] Louis XII [1] = Jeanne
1477–1514
Mary Stuart = Francis II
1542–1587
1543–1560
queen of
king of France
Scotland
Key:
= : Marriage
Catherine de Médicis
1519–1589
Elizabeth
of Habsburg
1554–1592
Henry III
1551–1589
king of France
Antoine
= Jeanne d'Albret
de Boubon
1528–1572
Henry IV [2] = Marie
de Médicis
1553–1610
king of France 1573–1642
[1] [2] [3] : order of marriage
* duchy territory ruled by a duke or
duchess
* Holy Roman Emperor ruler of the
Holy Roman Empire, a political body in
central Europe composed of several
states that existed until 1806
* patron supporter or financial
sponsor of an artist or writer
* humanist Renaissance expert in the
humanities (the languages, literature,
history, and speech and writing
techniques of ancient Greece and
Rome)
146
Charles IX =
1550–1574
king of France
d. 1505
Henry II
= Margaret
of Angoulême
1503–1555
1492–1549
king of Navarre
Francis I
1494–1547
king of France
Henry II
=
1519–1559
king of France
1462–1515
king of France
HABSBURG DYNASTY. The family ties eventually led to hostility between the
Valois and the Habsburgs. In the late 1400s and early 1500s, the Valois
kings Charles VIII and Louis XII invaded Italy to assert French claims to
the kingdom of NAPLES and the duchy* of MILAN. In response, Pope
JULIUS II organized an alliance in 1509 known as the Holy League, which
expelled the French from Italy by 1514.
Hostility between the Valois and Habsburg dynasties intensified during the reigns of FRANCIS I, successor to Louis XII, and the Holy Roman
Emperor* CHARLES V. Francis I launched another invasion of Italy in
1515. His victory at Marignano restored Milan to French rule but provoked another round of fighting with Charles V. At the Battle of Pavia
in 1525, Francis I was captured and held for ransom. He won his release
the following year after promising to surrender Burgundy to Charles.
Francis broke his word, however, and warfare resumed. It did not end
until his death in 1547. Renaissance culture in France reached a peak
under Francis I, who was a patron* of numerous artists, architects, and
humanists*.
Henry II, Francis’s son, had been married at age 14 to CATHERINE DE
MÉDICIS in an effort to forge an alliance with the Medici pope. About a
decade into his reign, Henry sent French forces back to Italy. King PHILIP II
of Spain, son of Charles V, responded by invading northern France in
1557. However, concern over the spread of Protestantism led the two
monarchs to make peace in 1559.
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* Huguenot French Protestant of the
1500s and 1600s, follower of John
Calvin
e
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Lope Félix de
1562–1635
Spanish writer
* libel leveling false charges against
someone, especially in writing
* satiric involving the use of satire, the
ridicule of human wickedness and
foolishness in a literary or artistic work
* classical in the tradition of ancient
Greece and Rome
During the reign of Francis II, son of Henry II, control of the French
monarchy fell into the hands of the Guise family, who were fervent
Catholics. Many French nobles, including the BOURBON FAMILY, felt
excluded from power and joined with French Protestants against the
Guise. Four decades of civil war followed, and the worst mark against
the Valois family occurred during this period. In 1572, during the rule
of Charles IX, Catholic forces killed several thousand Huguenots* and
others in the St. Bartholomew’s Day massacre.
Henry III, the brother of Charles IX, took the throne in 1574. The best
educated of the Valois kings, Henry sought a compromise between
Catholics and Protestants. However, in 1584 Henry’s brother and only
heir died, leaving the Huguenot prince Henry of Bourbon next in line to
the throne. Catholic forces took steps to prevent the Huguenot from
becoming king. When Henry III tried to oppose them, he was forced out
of Paris and later assassinated. His death in 1589 marked the end of the
Valois dynasty, which had played such a significant role in shaping the
French nation and monarchy. (See also Dynastic Rivalry; France;
Guise-Lorraine Family; Wars of Italy; Wars of Religion.)
T
he Spanish author Lope Félix de Vega Carpio was one of the most
productive writers of the Renaissance. With hundreds of titles to his
credit, he produced works in nearly every literary style of his time. Lope
played a major role in transforming Spanish theater during the
Renaissance, creating the popular “new theater” that drew large crowds
to open-air performances in the city of Madrid.
A Dramatic Life. As a child, Lope composed poetry even before he
could write. By age 5 he could read Latin as well as his native language,
Castilian. He wrote his first play at the age of 12. At age 14 Lope attended the University of Alcalá, and at 21 he joined a military expedition to
the Azores, a group of islands owned by Portugal in the north Atlantic
Ocean. In 1588 Lope was banished from Madrid for eight years for libel*
after circulating satiric* verses that attacked his former lover, the married daughter of a producer-director, and her family. He returned to
Madrid illegally, however, and had his sentence lifted after serving seven
years.
During his exile Lope became familiar with several dramatists from
Valencia in eastern Spain. Their influence led Lope to introduce several
innovations to theater in Madrid that challenged the classical* principles of the earlier Renaissance. Lope discussed these changes in his book
New Art of Playwriting in this Kingdom, published in 1609. In one of the
work’s most important passages, Lope defended tragicomedy—the use
of comic scenes, characters, and subplots in tragic plays.
Literary Achievements. At least 314 plays written by Lope have survived. Scholars have grouped these works into several broad, overlapping categories based on their themes and source material. One major
grouping is Lope’s honor plays, such as The Sheep-Well. This “peasant
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* medieval referring to the Middle
Ages, a period that began around A.D.
400 and ended around 1400 in Italy
and 1500 in the rest of Europe
* adultery sexual relationship outside
of marriage
* epic long poem about the
adventures of a hero
* sonnet poem of 14 lines with a fixed
pattern of meter and rhyme
* pastoral relating to the countryside;
often used to draw a contrast between
the innocence and serenity of rural life
and the corruption and extravagance of
court life
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* republic form of Renaissance
government dominated by leading
merchants with limited participation by
others
See color
plate 1,
vol. 3
* duchy territory controlled by a duke
or duchess
148
honor play,” based on an actual peasant uprising from the 1300s, celebrates revenge as an effective way to resolve questions of honor.
Historical dramas form another large group. Many of Lope’s most
powerful plays dramatized scenes from medieval* Castilian history,
using such sources as legends and ballads. Examples include The Knight
from Olmedo, based on a popular ballad about the murder of a young
man by the servants of his rival, and Punishment Without Vengeance, a
tragedy about the murder of a young wife who has committed adultery*. In a more comic vein, Lope wrote many cloak-and-sword plays,
drawing on a long tradition of humorous dramas about secret schemes
that dates back to the ancient Roman authors Plautus and Terence.
Many of these, such as The Prudent Woman in Love and Loving Without
Knowing Whom, ridicule the customs and prejudices of Spanish society
in Lope’s time.
Along with his plays, Lope wrote poetry in a variety of different
forms. Unlike his fairly brief three-act plays, Lope’s epics* gave him an
opportunity to write in a grand, dramatic style. He based some of these
long poems on earlier works by other poets. For instance, Angelica’s
Beauty continued the plot of Ludovico ARIOSTO’s Orlando Furioso (Mad
Roland), while Jerusalem Regained was a response to Torquato TASSO’s
Jerusalem Delivered. Lope also produced love sonnets*, popular ballads
such as “Poor Little Boat of Mine,” and extensive prose works, which
often included large portions of verse. His La Arcadia, published in 1598,
was the last major Spanish pastoral* novel. (See also Drama, Spanish;
Spanish Language and Literature.)
T
he republic* of Venice, one of the major powers of Renaissance
Italy, built an extensive land and sea empire in the eastern
Mediterranean. It became known for its distinctive form of government, stable society, and brilliant cultural achievements. When political turmoil and foreign invasions swept across the Italian peninsula
during the 1400s and 1500s, Venice was the only state that remained
independent.
The Venetian Empire. Venice was settled in the 500s and 600s by
refugees from the Italian mainland. They built communities on mudflats
and sandbanks in a lagoon off Italy’s northeastern coast. By 1000 these
communities had united to form a city ruled by an elected official (called
a doge) and councils of merchants. Venetian traders sold fish and salt to
towns along the coast and, later, to ports around the Mediterranean Sea.
As its commerce expanded, Venice became locked in rivalry with
GENOA, another Italian trading city. The two went to war in 1379–1380.
The Venetian admirals emerged victorious, and the city continued to
dominate commerce in the Mediterranean.
After triumphing over Genoa, the Venetians expanded into northeastern Italy. The move brought Venice into conflict with the duchy* of MILAN.
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* Holy Roman Empire political body
in central Europe composed of several
states; existed until 1806
* Ottoman Empire Islamic empire
founded by Ottoman Turks in the 1300s
that reached the height of its power in
the 1500s; it eventually included large
areas of eastern Europe, the Middle
East, and northern Africa
* maritime
shipping
relating to the sea or
* aristocracy privileged upper classes
of society; nobles or the nobility
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In civic ceremonies, letters, and
art, Venetians promoted an
image that historians call “the
myth of Venice.” The image portrayed Venice as ideally organized, well governed, peaceful,
and productive. Citizens called
Venice La Serenissima (the most
serene—untroubled—republic).
The myth was mostly true.
Although Venice had crime,
greed, and corruption, it did not
have social conflicts, and its citizens did not try to overthrow the
government.
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In 1455 Pope NICHOLAS V attempted to avert war by forming the Italian
League, an alliance that established a balance of power among Italy’s five
major states: Venice, Milan, Naples, Florence, and the Papal States.
Venice angered other members of the Italian League with its efforts to
expand its territory and its trade routes. In 1508 the other Italian powers joined France, Spain, the Holy Roman Empire*, and the pope in a
campaign to seize some of Venice’s territories. Despite the forces joined
against them, the Venetians resisted the takeover, and Venice emerged
with its city and empire intact. By 1530 Venice was the only Italian citystate to remain a great and independent power.
Another challenge to Venice’s rule came from the Ottoman Empire*,
which had begun seizing Mediterranean lands in the mid-1400s. At first,
Venice negotiated with the Ottomans to continue trading. Then, in
1571 the Venetians joined other European states to defeat the Ottoman
navy in the Battle of Lepanto. In the late 1500s and early 1600s, Venice’s
maritime* empire declined in importance. European voyages to the
Americas, along with growing demand for products such as sugar and
tobacco, shifted the center of trade from the Mediterranean to the
Atlantic.
Government. Venice was both a city and a nation. Its unique form of
government combined features of monarchy, aristocracy*, and republic.
The head of state, the doge, was elected through an elaborate series of
committees designed to prevent any particular group from controlling
the office. Every year the doge led official processions and performed
ceremonies, such as casting a ring into the lagoon to symbolize Venice’s
marriage to the sea.
Venice’s upper class kept a tight rein on the doge’s powers through
three councils—the Great Council, the Senate, and the Council of Ten—
and many lesser councils. The Great Council consisted of the adult male
members of the nobility. In 1297 membership on the Great Council was
limited to the prosperous merchant families that made up the Venetian
nobility. The Great Council elected most officials, including the doge,
and made laws. The Senate, a smaller council, supervised ambassadors
and city officials and managed the growth of the empire. The Council
of Ten was responsible for state security. It became increasingly important in the late 1400s, and by the 1600s some considered its members
the real rulers of Venice.
The Venetian government also included many lesser councils and committees. Only nobles could hold government office, but educated members of the middle class could serve as government secretaries. This group
gained considerable status and was regarded as second only to the nobles.
Society. The nobility shaped civic life in Venice. Some nobles devoted
themselves to political careers, leaving commerce to other family members. The wealthiest noble families built grand palaces and supported
the arts.
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Trieste
Venice
0
0
A
Zara
d
ri
at
ic
O
Spalato
Se
a
T
O
M
A N
Samothrace
Thasos
Durazzo
E M
P I R
E
Salonica
Imbros
Lemnos
Butrinto
Sporades
Parga
Prevesa
Santa Maura
Ithaca
Cephalonia
Zante
Negroponte
Athens
Nauplia
Navarino
Modon
Coron
Venetian Territories
in the Eastern
Mediterranean
Venetian territory
Venetian city
* confraternity religious and social
organization of Roman Catholics who
were not members of the clergy
* artisan
skilled worker or craftsperson
* guild association of craft and trade
owners and workers that set standards
for and represented the interests of its
members
150
200 mi.
200 km
Black Sea
T
Cattaro
Corfu
100
100
Malvasia
Cerigo
Grambusa
Duchy of
Naxos
Rhodes
Cyprus
Karpathos
Kasos
Crete
N
Mediterranean Sea
Within the citizen class, those born in Venice had the highest status.
Although citizens could not hold political office, they could freely pursue wealth. Many belonged to confraternities* called scuole, which provided fellowship as well as opportunities to display one’s wealth and
perform good deeds. The scuole commissioned artists to decorate their
meeting halls and appeared in civic processions. They also took the lead
in aiding the poor, providing money for orphans, widows, and others in
need.
Venice had numerous professional and neighborhood organizations.
Many artisans*, such as silkworkers and glassblowers, belonged to craft
guilds*. The workers at Venice’s immense shipbuilding center also
joined guilds. Venice’s neighborhood associations centered on the
parish churches. Within each parish, special ceremonies strengthened
neighborhood ties.
The Venetian government fought crime by closely supervising residents and promptly punishing wrongdoers. Criminals were fined, banished from the city, or executed. Justice was not uniform, however.
Crimes against nobles were often punished with extra harshness, while
crimes committed by nobles received light punishment.
Venice’s many foreign residents formed organizations of their own.
In the Greek and Slav communities, the churches served as both spiri-
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Shipbuilding was a major industry in
Venice. The Venetian Arsenal, shown here,
was a complex of shipyards where several
thousand builders assembled vessels with
great speed and skill. It was the foremost
technological center of its time, larger
than any other industrial complex in the
world.
tual and social centers. German and Turkish merchants lived near the
Rialto, the city’s commercial center. After 1516 the Jews of Venice had to
live within a closed, gated neighborhood called the ghetto, the first such
confinement of Jews to a segregated neighborhood. Within the ghetto
they followed their own laws and customs.
* relics pieces of bone, possessions, or
other items belonging to a saint or
sacred person
* papacy
pope
office and authority of the
* heretic person who rejects the
doctrine of an established church
* humanist Renaissance expert in the
humanities (the languages, literature,
history, and speech and writing
techniques of ancient Greece and
Rome)
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Religion and Culture. Religion played a major role in Venetian life.
The primarily Roman Catholic city was filled with churches and had
many priests, friars, and nuns. Venice took particular pride in its relics*,
especially the body of St. Mark, the city’s patron saint.
At the same time, however, Venice held itself apart from the papacy*.
The Venetian Senate, not the pope, appointed the bishops and other
major clergy of the city’s mainland territories. Venice itself had no bishop. The city’s highest-ranking religious officials were the clergy at the
church of San Marco, which was attached to the doge’s palace. Venice
was also home to many heretics*. Individuals who wanted to obtain the
writings of reformist thinkers such as Martin LUTHER and Desiderius
ERASMUS could do so easily in Venice.
The nobles who governed Venice dominated its intellectual life. Most
young nobles attended the nearby University of Padua. Venetian
humanists* tended to be members of the upper class or to work for
noble patrons. They discussed many popular subjects, but rarely
addressed ideas such as political liberty, which might have threatened
the ruling class.
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* classical in the tradition of ancient
Greece and Rome
Vergerio, Pier
Paolo
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ca.1369–1444
Italian humanist
* humanist Renaissance expert in the
humanities (the languages, literature,
history, and speech and writing
techniques of ancient Greece and
Rome)
* rhetoric art of speaking or writing
effectively
* treatise
long, detailed essay
* Holy Roman Emperor ruler of the
Holy Roman Empire, a political body in
central Europe composed of several
states that existed until 1806
152
Foreign humanists who came to Venice seeking employment could
teach or could work in the city’s printing industry. By 1500 the city had
become Europe’s major publishing center. Free-spirited and sophisticated, Venice was a magnet for writers of all sorts. Poetry, drama, and classical* studies flourished. In the 1500s many women writers lived and
worked in Venice, including the humanist Cassandra Fedele and the
poets Gaspara Stampa and Veronica Franco.
Venice produced many important artists during the Renaissance,
including TITIAN, TINTORETTO, and the members of the BELLINI FAMILY. In
addition, the city was itself widely regarded as a work of art, shimmering on the waters of the lagoon, adorned with hundreds of churches
and palaces. Artists from all over Europe visited Venice to paint the magical cityscape. (See also Art in Italy; Italy.)
P
ier Paolo Vergerio was one of the leading humanists* of his generation. His ideas on education influenced European thinkers for centuries. He placed a great deal of stress on skillful public speaking, an idea
that became central to the humanist movement.
Vergerio was born in a small Italian town on the Gulf of Trieste. He
received a degree in the arts from the University of Bologna and then
spent seven years studying medicine and law at the University of Padua.
In Bologna Vergerio developed an interest in the art of rhetoric* and in
the best methods for educating young adults. In 1400 he laid out his
ideas on the subject in a short treatise* on education. That work spelled
out a new method of teaching adolescents that helped change the
course of education in Europe.
Vergerio based his program on three core disciplines: history,
moral philosophy, and rhetoric. He saw these subjects as the key to
developing good moral character and sound political judgment.
Moral philosophy, he claimed, taught students good values. History
provided examples to illustrate these values. Finally, rhetoric offered
the means to persuade others to make moral decisions in the political realm. Vergerio’s program was widely copied by later educators. It
formed the basis of European educational theory for many generations.
Vergerio also influenced many people through his speeches and
sermons. He defended the ideals of humanism and sought to heal divisions within the Roman Catholic Church. Vergerio spent the final
years of his career in the service of the Holy Roman Emperor*
Sigismund, retiring from public service after the emperor’s death in
1437. He died in Hungary seven years later (See also Education;
Humanism.)
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Paolo
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1528–1588
Venetian painter
* allegorical referring to a literary or
artistic device in which characters, events,
and settings represent abstract qualities
and in which the author intends a different
meaning to be read beneath the surface
* foreshortening technique that
involves changing the proportions of
figures or objects to make them appear
to be three-dimensional
Venetian painter Paolo Veronese, most
renowned for his colorful, dramatic ceiling
paintings, changed his artistic style
towards the end of his career. His later
works, such as this painting of a warrior
from the 1570s, have darker, more expressive backgrounds than his earlier paintings.
A
long with TITIAN and TINTORETTO, Paolo Veronese was one of the
dominant Venetian painters in the late 1500s. Born Paolo Caliari in
Verona, Italy, the painter became known as Veronese in honor of his
native city. He gained a reputation as a master of ceiling painting, often
of biblical or allegorical* subjects. These ceilings are notable for their
dramatic treatment of space achieved through color and foreshortening*.
Veronese came from a family of stonecutters but turned to painting and studied with local masters. His family’s craft may have influenced the artist, whose paintings reveal a strong sense of
architectural form and space. His earliest works, dating from about
1546, are marked by sensitive brushwork and clarity of color. His figures, inspired partly by the Italian artist PARMIGIANINO, are elegant in
style.
In 1551 Veronese ventured beyond Verona to paint fresco decorations for buildings in Venice. He moved to Venice permanently in
1553 to work on ceilings for rooms in the Ducal Palace. Veronese’s
skill as a designer of ceiling paintings flourished in Venice, with
major projects for the church of San Sebastiano and the Library of
St. Mark (Biblioteca Marciana). His allegorical painting of Music for
the library earned Veronese the prize of a gold chain. For other
churches and religious buildings in Venice, the artist created
remarkable paintings that portray biblical feasts in monumental
architectural settings. One of these works, a painting of the Last
Supper, brought Veronese before the Venetian Inquisition to answer
charges of including inappropriate subject matter—specifically
dwarfs, drunkards, and other vulgar characters—in this sacred
scene. The artist changed the title of the work to Feast in the House
of Levi.
Veronese had a number of important patrons, including the prominent humanist writer Daniele Barbaro. From the beginning of his
career in Venice, the artist also worked for the state in the continuing
decoration of the Ducal Palace, most notably the Hall of the College
(Sala del Collegio). The allegorical ceiling paintings for the room celebrate the power, prestige, and righteousness of the Venetian
Republic.
Toward the end of Veronese’s career, his painting became more
Venetian in style. While still notable for clarity of color and fine brushwork, the artists later works have a darker, more expressive background.
For many years Veronese ran a large family workshop. After the artist’s
death in 1588, his brother and sons continued the workshop, signing
the works produced there Haeredes Pauli (heirs of Paolo). (See also Art in
Italy.)
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VERROCCHIO, ANDREA DEL
Verrocchio, e
Andrea del
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Verrocchio, Andrea del
ca. 1435–1488
Italian artist
See color
plate 4,
vol. 1
* baptistery building where baptisms
are performed
* mercenary
hired soldier
* altarpiece work of art that decorates
the altar of a church
Andreas
eVesalius, e
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Vesalius, Andreas
1514–1564
Belgian anatomist
* apothecary
pharmacist
* Holy Roman Emperor ruler of the
Holy Roman Empire, a political body in
central Europe composed of several
states that existed until 1806
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A
ndrea di Michele di Francesco Cione, known as Andrea del
Verrocchio, was a leading Florentine goldsmith, sculptor, and
painter. Many younger artists, including LEONARDO DA VINCI, learned
their craft in Verrocchio’s workshop. As a sculptor, Verrocchio bridged
the gap between DONATELLO and MICHELANGELO.
Verrocchio trained as a goldsmith before turning to sculpture. His
first major sculptural work, the Incredulity of St. Thomas (ca. 1466–1483),
was purchased by the merchants’ court of Florence to replace a statue by
Donatello. The large bronze piece shows the figures of Christ and the
saint united in a dramatic way.
Verrocchio produced a number of important projects for the MEDICI
family. In 1472 he completed a Medici tomb in the church of San
Lorenzo in Florence. The sculptor’s early training as a goldsmith can be
seen in his treatment of the tomb’s elegantly carved leaves. Verrocchio’s
work for the Medici includes two bronze statues: David and Putto [infant
boy] with a Dolphin. The surfaces of both are finely carved with delicately worked details.
Verrocchio’s concern with detail and surface texture appears in
Beheading of the Baptist, a small silver sculpture for the Florentine baptistery*. The work reveals the artist’s skill in depicting facial expressions.
His busts (statues of head and shoulders) reflect the same skill. In Lady
Holding Flowers (late 1470s), the beautifully carved features and graceful
hands give the subject a noble air. Verrocchio’s inclusion of the arms
and hands was something new in Renaissance busts. About 1479 the
artist received a commission from the city of Venice for a statue of the
prominent mercenary* Bartolomeo Colleoni on horseback. The fierce
expression on Colleoni’s face and the horse’s raised hoof give the imposing bronze monument a sense of menace. Verrocchio did not complete
the work before his death.
In his own time Verrocchio was highly regarded as a painter as well
as a sculptor. However, art historians have discovered that some pictures
traditionally associated with Verrocchio were painted, entirely or in
part, by others. Leonardo da Vinci touched up Verrocchio’s Baptism of
Christ. An altarpiece* in Pistoia Cathedral, long thought to have been
painted by Verrocchio, is mostly the work of one of his pupils. Yet as
both painter and teacher, Verrocchio influenced many central Italian
artists, including Sandro BOTTICELLI, Pietro PERUGINO, and Domenico
Ghirlandaio. (See also Art; Art in Italy.)
A
ndreas Vesalius of Belgium made important contributions to MEDICINE, both as a physician-surgeon and as an anatomist (one who
studies anatomy). His research on anatomy transformed the study of the
human body. However, he made his greatest impact on science through
his systematic method of collecting data, which he used to test the theories of earlier medical scholars.
Born in Brussels, Vesalius was the son of an apothecary* in the service of Holy Roman Emperor* CHARLES V. He attended school in Brussels
and at the nearby University of Louvain, then went on to study medi-
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VIENNA
* dissect to cut open a body to
examine its inner parts
Vespucci, Amerigo
cine at the Universities of Paris and Padua. Vesalius became a professor
of surgery at Padua, charged with performing human dissections*. The
notes of a student who attended his first dissection are still preserved.
Before long, Vesalius gained a reputation as an excellent teacher and
an expert anatomist. In 1538 he worked with an artist to produce a set
of anatomical charts of the human body. These were based mainly on
the ideas of GALEN, an ancient Greek physician whose writings had
become the basis of medical theory in Europe. Galen, however, had dissected only animals, and many of his theories did not apply to human
anatomy. A few years later, after gaining more experience in human dissection, Vesalius abandoned Galen’s doctrines. He began preparing his
own great work on anatomy, On the Structure of the Human Body, which
he published in 1543.
Vesalius’s text ran more than 650 pages and offered a complete study
of the human body. Its most striking feature was its illustrations, created by draftsmen from the studio of the artist TITIAN in Venice. These
included a series of 14 images showing the stages in the dissection of a
muscle. Because the Structure was a vast technical work, Vesalius also
issued a much shorter and simpler text on anatomy, the Epitome.
Designed for medical students and readers with little or no knowledge
of anatomy, the Epitome quickly became popular.
The Structure not only increased knowledge of the human body but
also had a lasting influence on Renaissance science in general. Vesalius
argued that the only reliable way to understand anatomy was to study
the body directly. Because bodies tend to vary, the anatomist had to
study many individuals before forming a theory or doctrine. Thus,
Vesalius set out the basic scientific principle that an experiment must be
repeated many times to confirm its results.
After publishing the Structure, Vesalius entered the service of Charles V.
In addition to treating the emperor’s many illnesses, he visited medical
schools while traveling around the empire. He also continued to conduct dissections and developed several new surgical techniques. In 1555,
Vesalius prepared a revised edition of the Structure. Soon after, he joined
the court of Charles’s son, PHILIP II, king of Spain and the Netherlands.
In 1564 he made a long voyage, most likely a pilgrimage to the Holy
Land. Shipwrecked during the return trip, Vesalius died from exhaustion
on an island off the coast of Greece. (See also Anatomy.)
See Exploration.
Vespucci, Amerigo
[PN:ART C-White Text tag is doctitle]
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Vienna
* Holy Roman Empire political body
in central Europe composed of several
states; existed until 1806
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T
he Austrian city of Vienna was more influential during the
Renaissance as a center of learning than as a showcase of the visual
arts. Its artistic and architectural significance lagged behind its political
importance as the chief city, and sometimes official residence, of the
HABSBURGS who ruled the Holy Roman Empire*.
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VIENNA
The Austrian city of Vienna lacked the
resources to adopt new Renaissance styles
of art and architecture. It remained a
medieval walled city and expanded its
defensive fortifications, as shown in this
aerial view from the 1600s.
* patron supporter or financial
sponsor of an artist or writer
* humanism Renaissance cultural
movement promoting the study of the
humanities (the languages, literature,
and history of ancient Greece and
Rome) as a guide to living
* medieval referring to the Middle
Ages, a period that began around A.D.
400 and ended around 1400 in Italy
and 1500 in the rest of Europe
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In the 1400s and early 1500s, Habsburg rulers undertook few major
building projects in Vienna. Some had little interest in the city; others
spent most of their time in other parts of the realm. Emperor RUDOLF II,
an important patron* of Renaissance humanism* and painting, established his court in PRAGUE rather than Vienna.
Emperor FERDINAND I did some remodeling of the Hofburg palace in
Vienna, and he built a graceful building on the palace grounds that was
to be a residence for his oldest son, the future emperor MAXIMILIAN II. For
his part, Maximilian II began several ambitious building projects, but
completed little. Aside from some modest decorative features that
reflected Renaissance style, Vienna remained a medieval* walled city.
Vienna also lacked wealthy citizens who could support Renaissance
art and architecture. The city had been a trading center in the Middle
Ages, but it no longer attracted much commerce. European trade patterns had shifted west, largely because of the threat of expansion by the
Ottoman Turks* into southeastern Europe. As a result, instead of graceful Renaissance buildings, the city saw the expansion of defensive FORTIFICATIONS.
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VIGNOLA, GIACOMO BAROZZI DA
* Ottoman Turks Islamic people who
founded the Ottoman Empire in the
1300s; the empire eventually included
large areas of eastern Europe, the
Middle East, and northern Africa
Vignola, Giacomo
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Barozzi
da
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1507–1573
Italian architect and theorist
Vignola, Giacomo Barozzi da
* classical in the tradition of ancient
Greece and Rome
* perspective artistic technique for
creating the illusion of threedimensional space on a flat surface
* papacy
pope
office and authority of the
* villa luxurious country home and the
land surrounding it
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Although Vienna did not become a center of Renaissance art, it played
a significant role in the new Renaissance learning. Its university, founded in 1365, was the second oldest in central Europe and attracted major
scholars. Important work took place there in the natural sciences and in
the development of instruments of measurement. Studies by university
scholars on eclipses and calendars proved to be of great value to navigators of the time, such as Vasco da GAMA and Christopher COLUMBUS.
Vienna and its Habsburg rulers welcomed humanist writers and scholars. In 1497 Emperor MAXIMILIAN I established a special position at the
university for Conrad CELTIS, the German poet. Celtis formed a literary
society and brought various talented friends and students to Vienna. All
of these individuals were greatly influenced by NICHOLAS OF CUSA, one of
the leading philosophers and religious writers of the period.
Vienna became a major center of musical and theatrical life as well.
Maximilian I hired some of the most prominent musicians and composers of the age for his court chapel, and his successors carried on this
tradition. Maximilian was also an enthusiastic patron of the theater.
Lavish productions of plays by ancient Greek and Roman writers were
performed regularly, many with music, dance, and elaborate costumes.
During the 1500s Catholic and Protestant groups used drama to bring
the message of moral reform to Vienna’s citizens, presenting biblical stories with local twists. (See also Architecture; Austria; German
Language and Literature.)
G
iacomo Barozzi da Vignola was one of the most inventive and
influential architects of the Renaissance. Vignola’s lasting contribution, however, comes from his two famous texts on architecture. One
of them, The Five Orders of Architecture (1562), is a practical manual on
the decoration of classical* columns. The other, Two Rules of Practical
Perspective, remains the most authoritative summary of perspective* theory of the 1500s.
Born to a family of artists in a small village in central Italy, Vignola
was trained as a painter in Bologna. He excelled in drawing and perspective and began to study architecture, probably with Baldassare
PERUZZI. By 1538 Vignola was working in Rome as an assistant on the
redesign of St. Peter’s church. He also produced drawings of ancient
Roman ruins and made bronze replicas of ancient statues for King
FRANCIS I of France, an activity that took him to France in 1541.
Returning to Bologna in 1543, Vignola was the architect of San
Petronio church, and he redesigned the city’s canal. In 1550 he went to
Rome as architect to Pope JULIUS III, beginning two decades of almost
continuous service to the papacy*. From 1565 until his death, Vignola
directed work on St. Peter’s. He also became architect for the House of
FARNESE, for which he designed and decorated a magnificent villa*.
Vignola was the leading architect in Rome after MICHELANGELO. His
buildings and writings exerted considerable influence on architects in
Rome and throughout Europe. Vignola developed a forceful and origi-
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VILLON, FRANÇOIS
nal style based on the Renaissance principles, featuring restrained decoration and a clear, uncluttered design. Among his most famous works
are the Villa Giulia, built for Julius III, the Palazzo Farnese, and the
church of Il Gesù in Rome. (See also Architecture.)
eVillon, François
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Villon, François
1431–ca. 1463
French poet
* stanza section of a poem;
specifically, a grouping of lines into a
recurring pattern determined by meter
or rhyme scheme
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Violence
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Violence
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F
rançois Villon, the last major poet of the Middle Ages in France,
attracted much admiration from French writers of the Renaissance.
Clément Marot called him the greatest Parisian poet, and François
RABELAIS quoted him in two of his own works. Villon wove elements
from his own difficult life into his two major works, Lais and Testament.
Villon was born into a poor family and raised by a clergyman, whose
name the poet adopted in 1456. This father figure helped Villon attend
the University of Paris, where he received his bachelor’s and master’s
degrees. In Paris Villon apparently fell in with some bad company and
became involved in crime. He killed a man who had attacked him with
a dagger, stole money from the College of Navarre, went to prison for
another unidentified crime, and finally received a death sentence for his
involvement in another fight. He escaped death in exchange for ten
years of exile, and three days later he disappeared from Paris forever.
As a poet Villon was known for his biting humor, especially in his two
major works: Lais (1456) and Testament (1462). In the 40 stanzas* of
Lais, Villon painted himself as a wounded lover who, because his love is
not returned, must leave town. The poet leaves his few belongings, such
as his trousers and hair clippings, to his friends and fellow citizens.
Villon’s masterpiece, Testament, also deals with giving away possessions.
In this lengthy work, which combines 158 stanzas of poetry with 16 ballads and three shorter poems, the poet looks back on his lost youth,
poor background, and uncertain future as he makes his will. Villon’s sarcastic wit appears in such details as the main character’s decision to
leave his glasses to the blind. In more thoughtful moments, the author
reflects on himself and other victims of love, poverty, and time.
Testament even has moments of tender sympathy, as when the poet
leaves his most powerful gift, his poetic voice, to those who are not
heard, such as his mother or an aging prostitute. (See also French
Language and Literature.)
V
iolence against people and property was commonplace during the
Renaissance. Society held conflicting attitudes about violent acts. It
approved of some forms of violence, such as war and physical punishments for crimes, but punished other forms, including murder and rape.
Still other types of violence, such as duels and feuds, were technically
illegal but still widespread.
Violence could break out anywhere, but cities were generally safer
than the countryside because they had walls, armed guards at gates, and
police forces. When traveling in the country, merchants and other travelers often joined armed groups called convoys as a safeguard against
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Violence was common at all levels of
Renaissance society. In this copper engraving from the late 1500s, Spanish forces are
killing rebels in the Dutch town of Harlem.
highwaymen. Unprotected peasants risked falling victim to bandits—or
to violent nobles who preyed on the common people. Undisciplined
soldiers posed another threat, often attacking and robbing helpless civilians. To protect themselves, most Renaissance men went about their
daily business armed with some sort of weapon. Women without male
protection faced the threat of rape.
Violent Crime. Renaissance society recognized several crimes of violence, and their punishments varied according to the nature of the
crime. Authorities tended to view fighting as normal behavior. Those
who engaged in brawls might receive a minor fine or escape punishment
completely. If they had shed blood, however, the matter became much
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VIOLENCE
more serious. The punishment for violent crimes such as assault and
murder depended upon the judge’s interpretation of the attacker’s
motives and state of mind. “Crimes of passion,” committed in the heat
of the moment, generally received lighter sentences than cold-blooded
crimes based on self-interest. Robbers and hired killers faced much more
severe punishment than someone who committed a senseless murder
during a drunken brawl.
Renaissance judges were especially concerned about speech as a form
of violence. They believed that violent words gave rise to violent
actions, such as feuds (ongoing battles between families) and attacks on
public officials. Some communities outlawed specific insulting words
and gestures. Punishments for verbal violence were very severe. In fact,
in some cases, threatening someone could carry a more severe penalty
than physically attacking the person.
The law treated sexual violence as a minor form of assault and punished it less severely than robbery or violent speech. Judges determined
the seriousness of a rape by the age and social rank of the victim. The
rape of a young girl or boy was a much more serious crime than an
attack on a married woman or a widow. The rape of a single woman of
marriageable age was generally viewed more as an outburst of uncontrollable male passion than a crime, and such rapists frequently escaped
punishment altogether. Other rapists might have to pay a fine or marry
their victims. Few were ever executed. By the late 1500s, however,
women had begun to demand that officials take a sterner attitude
toward sexual crimes.
Group Violence. Individual acts of violence often reflected the anger
between larger groups. The family feud, for example, was a series of violent outbursts between individual members of warring families. This tradition had begun during the Middle Ages, when families, rather than
governments, took the responsibility for punishing crimes committed
against their members. The men of the family would hunt down men
of their enemy’s family, making no effort to conceal the attacks.
Renaissance governments tried to stamp out feuds because these conflicts among leading families threatened the stability of the state. Feuds
turned gentlemen into outlaws. Exiled for their crimes, these individuals often turned to theft or murder-for-hire to support themselves.
Another danger came from the armed guards often employed by feuding families. These guards, called bravos, posed a threat not only to their
employers’ enemies but also to helpless peasants and citizens.
In the late 1500s the spread of the pistol and the rapier (a sharp, lightweight sword) made combat much more deadly. As a result, warring
families gave up street brawls in favor of the DUEL, a ritual fight between
two individuals. Dueling first became popular in Italy, and in the late
1500s it spread to the rest of Europe. The group violence of feuds gradually gave way to the individual violence of duels.
Political demonstrations could turn violent as well. Markets, public
squares, and other urban gathering places often saw outbreaks of group
violence, such as riots against public officials or brawls among the sup-
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VIRGIL
* elite
privileged group; upper class
* arson deliberately setting fires that
cause harm to people or property
* picaresque refers to a type of fiction
dealing with the adventures of a rogue
or rascal
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Virgil
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Virgil
70–19 B.C.
Roman poet
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porters of rival elite* families. Both men and women took part in these
violent outbursts. Women with families to feed were especially likely to
be involved in bread riots, which occurred when food was scarce or
expensive.
Some acts of group violence occurred as part of social rituals. Gangs
of young, single men, known as youth abbeys, sometimes terrorized the
least powerful members of the community. For example, they engaged
in noisy ceremonies called charivaris to mock people whose marriages
or sexual relationships seemed to depart from community standards,
such as old men who married young girls. Although the ritual mostly
involved singing mocking songs and banging pots and pans, it could
lead to arson*, assault, or even murder. The abbeys also subjected
women to gang rapes. Women shamed in this way often had no choice
but to turn to a life of prostitution.
Violence formed a part of certain SPORTS and public spectacles as well.
In the Italian city of Venice, neighborhood gangs held “bridge battles”
in which they fought to gain possession of a bridge. These fights with
fists and heavy sticks could cause serious injuries and even deaths. The
upper-class sport of jousting, in which mounted fighters tried to knock
each other from their horses, also resulted in some accidental deaths.
Many people enjoyed watching carnival sports that involved the torture
of animals, such as bearbaiting, in which dogs attacked a chained bear.
Crowds also gathered to witness the public torture or execution of criminals.
Lawful and Unlawful Violence. During the Renaissance the line
between lawful and unlawful violence was often blurred. Many types of
organized violence under state control could easily shift into unlawful
forms. One gray area was PIRACY. The state authorized some sailors,
called privateers, to attack and loot the vessels of enemy nations.
However, many of those who referred to themselves by this name were
really freelance pirates who preyed on both neutral and enemy ships.
Soldiers could also cross the line into unlawful violence, turning into
highway robbers. Because all governments faced critical shortages of
manpower for their armies and police forces, they often recruited paupers, criminals, and outlaws. They also relied on mercenaries, professional fighters who offered their services for hire. The spread of
professional soldiering in the 1400s and 1500s created a rootless class of
people trained in violence. Many of them formed criminal bands. These
shady figures—known as rogues in England, pícaros in Spain, and ribaldi or vagabondi in Italy—became the basis of the literary form called the
picaresque* novel. (See also Crime and Punishment; Sexuality and
Gender; Warfare.)
O
ne of the greatest poets of ancient Rome, Virgil was also one of the
most widely read classical* authors of the Renaissance. His bestknown works were the Eclogues, a series of ten pastoral* poems; the
Georgics, a set of four books on farming; and his famous Aeneid, an epic*
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VITTORINO DA FELTRE
* classical in the tradition of ancient
Greece and Rome
* pastoral relating to the countryside;
often used to draw a contrast between
the innocence and serenity of rural life
and the corruption and extravagance of
court life
* epic long poem about the
adventures of a hero
* humanist Renaissance expert in the
humanities (the languages, literature,
history, and speech and writing
techniques of ancient Greece and
Rome)
* fresco
wall
mural painted on a plaster
Vittorino e
da Feltre
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Vittorino da Feltre
1378–1446
Italian humanist
and educator
* humanist referring to a Renaissance
cultural movement promoting the study
of the humanities (the languages,
literature, and history of ancient Greece
and Rome) as a guide to living
* rhetoric art of speaking or writing
effectively
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about the wanderings of the hero Aeneas, the legendary founder of
Rome. Virgil’s poetry became a key part of the school curriculum during
the Renaissance and had a profound influence on the literature, art, and
values of the period.
In the late 1300s, humanist* scholars began trying to recover the
great works of ancient Greece and Rome. As humanism made its way
into the schools, Virgil’s works took a central place in education. By the
end of the 1500s, almost everyone who received a humanist education
was familiar with at least some of Virgil’s poetry. Renaissance readers
turned to Virgil’s work for guidance in mastering Latin, the international language of the day. They drew on his poetry for well-turned
phrases, figures of speech, and moral lessons, such as “fortune helps the
bold and drives away the coward.”
Virgil’s works served as models for much of the literature written in
Latin during the Renaissance. His poetry inspired generations of famous
writers, including PETRARCH and Giovanni BOCCACCIO. The Aeneid was
particularly influential. As a poem about exploration, it offered a literary model for Europeans coming to terms with the discovery and settlement of the New World. Renaissance artists and musicians also
turned to Virgil’s epic for ideas. The Aeneid inspired several sets of frescoes* (including one by the Italian painter RAPHAEL), as well as paintings,
sculptures, and other artistic works. It also became the subject of musical works by such master composers as JOSQUIN DES PREZ and Orlando di
LASSO. (See also Classical Scholarship; Education; Latin Language
and Literature.)
V
ittorino da Feltre was a pioneer of humanist* education in
Renaissance Italy. As a schoolmaster, he employed original teaching
methods and showed concern for the welfare of his students. His school
in the city of Mantua became an influential model for European boarding schools.
Vittorino studied at the University of Padua under the leading Latin
scholar of his day, Gasparino Barzizza. In 1419 Vittorino settled in
Padua and became a highly successful teacher. He taught students in his
home, varying his fee based on the financial status of the pupil.
Vittorino refused to accept more students than he believed he could
responsibly teach. He also paid attention to his pupils’ moral development.
In 1423 the ruler of Mantua invited Vittorino to the city to establish
a school for the children of leading families in the region. This school,
named “Pleasant House,” accepted both children of nobles and promising children of lesser means. The curriculum included not only the standard humanist subjects, such as grammar and rhetoric*, but also
mathematics, music, philosophy, and religion. Vittorino introduced several fresh approaches to learning at Pleasant House. He paid close attention to his students’ personal needs and to the learning environment in
general. He avoided crowded classrooms, presented material in stages so
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* treatise
long, detailed essay
Luis
eVives, Juan
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Vives, Juan Luis
1492–1540
Spanish humanist
* humanist Renaissance expert in the
humanities (the languages, literature,
history, and speech and writing
techniques of ancient Greece and
Rome)
* Spanish Inquisition court
established by the Spanish monarchs
that investigated Christians accused of
straying from the official doctrine of the
Roman Catholic Church, particularly
during the period 1480–1530
* theological relating to theology, the
study of the nature of God and of
religion
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Warfare
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students did not get frustrated, and varied his courses to prevent boredom. He also made physical exercise a part of the daily routine. Unlike
many other humanists, Vittorino left no treatises* describing his methods. What scholars know of them comes from the praise of his former
students. (See also Education; Humanism.)
T
he writings of Spanish humanist* Juan Luis Vives contributed to the
study of language, education, and social reform. His works on education, in particular, had an influence on both Catholics and
Protestants.
Vives grew up in a Jewish community in the Spanish city of Valencia.
His parents and other relatives suffered under the Spanish Inquisition*,
which executed his father by burning and removed his dead mother’s
body from its grave to burn it as well. Vives left Spain at the age of 17
and never returned. He eventually moved to Bruges in the Netherlands,
where he met and worked with other humanists, such as Desiderius
ERASMUS. In the 1520s Vives divided his time between the Netherlands
and England, where he taught at Oxford University. He became friendly with many English humanists, including Thomas MORE.
In 1522 Vives published a lengthy commentary on City of God, a theological* work by the ancient religious scholar AUGUSTINE OF HIPPO. In
this text, Vives criticized the sinful behavior of church officials. Four
years later he addressed the topic of social responsibility in On Aid to the
Poor. This work urged city governments to treat the war victims spread
throughout Europe like native citizens.
Several of Vives’s most important works deal with education. In
Education of the Christian Woman, for instance, Vives argued that the
education of women was consistent with female virtue. He pointed to
More’s daughters as examples. Schools throughout Europe used translations of many of Vives’s other educational writings, including
Introduction to Knowledge and Latin Exercises. Vives’s most powerful
works combined educational, social, political, and moral issues. His
Twenty Books on Education not only set out a revolutionary educational
program but also reflected on the corruption in human culture as a
whole and on how to reform it. His Three Books on the Soul and on Life
has been viewed as giving rise to the modern science of psychology. (See
also Education; Humanism; Inquisition.)
D
uring the Renaissance, warfare became more frequent and much
more destructive than in the Middle Ages. New technology, especially the introduction of gunpowder weapons and artillery, changed
the nature of war. With the rise of more centralized states came the
establishment of large standing armies. Some scholars have described
the developments in the period between 1350 and 1600 as a military
revolution.
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New forms of technology changed warfare during the 1500s and 1600s. This
1526 painting of a battle in Siena shows
the use of gunpowder cannons, one major
advance of this period.
THE NATURE OF WAR
* medieval referring to the Middle
Ages, a period that began around A.D.
400 and ended around 1400 in Italy
and 1500 in the rest of Europe
* prince Renaissance term for the ruler
of an independent state
Medieval* warfare was limited in scope, often involving conflicts between
individual nobles or between a noble and a prince*. However, during the
Renaissance some princes, particularly in France and Spain, grew much
more powerful than their neighbors. In addition, some European rulers
pursued a policy of building their kingdoms by conquering independent
territories. War ceased to be a local affair. It often involved troops from
many different lands who fought on soil far from home.
Causes of Wars. In the Renaissance wars were generally fought to
defend one’s territory, to acquire more territory for the state, or to gain
control of the monarchy. Many European wars of the period involved
disputes over inherited titles and territories. For example, the WARS OF
ITALY (1494–1559) began because King Charles VIII of France claimed to
be the rightful heir to the kingdom of Naples. However, the English
monarchy’s campaigns of conquest against Ireland and Scotland did not
rest on any claims of inheritance but were driven by the desire to
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* annex to add a territory to an
existing area
* chivalric referring to the rules and
customs of medieval knighthood
* mercenary
hired soldier
See color
plate 13,
vol. 2
* Holy Roman Empire political body
in central Europe composed of several
states; existed until 1806
See color
plate 11,
vol. 4
THE RENAISSANCE
enlarge the kingdom. The Spanish and French kingdoms also grew by
annexing* territory, often by warfare.
Other factors had an impact on warfare. The chivalric* ideal, which flourished during the Renaissance, led many men to fight for honor or glory.
This attitude was common among the nobility, and even some mercenary*
captains, for whom war was a profession, would engage in combat for reasons of honor. Religious differences played a role in many Renaissance wars
(most notably the THIRTY YEARS’ WAR), but few conflicts were based solely on
religion. Nevertheless, religious matters typically increased the bitterness of
fighting and complicated the process of making peace.
While princes fought for power, glory, and honor, the common soldier often had different reasons for joining the military. Defending one’s
country was a powerful motive, but soldiers were often lured by the
prospect of adventure and the opportunity to enrich themselves by looting towns or defeated enemies. Some men took up soldiering as a way
to escape trouble, debts, or an unhappy family life. Many simply needed the employment and wages offered by military service.
Major Renaissance Wars. Important wars occurred in almost every
part of Europe during the Renaissance. The Hundred Years’ War
(1337–1453) between France and England was fought to determine how
much control England would have over French territory. It ended with
England holding only the port of Calais. Besides battling each other,
both the French and English monarchies struggled to maintain control
at home. English nobles fought one another for power in the civil wars
known as the Wars of the Roses (1452–1487). France waged wars to add
Brittany and Burgundy to the kingdom.
The Wars of Italy began as an attempt by France’s King Charles VIII to
claim Naples as his inheritance. His invasion in 1494 set off a series of
wars for control over Italy that lasted for more than 60 years. The major
combatants were France, Spain, and the Holy Roman Empire*. By 1525
Spain had emerged as the clear winner and the most powerful kingdom
in Europe. At home, the Spanish monarchy waged war against the
Muslim kingdoms that had existed in southern Spain for hundreds of
years. Granada, the last Muslim stronghold, fell in 1492.
Religious violence in France led to a long civil war during the late
1500s. The WARS OF RELIGION (1562–1598), which went through various
phases of fighting, were a particularly bitter chapter in French history.
The conflicts resulted in the assassination of several noble figures and the
killing of several thousand Protestants and others at the St.
Bartholomew’s Day Massacre in 1572. Religious differences also led to the
Thirty Years’ War (1618–1648). Although it began as a dispute between
German princes and the Holy Roman Emperor, it grew into a war that
involved almost every major power in Europe. Some scholars say that the
Thirty Years’ War marked the political end of the Renaissance.
CHANGING WARFARE
Historians generally agree that a military revolution occurred during the
Renaissance, marking the start of the development of modern warfare.
They have different views, however, on the timing of this revolution and
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Heavy Metal
The design of Renaissance cannons differed significantly from
those used in later eras. Early illustrations from around 1326 show
cannons shaped like a vase or
bottle that apparently fired projectiles resembling large arrows.
Most cannons were cast in brass,
bronze, or another alloy containing copper. This was because
most early cannons were produced by bell makers, who used
the techniques and materials
with which they were familiar.
Some cannons had barrels composed of flat bars of wrought iron
arranged in a circle and held
tightly together by iron hoops.
The most famous large siege gun
of the Renaissance, known as
Mons Meg, was constructed by
this method. It reportedly could
fire a 330-pound stone ball a distance of up to two miles.
See color
plate 12,
vol. 2
166
propose dates ranging from the mid-1300s to the end of the 1600s. The
first part of the military revolution was the growth in the size of armed
forces. Armies expanded steadily from about 1350 to 1550. By 1500 all
European states except England supported the idea of a standing army.
Following the increase in military forces came the introduction of new,
sturdier fortifications. Spain built a chain of fortifications to defend the
state from internal and external attack. By 1600 the rest of Europe had
begun developing costly defensive works along with larger armies.
Significant advances in military technology occurred during this
period as well and profoundly changed the nature of warfare.
Technology was applied to both offensive and defensive warfare, and
the dominant military strategy shifted from defense to offense and then
back again to defense during the Renaissance. In addition, the increasing use of mercenaries made war a more professional undertaking.
Soldiers. All adult male subjects of a kingdom were eligible for military service. However, armies consisted largely of people from two
groups in society—the aristocrats who managed the war and the lower
classes who fought it. In most states, captains recruited soldiers from
certain areas, but there were never enough volunteers to fill out the
ranks of the army. Many men were pressed into service, but others
dodged the military or deserted as soon as they had the chance. As a
result, states relied heavily on mercenaries to fight their wars. Many
Italian states used hired soldiers in the 1300s and 1400s, and eventually the practice spread to northern Europe.
Mercenaries had many advantages over citizens as soldiers. They were
better fighters and much better disciplined, which had benefits both on
and off the battlefield. Soldiers dismissed at the end of a war were often
penniless, and many of them formed outlaw bands to harass the peasants. Mercenaries, by contrast, could be trusted to return home with
their pay and not cause problems. Many mercenary captains were nobles
who had turned to military service because of the poverty of their lands.
Weapons and Tactics. Gunpowder and artillery dramatically changed
the nature of warfare during the Renaissance. Defenders discovered that
castles that withstood the attack of catapults (devices for hurling stones)
and other forms of medieval artillery could be brought down by gunpowder artillery. During the Hundred Years’ War, the French developed
new artillery tactics. They used small, easy-to-move cannons to attack
English castles and fortified towns, and the high, thin walls of medieval
castles collapsed under the repeated battering of French cannons.
Because castles no longer provided a secure stronghold, armies were
forced out into the open to fight. This led to offensive warfare involving battles fought by large armies that produced heavy casualties. The
standard battlefield arrangement was a large square formation of soldiers with pikes (long poles topped by a blade). Cavalry stood alongside
the pikemen, and a line of crossbowmen marched in front to provide
covering fire for the infantry.
In the early 1500s the Italians developed a new type of fortress that
could stand up to gunpowder artillery. Its walls were lower and thicker,
making them harder to hit and to destroy. These fortresses were also
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* siege prolonged effort to force a
surrender by surrounding a fortress or
town with armed troops, cutting the
area off from aid
* Ottoman Turks Turkish followers of
Islam who founded the Ottoman
Empire in the 1300s; the empire
eventually included large areas of
eastern Europe, the Middle East, and
northern Africa
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* Holy Roman Empire political body
in central Europe composed of several
states; existed until 1806
* mercenary
* papacy
pope
hired soldier
office and authority of the
THE RENAISSANCE
designed to hold defensive guns. By the mid-1500s defensive tactics had
the advantage again, and siege* warfare replaced open battlefield conflicts. A dense square made up of pikemen and soldiers carrying early
firearms called harquebuses became the main military formation.
As firearms became more efficient, they began to take on an offensive
role. Gunners arranged in lines rather than squares could concentrate
their firepower and wreak havoc on tight formations of pikemen. As a
result, new infantry formations emerged in which the men were
deployed in shallower lines. By the late 1600s, thin lines of men with
firearms had replaced the large bodies of pikemen in most armies. Heavy
cavalry, which had dominated the medieval battlefield, never regained
its importance. However, new formations of light cavalry emerged at this
time. Finally, large standing armies were established in most countries.
Naval warfare also changed with the use of gunpowder. The main
fighting vessel in the early Renaissance was the galley, a long, narrow
ship driven by oars and sails. Naval battles involved trying to get close
enough to put soldiers aboard an enemy’s vessels and fight a sort of land
battle at sea. By the 1400s, sailors were effectively adapting land cannons for use in naval warfare. However, galleys could carry very few cannons and little ammunition. Shipbuilders designed larger sailing ships
such as caravels and galleons with separate decks to hold guns.
By the end of the 1500s, gunfire rather than close-range fighting was
deciding most important sea battles. Cannon played a key role in the Battle
of Lepanto, a famous conflict in 1571 between the Ottoman Turks* and
Christian forces. More than 500 ships took part. The Christian ships, which
had bigger guns, fired at point-blank range. The Turks lost about 200 ships
and thousands of men in the ferocious one-day battle. (See also Arms and
Armor; Fortifications; Mercenaries; Ships and Shipbuilding.)
T
he Wars of Italy—a series of conflicts between 1494 and 1559 for
control of the Italian peninsula—involved much of Renaissance
Europe. France, Spain and the Holy Roman Empire* took part, along
with the papacy*, VENICE, FLORENCE, and NAPLES and mercenaries* from
Switzerland and Germany. The wars ended with Spain in firm control
over much of Italy.
The deaths of several Italian rulers in the early 1490s left Italy with
little political leadership. In 1494 the duke of Milan invited King
Charles VIII of France to come to Italy to establish order and support the
duke’s rule in Milan. Charles hoped to seize the kingdom of Naples,
which he claimed as an heir of an earlier Neapolitan dynasty. Although
the French army moved easily through Italy and took Naples, it was
forced to withdraw in 1495.
In 1499 the French king Louis XII led another invasion. This time the
French won both Naples and Milan, another city claimed by the French
monarchy. Then Spain entered the contest for Italy. A series of battles
between French and Spanish forces during the early 1500s brought
Naples under Spanish control. In the following years the French lost
Milan but regained it in 1515 with an important victory at Ravenna. But
French control of Milan was short-lived.
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* sack
to loot a captured city
* exploit to take advantage of; to
make productive use of
Religion
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* patronage
sponsorship
support or financial
* heresy belief that is contrary to the
doctrine of an established church
168
In 1516 King Charles I became Spain’s new king. He was also heir to
the HABSBURG DYNASTY, which ruled Spain as well as the Holy Roman
Empire. Using artillery and small arms effectively, Charles’s army of
Spanish and imperial troops triumphed over the French and their Swiss
mercenaries in 1522. Three years later at the Battle of Pavia, imperial
forces again defeated the French and took the French king FRANCIS I prisoner. Then in 1527, a combination of Spanish, Italian, and mercenary
troops in the emperor’s service sacked* Rome. Florence, too, had to submit to the emperor and accept the return of the MEDICI.
In 1530 the pope crowned Charles I as Holy Roman Emperor CHARLES V
in the city of Bologna. For all practical purposes this ended the wars and
left much of Italy under the rule of Charles V and Spain. But more battles took place after 1530, including those at the Italian town of
Ceresole in 1544 and at the French town of St. Quentin in 1557. Italians
also made a few additional efforts to throw off Spanish rule. The city of
SIENA expelled the Spanish troops stationed there in 1552 and asked the
French for help. However, Spain reconquered the city and gave it to its
ally, Cosimo I de’ Medici, the ruler of Florence. Pope Paul IV began a war
against Spain in 1556, but this too ended in failure.
The wars ended officially in 1559 with the Treaty of CateauCambrésis. When the conflicts began, Italy had consisted of five major
powers—Florence, Venice, Naples, Milan, and the papacy. By 1559
Milan and Naples had become part of the Spanish empire, Venice had
been reduced to a minor power, and Florence was largely under Spanish
influence. The years of fighting not only destroyed Italian independence, they also devastated the countryside.
Scholars have cited many reasons for the wars and for Italy’s failure
to maintain its independence. The Renaissance historian Francesco
GUICCIARDINI argued that political intrigue by Italian rulers and the papacy led to Italy’s fall. Others point out that many Italians were not loyal
to their leaders, who often exploited* them or allowed the nobles to
exploit them. Indeed, when Charles VIII of France left Milan in 1495,
many Italians were genuinely sorry to see him go. In addition, political
division weakened all the major Italian states except Venice. The desire
for stability also led Italians to accept foreign military intervention if it
promised to bring peace and quiet. (See also Italy.)
B
etween 1562 and 1598 France was torn apart by eight Wars of
Religion. The conflicts began as a struggle between French
Protestants who wanted freedom to practice their religion and Catholics
who saw themselves as defenders of the true faith. The wars also had
political roots in the rivalry among French nobles for royal patronage*.
The French monarchy was closely allied to the Roman Catholic
Church, and kings of France took an oath to protect the faith and fight
heresy*. When the church declared the teachings of Martin LUTHER to be
heretical in 1521, the French monarch became the enemy of French
Protestants. By the 1550s the more militant Protestantism of John
Calvin had arrived in France, and King Henry II stepped up efforts to
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* regent person who acts on behalf of
a monarch who is too young or unable
to rule
* Huguenot French Protestant of the
1500 and 1600s, follower of John
Calvin
* mercenary
hired soldier
* siege prolonged effort to force a
surrender by surrounding a fortress or
town with armed troops, cutting the
area off from aid
THE RENAISSANCE
eliminate heresy. Henry’s sudden death in 1559 put his son Francis II on
the throne.
Francis was heavily influenced by his wife’s uncles, the duke of Guise
and cardinal of Lorraine, who were fervent defenders of the Catholic
faith. Persecution of Protestants increased under Francis, particularly
after the discovery of a plot by Calvinist nobles to kidnap the young
king. When Francis died in 1560, the queen mother, CATHERINE DE
MÉDICIS, declared herself regent* for the ten-year-old heir, Charles IX.
Catherine’s efforts to create a more tolerant atmosphere for religion led
to even greater Catholic opposition. Violence against Huguenots*
increased, and in 1562 Guise forces killed Protestants gathered for a service near the town of Wassy.
Catherine, torn between opposing factions, tried to maintain peace.
The Peace of Amboise in 1563 allowed Protestants to worship openly in
certain settings but imposed various restrictions. Many Catholics
opposed the peace, and some of the king’s advisers continued to call for
persecution of Huguenots. This led to another plot to seize the king,
which sparked a new war. Another unpopular and ineffective peace
treaty followed in 1568.
New fighting erupted a few months later and lasted about a year. The
treaty that followed expanded the religious rights of Protestants slightly
and allowed them to hold certain fortified cities for their defense. Many
Catholics reacted strongly against the terms of the treaty. In August
1572 they launched a wave of killings, called the St. Bartholomew’s Day
massacre, that left 2,000 people dead in Paris and an unknown number
in a dozen other towns. In southern France, Protestants drew up a constitution that separated them from the monarchy. They formed an
alliance with moderate Catholics who wanted to end the fighting and
who supported the Huguenots’ calls for freedom of worship.
Charles IX’s death in 1574 put his brother, Henry III, on the throne
and raised Catholic hopes for victory. However, the crown’s poor
finances limited Henry’s ability to raise an effective army, and he was
forced to sign another peace with the Huguenots. The terms of the peace
angered Catholic nobles, who formed the radical Holy League to fight
for defense of the faith. The fighting continued, debts mounted, and
Henry became increasingly unpopular. In 1585 the Holy League pressured him into taking back the privileges granted to the Huguenots and
starting a new war against Protestantism.
In renewed fighting, Protestant forces won the Battle of Coutras in
1587, but a Guise army unexpectedly defeated German mercenaries*
arriving to help the Huguenots. Meanwhile, Henry came to fear his allies
in the Holy League more than the Protestants. The king ordered them
not to come to Paris, where the league was very popular, but they came
anyway. When Henry tried to restrain the league’s enthusiastic supporters, Parisians drove him from the city. The king then had Henri de Guise
and his brother assassinated, causing the league members to revolt and
take control of Paris. Henry planned a siege* of the city but was assassinated in August 1589 before he could begin the campaign.
Because Henry left no heirs, the throne passed to Henry de Bourbon,
king of Navarre, who took the name HENRY IV. Henry IV started the siege
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of Paris in 1590. Although a Protestant, he converted to Catholicism in
1593 in an effort to reduce Catholic opposition to his rule. Paris surrendered the following year, and over the next few years many towns surrendered voluntarily or fell to Henry’s forces. By 1598 the last Catholic
noble had lain down his arms. In April of that year, Henry signed the
Edict of Nantes, which granted freedom of worship to Protestants.
Despite Catholic resistance to the edict, a period of peace and relative
stability returned to France after nearly 40 years of war. (See also
Catholic Reformation and Counter-Reformation; France;
Guise-Lorraine Family; Protestant Reformation.)
Weights and
Measures
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E
uropeans used a great variety of systems for weighing and measuring during the Renaissance. Even within the same kingdom or territory, standards could vary widely. The ancient Romans had imposed a
single system of measurements throughout their empire, but when the
empire collapsed, the Roman system fell by the wayside. Many localities
developed their own systems, and by the Renaissance hundreds of thousands of different weights and measures were in use.
Most units of measurement were based on quantities people used in
their daily life. For example, people might measure area according to
how much land they needed to produce income for the year or on the
amount of land they could rent for a certain fee. Other measurements
depended on the physical qualities of humans and animals. Human
body parts, such as the foot and palm, formed the basis for some units
of length. Ale could be measured by the hogshead, which held about 63
gallons. Some units of volume depended on units of length, as in the
case of units based on the length of string required to bind up a certain
volume of a product. People also based units of capacity on the amount
that a ship or pack train could carry.
Some units of measure had several applications. The French aissin, for
instance, could measure areas of land or volumes of grain or wood. In
other cases, a single unit had more than one name. The English measures pint, jug, and stoup were used interchangeably for the same volume
of liquid. In Italy, the grosso, dramma, and quarro were equal units of
weight.
Central governments laid out the standards for units of measurement, but they did not always define them in precise terms. In France,
for instance, there were many different ways of calculating such measures as the pied for length and the corde for firewood. Also, local variations of measures sometimes became popular and replaced the national
standard. The standards used inside a town might vary from those
applied outside the town walls, and units of measurement often differed
at land and at sea. The French lieue (league) ranged from 2,000 to 3,000
toises (3,900 to 5,850 meters), with the greater length being used at sea.
Governments also failed to produce enough physical prototypes (uniform models) to allow people to check the accuracy of their own measuring devices. Furthermore, these prototypes were not all made in the
same place. Instead, individual manufacturers created models that often
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varied from the original, or master, measure. Local craftsworkers further
confused the issue by creating their own copies from the masters. In
addition, measuring devices made of wood, lead, iron, and bronze could
change with weather conditions and constant handling, further reducing their accuracy. Finally, standards of measurement changed over
time. Europe did not develop a single unified system of measurement
until the creation of the metric system in the late 1700s and early 1800s.
(See also Economy and Trade.)
Weyden, Rogier
van der
e
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Flemish painter
* Flemish relating to Flanders, a region
along the coasts of present-day
Belgium, France, and the Netherlands
See color
plate 10,
vol. 2
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A
leading Flemish* painter of the early Renaissance, Rogier van der
Weyden influenced artists in many areas of western Europe well
into the 1500s. His expressive and finely detailed works were in great
demand throughout much of Europe.
The son of a knife maker, van der Weyden was born in Tournai, a
town in present-day Belgium. It is likely that he joined the workshop of
the Flemish painter Robert Campin in 1427, probably as a partner rather
than as a pupil. He may have trained earlier at the workshop of the
Master of Flémalle and his works show the master’s influence. However,
many scholars believe that Campin and the Master of Flémalle were the
same person.
Van der Weyden left Campin’s workshop in 1432, and by 1435 he
had moved to BRUSSELS. The following year he became the city’s official
painter, a position he kept for the remainder of his life. His notable
works in Brussels include a series of four large paintings on the subject
of justice painted for the courtroom of the town hall. In 1450 van der
Weyden traveled to Italy, where he was already well known. Several of
his works had reached collectors in Genoa, Ferrara, and Naples, and he
won high praise at the court of Milan. However, Italian art had very little impact on the style and content of the artist’s later works.
Van der Weyden’s surviving works bear neither dates nor signatures,
and few documents exist to identify certain paintings as his work. One
exception is Descent from the Cross, which portrays the tragic figure of
Christ surrounded by grief-stricken mourners after the Crucifixion.
Various texts identify this piece as the work of “Rogier” and of “the great
and famous Fleming Rogel.” Probably painted in the Netherlands before
1443, the work eventually entered the collection of PHILIP II of Spain.
The Descent from the Cross and other religious paintings by van der
Weyden present dramatic scenes in a vivid and emotional manner.
Some of the artist’s works reflect the influence of the great Flemish
painter Jan van EYCK, and van der Weyden reinterpreted several van
Eyck paintings. Van der Weyden was also an outstanding portrait
painter. (See also Art in the Netherlands.)
R
enaissance Europeans defined witches as people who worshipped the
devil and cast harmful spells. Both church and state authorities
regarded witchcraft as a serious crime, punishable by death. Approximately
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100,000 people stood trial for witchcraft between 1400 and 1700. As many
as half of them were executed.
The word witchcraft applied to both
“black magic,” used to harm others, and
“white magic,” used to help and heal. In
this illustration from a 1487 book, two
white witches brew a potion to cure all
diseases of the body and soul.
* theologian person who studies
religion and the nature of God
* heresy belief that is contrary to the
doctrine of an established church
* treatise
long, detailed essay
Ideas about Witchcraft. The most basic belief about witches was
that they practiced harmful magic, also known as black magic or sorcery. According to this view, witches used mysterious powers to cause
death, injury, illness, or some other misfortune. Sorcery could harm
both individuals and entire communities, as in the case of a hailstorm
that destroyed crops. The word “witchcraft” was also applied to practices regarded as “white” or helpful magic, such as healing. However,
most authorities considered white magic a lesser crime than sorcery and
punished it less severely.
The idea of witches as devil worshippers arose out of the early
Christian belief that all magic drew its power from the devil.
Theologians* of the 1200s and 1300s linked witchcraft to bargains with
demons, making it a form of heresy*. Many people believed that witches not only made face-to-face bargains with the devil but also met in
groups to worship him by night. According to legend, witches at these
gatherings killed and ate children, danced naked, and had sex with
demons. In some countries it was also a common belief that witches
flew to and from their meetings.
By the early 1400s, church and legal authorities began to view witches as members of a new and dangerous religious group that defied the
Christian church, rejected moral law, and destroyed life and property
through magic. Religious scholars and church officials produced more
than 30 texts on the subject of witchcraft during the 1400s. The most
influential of these was Malleus Maleficarum (The Hammer of Witches),
published in 1487 in Germany and widely read throughout Europe. The
text brought together many scholarly ideas about witchcraft and argued
for the vigorous prosecution of the crime. Several treatises* of the 1500s
and early 1600s expanded on the ideas in this text.
Some learned Europeans of the 1500s rejected the standard view of
witches. A number of authors argued that witches did not really make
pacts with the devil but only imagined that they did so due to illusions
cast by demons. Based on these views, the authors argued against the
harsh treatment of witches. Such ideas did not become widespread until
the late 1600s.
Witchcraft, Society, and the Law. About four out of five of the
individuals accused of witchcraft were female. Women tended to engage
in activities such as healing and assisting in childbirth, which often
raised suspicions about the use of harmful magic. Many of their accusers described the women as loud, rude, or in some other way out of line
with the accepted standards for female behavior. In the early 1400s,
when witchcraft was commonly linked with other forms of heresy and
ritual magic, many men also faced charges of witchcraft. Even later,
after most people had come to view witchcraft as a female activity, men
might fall under suspicion if they were related to female witches. Men
were also accused of witchcraft in Russia, Finland, and parts of Spain
and Italy, areas where magicians were generally thought of as male.
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Most accused witches came from the lower levels of society. The poor,
as the weakest and most vulnerable members of the community, made
easy targets for those seeking someone to blame for their problems.
Charges of witchcraft tended to be more common during periods of difficult social and economic conditions, when tensions and conflicts ran
high. In such troubled times many people sought a supernatural explanation for the disruptions taking place around them. Rising prices, low
wages, and widespread warfare led to a surge in witchcraft trials between
1560 and 1630.
Both church and civil authorities prosecuted those accused of being
witches. Church law allowed officers of the court to bring a suspected
witch to trial on the basis of rumor alone, without the need for a direct
accusation. However, the law strictly required that all death sentences be
based either on a confession or on the testimony of two witnesses to the
crime. When no witnesses were available, the courts might resort to torture to force suspected witches to confess.
The earliest trials for witchcraft involving both sorcery and devil-worship occurred in the early 1400s in Switzerland and parts of what is now
southeastern France. In the late 1400s witchcraft trials spread to other
parts of western Europe. After a decline in the early 1500s, a second and
more intense surge of trials began around 1560 and lasted until the
1630s. The most severe prosecutions took place in southern and western
Germany, and large numbers of executions also occurred in eastern
France, Switzerland, and Scotland. However, nearly every European
country had at least one large-scale witch hunt. The judicial abuses common in witch trials eventually led to public calls for greater restraint in
acting against witchcraft. Courts adopted stricter rules regarding the use
of torture, as well as higher standards of proof. (See also Magic and
Astrology.)
Thomas
eWolsey, e
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Wolsey, Thomas
ca. 1472–1530
English churchman and
statesman
* patron supporter or financial
sponsor of an artist or writer
* humanist Renaissance expert in the
humanities (the languages, literature,
history, and speech and writing
techniques of ancient Greece and
Rome)
* theology study of the nature of God
and of religion
THE RENAISSANCE
O
ne of the most powerful figures in Renaissance ENGLAND, Thomas
Wolsey played important roles in both the church and the government. As a chief adviser to HENRY VIII, he helped shape England’s
domestic and foreign policies. An active patron* of the arts, Wolsey supported many of the leading humanists* in England. He lived in splendid palaces filled with fine paintings and sculpture. However, he
eventually fell out of favor with the king and died in disgrace.
The son of a butcher who also kept an inn, Wolsey was born in
Ipswich, in eastern England. As a young man he studied arts and theology* at Magdalen College, Oxford. He served for a time as the financial
officer of the college and as master of a school linked with it. In 1501
Wolsey left Oxford to serve as chaplain to a series of important individuals, including the king, HENRY VII. When Henry VIII took the throne in
1509, he appointed Wolsey royal almoner, the official in charge of distributing charity to the poor. A skilled administrator, Wolsey won the
king’s confidence. He also rose rapidly within the church, becoming
bishop of Lincoln in 1514, archbishop of York six months later, and cardinal in 1515.
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* Holy Roman Empire political body
in central Europe composed of several
states; existed until 1806
* plague highly contagious and often
fatal disease that wiped out much of
Europe’s population in the mid-1300s
and reappeared periodically over the
next three centuries; also know as the
Black Death
* secular nonreligious; connected with
everyday life
* annulment formal declaration that a
marriage is legally invalid
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Women
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Shortly after Wolsey became cardinal, the king named him as chancellor, the highest official in the government. Wolsey remained King
Henry’s leading adviser for the next 14 years. In 1518 Wolsey negotiated a general European peace treaty and a settlement with France over
territory captured by England. In 1521 he held peace conferences in an
attempt to prevent war between France and the Holy Roman Empire*.
From 1527 to 1529, Wolsey again tried to forge an agreement between
France and the empire and also to end hostilities between England and
France.
Wolsey also played major roles in England’s judicial, social, and
financial affairs. He presided over the king’s council and the court of
chancery, a division of England’s High Court. Wolsey encouraged strict
enforcement of the law and supported those who sought equal justice
for all. He also established councils to oversee local governments in
Wales and northern England. In terms of social policy, Wolsey took
steps to control the spread of plague* through quarantine (the isolation
of infected regions) and to prevent the hoarding of grain during times
of famine. He also established commissions to investigate the conversion of fields to pastureland, which reduced the amount of land being
farmed. As a financial advisor, Wolsey worked hard to increase the
king’s income. He imposed forced loans and high taxes on the people.
However, he had to abandon some of his tax proposals when they provoked widespread anger and opposition.
Many of Wolsey’s actions as a religious leader were unpopular. He
held several church offices at once and kept a mistress, by whom he had
two children. He also interfered in the affairs of other bishops and heavily taxed church officials. However, he also made some positive changes.
He encouraged religious reform, sought to reduce tensions between the
church and secular* courts, and worked to improve religious education
for the clergy.
In general, other government officials cooperated with Wolsey.
However, tensions developed over some of his policies and his treatment of nobles in the king’s council. When Wolsey began to lose favor
with the king in the late 1520s, many took the opportunity to criticize
him. Wolsey’s undoing came with his failure to obtain an annulment*
of Henry’s marriage to CATHERINE OF ARAGON. Despite Wolsey’s skills as a
diplomat, he was unable to persuade the pope to approve this action. As
a result, Henry VIII removed Wolsey as chancellor in 1529. Wolsey
retired to York and died the following year while on his way south to
stand trial for treason.
W
omen clearly played a secondary role in the political, social, and
cultural life of the Renaissance. Since the Middle Ages, the major
institutions of society—the family, the church, and the state—had
placed restrictions on women’s roles within them. However, these rigid
limits began to relax in some ways during the Renaissance. Women
found opportunities to take part in the widespread revival of art and
scholarship. They also became more prominently involved in social
THE RENAISSANCE
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Single young women devoted much of
their time to acquiring the skills they
would one day need to manage a household. Among the skills they learned were
spinning wool and weaving cloth, as
shown in this painting by Francesco del
Cossa from the late 1400s.
protest. As a result, women’s views of themselves began to change during this period. A small but significant group of women drew attention
to their unequal state and called for changes in the way society treated
them.
WOMEN AND THE FAMILY
See color
plate 2,
vol. 2
* artisan
skilled worker or craftsperson
* guild association of craft and trade
owners and workers that set standards
for and represented the interests of its
members
THE RENAISSANCE
In Renaissance society men were identified by their occupation or social
status—as gentlemen, merchants, priests, peasants, and so forth.
Women’s identity, by contrast, depended on their relationships to men,
as daughters, wives, mothers, or widows. The father served as the head
of the Renaissance family, and property was passed down through the
male line. Women played a supporting role within the family.
A daughter’s most important duty was to preserve her virginity.
Because identity and inheritance depended on fathers rather than mothers, a man had to know that his future wife had not conceived a child
by another man before her marriage. Daughters also had to learn the
skills they would one day need as wives and mothers. The older women
of the household taught the girls to spin wool and weave cloth. They
also showed them to manage the household economy, supervise servants, and nurse the sick.
Wives had many duties in the household, which varied according to
their social status. Peasant women performed such tasks as tending to
fowl and sheep, raising vegetables, brewing beer, and helping with the
harvest. The wives of artisans* performed skilled craft work alongside
their husbands. Occasionally they gained membership in guilds*,
although this became less common over the course of the Renaissance.
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* dowry money or property that a
woman brings to her marriage
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Wives of merchants tended shops and helped keep accounts and other
records. The chief job of upper-class wives was to run the household.
They managed the purchasing of supplies, entertained their husbands’
guests, and nursed sick family members and servants. They also did fine
embroidery and other textile work for the home.
The chief responsibility of all wives, however, was bearing and raising
children. Childbirth was risky for both infant and mother. Between 20
and 50 percent of infants died soon after birth. One in ten births resulted in the death of the mother, making childbirth a leading cause of
death among women—especially those who had many children.
Mothers were responsible for their children until they reached the age
of six or seven, but society did not see children as belonging to their
mothers. If a mother of young children died, the father and his family
or servants raised the children. However, if a father of young children
died, his male relatives became responsible for the children—although
they might invite the mother to remain in the household to care for
them.
Widowhood posed practical problems for a woman of any age. A
woman whose husband died often found herself surrounded by competing interests. Her husband’s family members might want her to stay
in their household so that they would have the use of her dowry*. The
members of her birth family, by contrast, might want her to return to
her former home, along with her dowry. They might also urge her to
remarry. The church and society in general worried that sexually experienced widows would behave immorally. In Catholic regions they
would be urged to enter convents, in Protestant ones to remarry. Few
believed that a widow could or should live alone, even if she could support herself. After 1600, however, it became more common for women
to do so.
e
The Dowry
WOMEN AND THE CHURCH
In many parts of Europe, a married woman could own no property except her dowry. Although
technically her property for life,
the dowry was managed by her
husband during her lifetime and
went to their children after his
death. The dowry was a woman’s
inheritance. It served to cut her
off from her birth family so that
she would have no further claims
on her father’s estate. While families sought to limit the size of
dowries to reduce their financial
burden, they also tried to provide
enough money to “purchase”
desirable husbands for their
daughters.
The role of women in religion differed significantly between the Roman
Catholic Church and the various Protestant churches. Catholic women
could pursue a career in the church by entering a convent, where they
would live apart from the world. A Protestant woman, by contrast, had
little choice but to spend her life within the family, under the control of
male relatives. Catholic women might join a RELIGIOUS ORDER for many
reasons. Some families placed their young daughters in convents on a
permanent or temporary basis. Some grown women joined convents
because they were drawn to the religious life, while others were widows
or refugees seeking a haven.
Convents typically required an entrance fee, which they called a
dowry, just as in a marriage. Those whose families could not afford this
fee might join looser communities of religious women who did not live
strictly apart from the world. A few women pursued holy careers as individuals, following a strict religious routine while remaining in the
homes of male relatives. Others, usually wives and widows, devoted
themselves to God through charity work. After the early 1500s, howev-
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* martyr someone who suffers or dies
for the sake of a religion, cause, or
principle
er, the Catholic Church severely limited these less structured forms of
female religious life. The convent became the only approved religious
path for a woman, and life within convents came under tighter control
by male clergy.
Protestantism did away with the Catholic ideal of holy virginity and
with religious communities for women. Protestant women had to live
out their lives within the families of their fathers or husbands. Some
modern historians see this as a change that placed women more firmly
under male control, while others view it as a shift toward more equal
marriages. In the earliest days of Protestantism, some women became
religious leaders, publishing their views on reform. However, their voices had little lasting impact on the movement. Later, some women in
minor Protestant groups such as the Anabaptists became famous as martyrs* for their faith.
WOMEN AND RENAISSANCE CULTURE
* regent person who acts on behalf of
a monarch who is too young or unable
to rule
During the Renaissance, women began to play a larger role in the privileged world of power and ideas. Several women of this period governed
their countries either as rulers or as regents*. Women also made inroads
in other male domains, such as scholarship and the arts. Men often
declared that women of notable learning or wisdom had “achieved the
virtue of a man.” Such remarks reveal that Renaissance society continued to view women as a group as inferior, even while acknowledging the
accomplishments of a select few. Still, women’s contributions to
Renaissance culture helped lay the foundations for a new, more equal
view of their abilities and rights.
Women of Power. Between 1400s and 1700 several bright and capable woman became rulers of their countries. ELIZABETH I of England,
Christina of Sweden, and ISABELLA OF CASTILE all reigned as queens in
their own right, while CATHERINE DE MÉDICIS and Anne of Austria acted as
regents for their sons. These powerful women served as living proof that
a woman could perform and even excel at male activities.
Female rulers often reinforced their power by surrounding themselves
with images of armed women. The concept of the military maiden fascinated Renaissance artists and writers, appearing in the works of such
authors as Edmund SPENSER and Ludovico ARIOSTO. Some Renaissance
women actually served as soldiers by assuming male disguises. A few of
them managed to keep their gender hidden for years.
* humanist referring to a Renaissance
cultural movement promoting the study
of the humanities (the languages,
literature, and history of ancient Greece
and Rome) as a guide to living
* patronage
sponsorship
support or financial
THE RENAISSANCE
Women as Scholars. Women had limited access to education during
the Renaissance. Although no specific rule barred them from attending
universities, the courses of study at these centers of learning were
designed to prepare men for public and professional life. With the rise
of humanist* education, however, other paths to knowledge became
open to women. Some, for instance, gained access to learning through
the culture of the Renaissance COURT. Female courtiers had the opportunity to talk with philosophers and scientists who came to the courts
seeking patronage* for their projects.
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An Early Feminist
Laura Cereta (1469–1499) of
Brescia, Italy, was one of the first
female humanists. Widowed
while still in her teens, Cereta
devoted herself to writing essays
in the form of letters to male
scholars and leaders of the
church and the state. Her works
expressed ideas very unusual for
the time. She rejected traditional
views of men’s and women’s
roles, argued that housework
imposed limits on women’s intellectual growth, and portrayed
marriage as a kind of slavery.
Cereta’s bold writings had a
strong influence on later feminists of the Renaissance and the
centuries that followed.
* vernacular native language or
dialect of a region or country
See color
plate 14,
vol. 2
178
Other women learned through private study. Some fathers, especially in northern Italy, educated their daughters in Latin and Greek, the
foundations of humanist study. These vital language skills enabled a few
Italian women of the 1400s to study philosophy. These early female
humanists, such as Isotta Nogarola of Verona and Cassandra Fedele of
Venice, produced letters, dialogues, poems, and other works. Many of
their writings dealt with such issues as the mental abilities of women
and their right to an education. Women also took part in learned
debates through correspondence with male humanists.
Renaissance women were not very active in the sciences. A few, however, assisted their male relatives with scientific work. For example,
Sophie Brahe, the sister of Danish astronomer Tycho BRAHE
(1546–1601), helped him with his observations and took part in scientific discussions at the Danish court. Women did enjoy some independence in the field of medicine. Although without university degrees, they
had little chance of practicing as physicians, many communities relied
on female healers for their knowledge of herbs and other treatments.
Some well-known healers, such as the French royal midwife Louise
Bourgeois (1563–1636), published works that competed with those of
male physicians. These women demonstrated that their hands-on experience could rival men’s book learning about the human body.
Women in Art and Literature. The number of women writers grew
enormously in the 1500s and 1600s. Italian humanism produced a
dozen or so female writers, and by the end of the Renaissance there were
hundreds and perhaps thousands of women writing in Italian, French,
and English. Women penned religious poetry, love poetry, stories, novels, and plays. They also wrote diaries, family histories, and advice books
for other women on topics such as cooking, fashion, child care, and
herbal lore. A few women knew Latin and Greek and translated ancient
works from these languages into the vernacular*.
Many female writers challenged the traditional view of women as
physically and mentally inferior to men. For instance, in the early 1400s
Christine de PIZAN of France proclaimed women’s strength and envisioned a scholarly community for women. Two Venetian authors,
Moderata Fonte and Lucrezia Marinella, published lengthy defenses of
women in 1600. Their works attacked the idea of male superiority and
laid the foundations for modern feminism. In the 1500s, female authors
took part in the QUERELLE DES FEMMES, an ongoing debate about women’s
abilities and their proper place in society. This discussion, which continued beyond the end of the Renaissance, influenced later views on
women’s roles and rights.
A few women gained international fame as artists or musicians in the
Renaissance. Two of the best known were Italian painters Artemisia
GENTILESCHI and Sofonisba ANGUISSOLA. Wealthy women also contributed
to the arts through patronage. Notable female patrons included
CATHERINE OF ARAGON and MARGARET OF AUSTRIA. Some educated women
became leaders of SALONS, circles of discussion among the learned and
fashionable. Especially in France, but also in England, the Netherlands,
THE RENAISSANCE
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and the Italian cities, salons helped spread new ideas and set standards
of literary taste.
* chaste
sexually pure
* woodcut print made from a block of
wood with an image carved into it
* secular nonreligious; connected with
everyday life
Images of Women. A few Renaissance artists portrayed women in
ways that reflected the reality of the time. More often, however, women
appeared in art as images of some abstract ideal—either good or bad.
Some portraits flattered their subjects, such as the Italian artist TITIAN’s
painting of the 60-year-old noblewoman Isabella d’Este as a youthful
beauty. Others placed women in mythical, historical, or religious settings. Whether the woman pictured was a saint or a temptress, a noble
or a member of the working class, her image served as a model for
female viewers, instructing them about morality and the right way to
dress and behave.
Many works of art featured the Virgin Mary, who represented the
ideal of Renaissance womanhood: chaste*, devout, humble, and motherly. Some pictures illustrated the events of Mary’s life, while others presented her as an object of worship. Some artists glorified Mary, showing
her surrounded by saints and angels. Others brought her down to earth,
as in German artist Lucas CRANACH’s 1519 woodcut* The Holy Kinship,
which showed Mary in the company of her parents and extended family. These countless images of the Virgin Mary aimed to inspire
Renaissance women and urge them to live up to her example.
Female saints also served as role models for women. Paintings that
told the story of a saint’s life often served an educational purpose, highlighting the themes of heroic virtue and self-sacrifice. Secular* paintings
presented images of feminine perfection as well. Titian’s La Bella (ca.
1536) reflected the concept of the ideal woman as described in works
such as The Book of the Courtier, by Italian writer Baldassare CASTIGLIONE.
In other works, women appeared as temptresses. The chief such figure
was the biblical Eve, often presented as the opposite of the Virgin Mary.
In some pictures, Eve appeared with another troublesome female figure,
such as Pandora, the character in Greek mythology who first brought
human suffering into the world. The Large Power of Women, a series of
woodcuts by Lucas van Leyden (ca. 1512) contained images of Eve and
other women who brought trouble upon men. However, it is not always
clear whether the artist meant these powerful women to be scorned as
temptresses or admired as heroines.
WOMEN AND SOCIAL PROTEST
Throughout history women have taken part in protests against injustice
or other social problems. The political and economic conditions of the
Renaissance brought many occasions for female protest. The most common form of protest for women of the lower classes was the bread riot,
which erupted when shortages of food threatened women’s ability to
feed their families. Many such riots occurred in the 1500s and 1600s,
when wars and instability led to severe grain shortages. In some areas,
such as France, these shortages were worsened by new taxes on salt and
other items. Famous riots led by women broke out in the French cities
of Lyon in 1529 and Bordeaux in 1643.
THE RENAISSANCE
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* martial law situation in which the
government places law enforcement in
the hands of the military, often
involving some restrictions on citizens’
rights
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* humanist Renaissance expert in the
humanities (the languages, literature,
history, and speech and writing
techniques of ancient Greece and
Rome)
* medieval referring to the Middle
Ages, a period that began around A.D.
400 and ended around 1400 in Italy
and 1500 in the rest of Europe
* scribe person who copies
manuscripts
180
Female artisans and workers also rose up in labor-related protests. In
the 1300s, for example, low-paid wool spinners rebelled against the
merchants who controlled trade in England. In addition, women played
visible roles in religious riots, such as the peasant uprisings in Germany
in the 1500s and the outbursts of violence that accompanied wars
between Catholics and Protestants in France.
Women fought with whatever weapons came to hand. In 1695
French women in the town of Berry threw rocks to protest a new tax on
tradespeople. Female violence often involved household items such as
kitchen knives, dishes, and pots. One female baker in Lisbon, Portugal,
led a group of armed female “soldiers” wielding a pan as a weapon. In
addition, female protestors made violent verbal threats and sometimes
publicly humiliated male officials by attacking them physically.
Some of these female-centered protests gave rise to a sense of unity
among women and to early claims of equal rights with men. During the
English civil war of the mid-1600s, for example, women protested martial law* by declaring their “equal interest with the men of this Nation”
in protecting their rights and freedoms. In general, however, women’s
protests did not involve serious calls for a change in women’s state. The
protesters’ views about gender took a back seat to other goals and concerns. Still, the Renaissance brought new visibility to outraged women,
who—armed with household weapons and a strong moral sense—united against the forces that threatened them. (See also Childhood;
Family and Kinship; Feminism; Humanism; Love and
Marriage; Patronage; Queens and Queenship; Sexuality and
Gender; Violence.)
T
he art of calligraphy—elegant handwriting or lettering—evolved
during the Renaissance. As humanists* stressed clarity and beauty
in writing, they moved away from the cramped lettering of the Middle
Ages. Instead, they looked toward ancient models of writing to create
new styles of penmanship that were neater and clearer.
Many Renaissance scholars found medieval* calligraphy difficult to
read. Two Italian humanists, Coluccio SALUTATI and PETRARCH, criticized
the unclear handwriting of most medieval scribes*. Humanists wanted a
new, clear form of writing that would express the ideals of their movement. Two followers of Salutati, Poggio Bracciolini and Niccolò Niccoli,
helped create a well-defined humanist script.
Poggio developed a style of calligraphy known as humanist round
hand or humanist book script. Compared to the script of the Middle
Ages, the round hand employed more uniform spacing between words,
used fewer abbreviations, and distinguished more clearly between different letters. Poggio’s round hand had a strong influence on later styles
of writing. After the invention of the printing press in the 1450s, his
script became one of the most widely used types and the basis for typefaces used today.
Niccoli learned Poggio’s writing and used it to create his own style,
known as cursive. This form of writing, in which the letters connect and
THE RENAISSANCE
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have rounded angles, became the basis for modern italic script. Both
styles of humanist calligraphy spread gradually throughout Italy and the
rest of Europe. They had a major influence on the development of the
writing style used in European manuscripts. (See also Illumination.)
Wycliffe, John
See Bible; Christianity; Councils.
Wycliffe, JohnCouncils.
[PN:ART B]
Yiddish Language and
Literature
Zwingli, Huldrych
THE RENAISSANCE
See Jewish Languages and Literature.
Yiddish Language and LiteratureLiterature.
[PN:ART B]
See Protestant Reformation.
Zwingli, HuldrychReformation.
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*Asterisk denotes books recommended for young readers.
1. General Background
Breisach, Ernst. Renaissance Europe 1300–1517. New
York: The Macmillan Company, 1973.
Burckhardt, Jakob. The Civilization of the
Renaissance in Italy. Trans. by S. G. C.
Middlemore. 2 vols. New York: Harper & Row,
1958.
Ferguson, Wallace K. Europe in Transition
1300–1520. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1962.
———. The Renaissance in Historical Thought.
Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1948.
Grendler, Paul F., ed. Encyclopedia of the Renaissance.
6 vols. New York: Scribners, 1999. Authoritative
and thorough.
Hale, John, ed. A Concise Encyclopedia of the Italian
Renaissance. London: Thames & Hudson, 1981.
Short and useful.
Hay, Denys. Europe in the Fourteenth and Fifteenth
Centuries. New York: Holt, Rinehart and
Winston, Inc., 1966.
Rice, Eugene F., Jr. The Foundations of Early Modern
Europe 1460–1559. New York: W. W. Norton
and Co., 1970.
Ross, James Bruce and Mary Martin McLaughlin,
eds. The Portable Renaissance Reader. New York:
The Viking Press, 1953.
2. Humanism and Education
D’Amico, John F. Renaissance Humanism in Papal
Rome. Baltimore: The John Hopkins Press,
1983.
Erasmus, Desiderius. The Erasmus Reader. Ed. by
Erika Rummel. Toronto: University of Toronto
Press, 1990.
Grendler, Paul F. Schooling in Renaissance Italy.
Literacy and Learning 1300–1600. Baltimore: The
Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989.
———. The Universities of the Italian Renaissance.
Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press,
2002.
Gundersheimer, Werner L., ed. The Italian
Renaissance. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: PrenticeHall, Inc. 1965.
THE RENAISSANCE
Houston, R.A. Literacy in Early Modern Europe:
Culture and Education, 1500–1800. Rev. ed. New
York: Longman, 2002.
Kristeller, Paul Oskar. Renaissance Thought II. Papers
on Humanism and the Arts. New York: Harper &
Row, 1965.
———. Renaissance Thought: The Classic, Scholastic,
and Humanist Strains. New York: Harper & Row,
1961.
Nauert, Charles, Jr. Humanism and the Culture of
Renaissance Europe. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1995.
Woodward, William H. Vittorino da Feltre and Other
Humanist Educators. New York: Columbia
University Teachers College, 1963.
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SUGGESTED RESOURCES
3. Nation, Politics, and War: General, Italy, Other Regions
General
Hall, Bert S. Weapons and Warfare in Renaissance
Europe: Gunpowder, Technology, and Tactics.
Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press,
1997.
Mattingly, Garrett. Renaissance Diplomacy. Boston:
Houghton Mifflin, 1955.
Skinner, Quentin. The Foundations of Modern
Political Thought. Vol. 1: The Renaissance.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1978.
Italy
Brucker, Gene A. Renaissance Florence. Rev. ed.
Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983.
*Chambers, D.S. The Imperial Age of Venice
1380–1580. London: Thames & Hudson, 1970.
Illustrated popular account.
Hale, John R. Florence and the Medici: The Pattern of
Control. London: Thames & Hudson, 1977.
Lane, Frederic C. Venice: A Maritime Republic.
Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press,
1973.
Laven, Peter. Renaissance Italy 1464–1534. London:
Methuen & Co. Ltd., 1971.
Machiavelli, Niccolò. The Letters of Machiavelli.
Trans. and ed. by Allan Gilbert. New York:
Capricorn Books, 1961.
———. The Prince and selected Discourses. Trans. by
Daniel Donno. New York: Bantam Books, 1966.
There are many other translations of this
important work.
Mallett, Michael. Mercenaries and their Masters:
Warfare in Renaissance Italy. Totowa, N.J.:
Rowman and Littlefield, 1974.
Other Regions
Baumgartner, Frederic J. France in the Sixteenth
Century. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1995.
Elliott, John H. Imperial Spain 1469–1716. New
York: New American Library, 1963.
Elton, G. R. England Under the Tudors. 3rd. ed. New
York: Routledge, 1991.
Evans, R. J. W. The Making of the Habsburg
Monarchy, 1550–1700: An Interpretation. New
York: Oxford University Press, 1985.
Guy, John. Tudor England. New York: Oxford
University Press, 1988.
Holt, Mack P. The French Wars of Religion,
1562–1629. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1995.
Israel, Jonathan. The Dutch Republic: Its Rise,
Greatness, and Fall, 1477–1806. Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 1995.
Mattingly, Garrett. The Armada. Boston: Houghton
Mifflin, 1959.
Youings, Joyce. Sixteenth-Century England.
Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Books,
1984.
Zophy, Jonathan W. The Holy Roman Empire: A
Dictionary Handbook. Westport, Conn:
Greenwood Press, 1980.
4. Society and Economy [includes Women and Jewish Life]
Bell, Rudolph. M. How To Do It. Guides to Good
Living for Renaissance Italians. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 1999.
Bonfil, Roberto. Jewish Life in Renaissance Italy.
Trans. by Anthony Oldcorn. Berkeley:
California University Press, 1994.
Brown, Judith C., and Robert C. Davis, eds. Gender
and Society in Renaissance Italy. London:
Longman, 1998.
*Brucker, Gene. Giovanni and Lusanna: Love and
Marriage in Renaissance Florence. Berkeley:
University of California Press, 1986.
184
Burke, Peter. Popular Culture in Early Modern Europe.
Rev. ed. Brookfield, Vermont: Scolar Press, 1994.
Cipolla, Carlo M. Before the Industrial Revolution.
European Society and Economy, 1000–1700. New
York: Norton & Co., 1976.
———, ed. The Fontana Economic History of Europe:
The Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries.
Glasgow: Collins/Fontana Books, 1974.
Davis, Natalie Zemon. Society and Culture in Early
Modern France. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford
University Press, 1975.
THE RENAISSANCE
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SUGGESTED RESOURCES
Huppert, George. After the Black Death. A Social
History of Early Modern Europe. Bloomington:
Indiana University Press, 1986.
Israel, Jonathan I. European Jewry in the Age of
Mercantilism. 3rd ed. Portland, Or: Valentine
Mitchell, 1998.
King, Margaret L. Women of the Renaissance.
Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991.
Origo, Iris. The Merchant of Prato, Franceso di Marco
Datini, 1335–1410. New York: Knopf, 1957,
with many reprints. Excellent account of the
family life and business of a merchant.
Roth, Cecil. The Jews in the Renaissance. New York:
Harper & Row, 1959.
Swetz, Frank J. Capitalism and Arithmetic. The New
Math of the 15th Century. La Salle, Ill.: Open
Court, 1987.
Warnicke, Retha M. Women of the English
Renaissance and Reformation. Westport, Conn:
Greenwood Press, 1983.
5. Art and Architecture: General, Italy, Other
General
Aston, Margaret. The Panorama of the Renaissance.
New York: Abrams, 2000.
Holmes, George. Renaissance. New York: St.
Martin’s Press, 1996.
*Janson, H.W., and Anthony F. Janson. History of
Art for Young People. 5th ed. N.Y.: Abrams, 1997.
Levey, Michael. Early Renaissance. Harmondsworth,
England: Penguin, 1967.
McCorquodale, Charles. The Renaissance: European
painting, 1400–1600. London: Studio Editions,
1994.
Murray, Linda. The High Renaissance and
Mannerism: Italy, the North and Spain,
1500–1600. New York: Thames & Hudson,
1985.
Murray, Peter, and Linda Murray. The Art of the
Renaissance. London: Thames & Hudson, 1985.
Shearman, John. Mannerism. Baltimore: Penguin,
1967.
Italy
Avery, Charles. Florentine Renaissance Sculpture.
London: J. Murray, 1970.
Baxandall, Michael. Painting and Experience in
Fifteenth Century Italy. A Primer in the Social
History of Pictorial Style. 2nd ed. New York:
Oxford University Press, 1988.
Hartt, Frederick. History of Italian Renaissance Art.
4th ed. Rev. by David G. Wilkins. New York:
Abrams, 1994.
Hopkins, Andrew. Italian Architecture: from
Michelangelo to Borromini. New York: Thames &
Hudson, 2002.
THE RENAISSANCE
Pope-Hennessy, J. Italian Renaissance Sculpture, 3rd
ed. Oxford: Phaidon, 1986.
Rosand, David. Painting in Sixteenth-Century Venice:
Titian, Veronese, Tintoretto. Rev. ed. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1997.
Rowe, Colin. Italian Architecture of the 16th Century.
Princeton: Princeton Architectural Press, 2002.
Seymour, Charles. Sculpture in Italy, 1400–1500.
Harmondsworth, England: Penguin, 1966.
Taylor, Pamela, ed. The Notebooks of Leonardo da
Vinci. New York: New American Library, 1960.
Vasari, Giorgio. Lives of the Artists. Trans. by George
Bull. Baltimore: Penguin, 1965.
Other Regions
Bialostocki, Jan. The Art of the Renaissance in Eastern
Europe: Hungary, Bohemia, Poland. Ithaca:
Cornell University Press, 1976.
Blunt, Anthony. Art and Architecture in France
1500–1700. 4th ed. New Haven: Yale University
Press, 1982.
Brown, Jonathan. The Golden Age of Painting in
Spain. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1991.
Chastel, André. French Art: The Renaissance,
1430–1620. Paris: Abbeville Press, 1995.
Cuttler, Charles D. Northern Painting: From Pucelle to
Bruegel. Fort Worth, Tex.: Holt, Rinehart and
Winston, Inc., 1991.
Gent, Lucy, ed. Albion’s Classicism: The Visual Arts
in Britain, 1550–1660. New Haven: Yale
University Press, 1995.
Moffitt, John F. The Arts in Spain. New York:
Thames & Hudson, 1999.
Snyder, James. Northern Renaissance Art. New York:
Abrams, 1985.
185
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SUGGESTED RESOURCES
6. Music and Theater
Atlas, Allan W., ed. Renaissance Music: Music in
Western Europe, 1400–1600. New York: W. W.
Norton, 1998.
Brown, Howard Mayer, and Louis K. Stein. Music in
the Renaissance. 2nd ed. Upper Saddle River,
N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1999.
*Charney, Maurice. All of Shakespeare. New York:
Columbia University Press, 1993.
Doughtie, Edward. English Renaissance Song. Boston:
Twayne Publishers, 1986.
Fenlon, Iain. Music and Culture in Late Renaissance
Italy. New York: Oxford University Press, 2002.
———, ed. The Renaissance from the 1470s to the
End of the 16th Century. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.:
Prentice-Hall, 1989.
Hunter, George K. English Drama, 1586–1642. New
York: Oxford University Press, 1997.
McKendrick, Melveena. Theater in Spain 1490–1700.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989.
Palisca, Claude V. Baroque Music. Reprint,
Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1991.
*Yancey, Diane. Life in the Elizabethan Theater. The
Way People Live Series. San Diego: Lucent
Books, 1997.
7. Literature: General, English
General
Ariosto, Ludovico. Orlando Furioso (The Frenzy of
Orlando). Trans. by Barbara Reynolds. 2 vols.
Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Books,
1975.
Bentley, Eric, ed. The Genius of the Italian Theater.
New York: The New American Library, 1964.
Seven Italian plays, four from the Renaissance.
Bishop, Morris. Petrarch and His World.
Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1963.
Boccaccio, Giovanni. The Decameron. Trans. by
G.H. McWilliam. Harmondsworth, England:
Penguin Books, 1972.
Cervantes Saavedra, Miguel de. The Portable
Cervantes. Trans. by Samuel Putnam. New York:
The Viking Press, 1951.
Hardin, James, and Max Reinhart, eds. German
Writers of the Renaissance and Reformation,
1280–1580. Dictionary of Literary Biography, vol.
179. Detroit: Gale Research, 1997. Has biographies of 40 writers.
McFarlane, I.D. Renaissance France, 1470–1589. New
York: Barnes and Noble, 1974.
Montaigne, Michel de. Montaigne’s Essays and
Selected Writings. A Bilingual Edition. Trans. and
ed. by Donald M. Frame. New York: St. Martin’s
Press, 1963.
More, Thomas. Utopia. Trans. by Paul Turner.
Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Books,
1965. Many reprints and other translations.
186
Pascal, Roy. German Literature in the Sixteenth and
Seventeenth Centuries: Renaissance, Reformation,
Baroque. New York: Barnes and Noble, 1968.
Rabelais, François. The Histories of Gargantua and
Pantagruel. Trans. by J. M. Cohen.
Harmondsworth, England: Penguin Books, 1955.
English
*Andrews, John F., ed. Shakespeare’s World and
Work. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 2001.
Bacon, Francis. The Advancement of Learning and
New Atlantis. Ed. by Arthur Johnston. Oxford:
Clarendon Press, 1974. Many other editions of
these works.
Boyce, Charles. Shakespeare A to Z. The Essential
Reference to His Plays, His Poems, His Life and
Times, and More. New York: Dell Publishing,
1990.
Donne, John. John Donne: A Selection of His Poetry.
Ed. by John Hayward. Baltimore: Penguin
Books, 1950.
Haydn, Hiram, ed. The Portable Elizabethan Reader.
New York: Viking Press, 1955.
Lewis, C.S. Preface to Paradise Lost. N.Y.: Oxford
University Press, 1961.
Marlowe, Christopher. The Complete Plays. New
York: Viking Press, 1969.
Milton, John. Paradise Lost. Ed. by John Leonard.
New York: Penguin Books, 2003.
THE RENAISSANCE
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SUGGESTED RESOURCES
Shakespeare, William. The Complete Works of
Shakespeare. Ed. by David Bevington. 4th ed.
New York: Scott, Foresman, 1997.
Schoenbaum, Sidney. Shakespeare: The Globe and the
World. New York: Oxford University Press, 1979.
Sidney, Philip. Selected Prose and Poetry. Ed. by
Robert Kimbrough. 2nd edition. Madison:
University of Wisconsin Press, 1983.
Spenser, Edmund. The Faerie Queene. Ed. by A.C.
Hamilton. New York: Longman, 1977.
8. Religion
Bireley, Robert. The Refashioning of Catholicism,
1450–1700. Washington, D.C: The Catholic
University of America Press, 1999.
Chadwick, Owen. The Reformation. Baltimore:
Penguin Books, 1964.
O’Connell, Marvin. The Counter Reformation
1560–1610. New York: Harper & Row, 1974.
O’Malley, John W. The First Jesuits. Cambridge,
Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1993.
Spitz, Lewis W. The Protestant Reformation
1517–1559. New York: Harper & Row, 1985.
9. Philosophy, Science, and Technology [includes printing]
*Baigrie, Brian S., ed. The Renaissance and the
Scientific Revolution. New York: Charles
Scribner’s Sons, 2001.
Copenhaver, Brian P., and Charles B. Schmitt.
Renaissance Philosophy. New York: Oxford
University Press, 1992.
Febvre, Lucien, and Henri-Jean Martin. The Coming
of the Book: The Impact of Printing 1450–1800.
Trans. by David Gerard. London: N.L.B., 1976.
Hall, Maria Boas. The Scientific Renaissance,
1450–1630. New York: Dover Publications, 1994.
Kapr, Albert. Johann Gutenberg. The Man and his
Invention. Trans. by Douglas Martin. Brookfield,
Vt: Scholar Press, 1996.
Koyre, A. The Astronomical Revolution. Trans by
R.E.W. Maddison. Reprint, New York: Dover
Publications, 1992.
Kristeller, Paul Oskar. Eight Philosophers of the
Renaissance. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford
University Press, 1964.
*Spangenburg, Ray. The History of Science from the
Ancient Greeks to the Scientific Revolution. New
York: Facts on File, 1993.
*Stefoff, Rebecca. The Young Oxford Companion to
Maps and Mapmaking. New York: Oxford
University Press, 1995.
10. Exploration
*Allen, John Logan, E. Julius Dasch, and Barry M.
Gough. Explorers: From Ancient Times to the
Space Age. 3 vols. New York: Simon & Schuster
Macmillan, 1999.
Boxer, C.R. Portuguese Seaborne Empire. London:
Hutchinson, 1969.
*Gough, Barry M., ed. Geography and Exploration.
New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 2002.
Hale, J.R. Renaissance Exploration. London: British
Broadcasting Corporation, 1968.
THE RENAISSANCE
Parry, J. H. The Age of Reconnaissance. New York:
New American Library, 1963.
Penrose, Boies. Travel and Discovery in the
Renaissance 1420–1620. New York: Atheneum,
1962.
Subrahmanyam, Sanjay. The Portuguese Empire in
Asia, 1500–1700: A Political and Economic
History. New York: Longman, 1993.
187
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11. Biographies
Alberti, Leon Battista. Gadol, Joan. Leon Battista
Alberti: Universal Man of the Renaissance.
Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1969.
Borgias. Mallett, Michael. The Borgias: The Rise and
Fall of a Renaissance Dynasty. Chicago: Academy
Chicago Publisher, 1987.
Catherine of Aragon. Mattingly, Garrett. Catherine
of Aragon. New York: AMS Press, 2003.
Charles V. Brandi, Karl. The Emperor Charles V: The
Growth and Destiny of a Man and a World-Emperor.
Trans. by C.V. Wedgewood. London: J. Cape, 1980.
———. Maltby, William S. The Reign of Charles V
New York: Palgrave, 2002.
Columbus, Christopher. Phillips, William D., Jr.,
and Carla Rahn Phillips. The World of
Christopher Columbus. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1992.
Donne, John. Bald, R.C. John Donne: A Life. New
York: Oxford University Press, 1970. Reprint,
with corrections, 1986.
Dürer, Albrecht. Panofsky, Erwin. The Life and Art
of Albrecht Dürer. 4th ed. Princeton: Princeton
University Press, 1971.
Elizabeth I. MacCaffrey, Wallace. Elizabeth I. New
York: E. Arnold, 1993.
———. Weir, Alison. The Life of Elizabeth I. New
York: Ballantine Books, 1999.
———. *Williams, Neville. The Life and Times of
Elizabeth I. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday &
Company, 1972. Well-illustrated popular
biography.
Erasmus. Bainton, Roland H. Erasmus of
Christendom. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons,
1969.
———. Sowards, J. Kelley. Desiderius Erasmus.
Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1975.
Francis I. Knecht, R.J. Renaissance Warrior and
Patron: The Reign of Francis I. New York:
Cambridge University Press, 1994.
Galileo. Drake, Stillman. Galileo at Work: His
Scientific Biography. Chicago: University of
Chicago Press, 1978.
———. Reston, James, Jr. Galileo: A Life. New York:
HarperCollins Publishers, 1994.
Guicciardini, Francesco. Ridolfi, Roberto. The Life
of Francesco Guicciardini. Trans. by Cecil Grayson.
London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1967.
188
Habsburg. Wandruszka, Adam. The House of
Habsburg: Six Hundred Years of a European
Dynasty. Trans. by Cathleen Epstein and Hans
Epstein. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1964.
Henry VIII. *Dwyer, Frank. Henry VIII. World
Leaders Past and Present Series. New York:
Chelsea House, 1988.
———. Scarisbrick, J. J. Henry VIII. Berkeley:
University of California Press, 1968.
Isabella of Castile. Liss, Peggy K. Isabel the Queen.
New York: Oxford University Press, 1992.
James I. Carrier, Irene. James VI and I: King of Great
Britain. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1998.
Jonson, Ben.Kay, W. David. Ben Jonson: A Literary
Life. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1995.
Leonardo da Vinci. Clark, Kenneth. Leonardo da Vinci.
Rev. by M. Kemp. New York: Penguin, 1993.
Luther, Martin.Bainton, Roland H. Here I Stand: A
Life of Martin Luther. New York: AbingdonCokesbury Press, 1950.
Machiavelli, Niccolò. Ridolfi, Roberto. The Life of
Niccolo Machiavelli. Trans. by Cecil Grayson.
Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1963.
———. Viroli, Maurizio. Niccolò’s Smile: A Biography
of Machiavelli. Trans. by Antony Shugaar. New
York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 2000.
Maximilian II. Fichtner, Paula Sutter. Emperor
Maximilian II. New Haven: Yale University Press,
2001.
Michelangelo. Hibbard, Howard. Michelangelo. New
York: Harper & Row, 1985.
Milton, John. Brown, Cedric C. John Milton: A
Literary Life. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1995.
More, Thomas. Ackroyd, Peter. The Life of Thomas
More. London: Chatto & Windus, 1998.
———. Marius, Richard. Thomas More: A Biography.
New York: Knopf, 1984.
Philip II. Kamen, Henry. Philip of Spain. New Haven:
Yale University Press, 1997.
Rubens, Peter Paul. *McLanathan, Richard. Peter
Paul Rubens. New York: Abrams, 1995.
Shakespeare, William. *Stanley, Diane, and Peter
Vennema. Bard of Avon: The Story of William
Shakespeare. New York: Morrow Junior Books, 1992.
THE RENAISSANCE
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SUGGESTED RESOURCES
———. Holden, Anthony. William Shakespeare: The
Man Behind the Genius. Boston: Little Brown, 2000.
———. Shoenbaum, Sidney. William Shakespeare: A
Compact Documentary Life. New York: Oxford
University Press, 1977.
Titian. Hope, Charles. Titian. New York: Harper &
Row, 1980.
Vesalius, Andreas. O’Malley, Charles D. Andreas
Vesalius of Brussels 1514–1564. Berkeley:
University of California Press, 1965.
12. Novels and Films
Shellabarger, Samuel. Captain from Castile. Boston:
Little, Brown, 1945. Novel about Cortes’s invasion of Mexico, 1519–1521. Made into a film
starring Tyrone Power in 1947.
Stone, Irving. The Agony and the Ecstasy: A
Biographical Novel of Michelangelo. Garden City,
N.Y.: Doubleday & Co., 1961.
Hamlet. 1948. Shakespeare’s play. Directed by and
starring Laurence Olivier.
Henry V. 1989. Shakespeare’s play. Directed and
starring Kenneth Branagh.
Henry V. 1944. Shakespeare’s play. Directed by and
starring Laurence Olivier.
Macbeth. 1948. Shakespeare’s play. Directed by and
starring Orson Welles.
A Man for All Seasons. 1966. Directed by Fred
Zinnemann. Starring Paul Scofield. Life of
Thomas More.
Mary Queen of Scots. 1971. Directed by Charles
Jarrott. Starring Vanessa Redgrave and Glenda
Jackson.
Prince of Foxes. 1949. Directed by Henry King.
Starring Tyrone Power and Orson Welles.
Cesare Borgia is the villain in a swashbuckling
story set in Italy ca. 1500.
Return of Martin Guerre. 1982. Directed by Daniel
Vigne. Starring Gerard Dépardieu and Nathalie
Baye. Case of assumed identity in a village in
France of the 1500s.
Richard III. 1956. Shakespeare’s play. Directed by
and starring Laurence Olivier.
Romeo and Juliet. 1968. Shakespeare’s play. Directed
by Franco Zeffirelli. Starring Leonard Whiting
and Olivia Hussey.
Shakespeare in Love. 1998. Directed by John
Madden. Starring Joseph Fiennes and Gwyneth
Paltrow. Shakespeare has writer’s block until he
meets Paltrow and writes Romeo and Juliet.
The Taming of the Shrew. 1966. Shakespeare’s comedy. Directed by Franco Zeffirelli. Starring
Richard Burton and Elizabeth Taylor.
West Side Story. 1961. Directed by Robert Wise and
Jerome Robbins. Music by Leonard Bernstein.
Starring Natalie Wood and Richard Beyman.
Musical loosely based on Shakespeare’s play
Romeo and Juliet.
13. On-Line Resources
16th Century English Renaissance Literature
(1485–1603). Information on the leading English
writers of the era, including biographies, essays,
and works. http://www.luminarium.org/renlit/
Art History Resources on the Web. An informative
and in-depth look at art, architecture, and sculpture
from throughout Renaissance Europe. http://witcombe.sbc.edu/ARTHLinks2.html
Encyclopaedia Britannica’s Shakespeare and the
Globe: Then and Now. Explores the history and
THE RENAISSANCE
legacy of Shakespeare, his plays, and other important Elizabethans. http://Shakespeare.eb.com
The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. A searchable database of the philosophers and ideas of the
Renaissance. http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/
r/renaiss.htm
Web Gallery of Art. A searchable guide to European
art from 1150–1800. http://gallery.euroweb.hu/
189
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Acknowledgments
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Volume 1
Color Plates for Art and Architecture
1: Detail from Legend of the True Cross, fresco painting by
Piero della Francesca, © David Lees/Corbis; 2: Portrait of
Agnolo Doni, painting by Raphael, © Arte & Immagini
srl/Corbis; 3: The Story of Joseph, individual panel from the
Gates of Paradise gilded bronze doors made by Lorenzo
Ghiberti for the Baptistery in Florence, © Ted
Spiegel/Corbis; 4: David, by Verrochio, © Michael
Nicholson/Corbis; 5: Santa Maria Novella, facade designed
by Leon Battista Alberti, © Archivo Iconografico,
S.A./Corbis; 6: Sacred Allegory, painting by Vincenzo Bellini,
© Archivo Iconografico, S.A./Corbis; 7: The Penitent
Magdalen, painting by Titian, photograph, © Archivo
Iconografico, S.A./Corbis; 8: Last Judgment, by
Michelangelo, 1508—1512, The Art Archive; 9: Etienne
Chevalier and St. Stephen, painting by Jean Fouquet, 1450,
Staatliche Museen Gemdldegalerie at Berlin, photograph, ©
Francis G. Mayer/Corbis; 10: Château Chambord, palace
built by King Henry II, painting, © Adam Woolfitt/Corbis;
11: God the Father, detail (center panel) from The Ghent
Altarpiece, painting on wood panel by Hubert van Eyck and
Jan van Eyck, © Archivo Iconografico, S.A./Corbis; 12: The
Deer Hunt of Friedrich III, the Wise, Elector of Saxony, painting by Lucas Cranach the Elder, © Ali Meyer/Corbis; 13:
Return of the Hunters, painting by Pieter Brueghel the Elder,
The Art Archive/Kunsthistorisches Museum Vienna/The Art
Archive; 14: View of Toledo, oil painting by El Greco, ©
Francis G. Meyer/Corbis.
Black-and-White Photographs
7: The Labours of the 12 Months, manuscript painting by
Pietro de Crescenzi, Le Rustican, © Giraudon/Art Resource,
New York; 10: Malatesta Temple, Rimini, with facade by
Leon Battista Alberti, photograph, Alinari-Art Reference/Art
Resource, New York; 15 From The Herbal, by J. Gerarde, ©
Corbis; 21: The Anatomy Lesson, by John Banister, photograph, © Bettmann/Corbis; 27: St. Peter’s Basilica, aerial
view, Vatican City, Rome, Italy, photograph, © Alinari/Art
Resource, New York; 28: Vitruvian Man, drawing by
Leonardo da Vinci, photograph, Corbis Corporation; 31:
Beatrice d’Este, panel painting by Giovanni Ambrogio
Predis, © Scala/Art Resource, New York; 37: German armor
for man and horse, 16th century, horse armor attributed to
Kunz Lochner, painting, The Metropolitan Museum of Art,
Bashford Dean Memorial Collection, Gift of Mrs. Bashford
THE RENAISSANCE
Dean, 1929, (29.15/.29), Rogers Fund, 1932, (32.69), photograph, all rights reserved, The Metropolitan Museum of
Art, New York; 39: The Annunciation, painting attributed to
Antoniazzo Romano, ca. 1475–1485, © Burstein
Collection/Corbis; 48: Sigismund Chapel in Cracow,
Poland, illustration, Rysinski Studio Inc. Edward Rysinski,
New York; 50: Exterior View of Château de Fontainebleau,
designed by Gilles Le Breton, painting, © Archivo
Iconografico, S.A./Corbis; 54: Self-Portrait, painting by
Albrecht Dürer, 1500, photograph, Giraudon/Art Resource,
New York; 57: David, sculpture by Michelangelo, photograph, Scala/Art Resource, New York; 59: The Tribute
Money, detail of fresco painting by Masaccio, © Sandro
Vannini/Corbis; 64: Saint Eligius as a Goldsmith, painting
by Petrus Christus, © Francis G. Mayer/Corbis; 68: Palace
and monastery of El Escorial, built ca. 1562–1584, Madrid,
Spain, photograph by Ruggero Vanni, © Vanni
Archives/Corbis; 76: Rudolf I (center) with two sons Albert
and Rudolf, photograph, Osterreichische
Nationalbibliothek, Vienna; 79: Francis Bacon, engraving,
© Leonard de Selva/Corbis; 86: The Madonna of the
Meadow, painting by Giovanni Bellini, © National Gallery,
London/Corbis; 89: Gutenberg printed bible on display,
photograph, © Bettmann/Corbis; 93: Boccaccio, painting
by Andrea del Castagno, 1449–1451, © Arte & Immagini,
SRL/Corbis; 103: Allegory of Spring, painting by Sandro
Botticelli, Uffizi Gallery, Florence, photograph, CorbisBettmann; 109: View of the Tempietto di San Pietro in
Montorio, Rome, Italy, designed by Donato Bramante,
painting, © Archivo Iconografico, S.A./Corbis, Corbis, New
York; 113: The Peasant Wedding, painting by Pieter
Breughel the Elder, photograph, Art Resource, New York;
115: The octagonal dome of the Duomo, church designed
by Filippo Brunelleschi, photograph, © Scala/Art Resource,
New York; 121: Philip III, Duke of Burgundy, print,
Archive Photos, Inc.; 128: The Cardsharps, oil painting by
Caravaggio, © Kimbell Art Museum/Corbis; 132: Baldassare
Castiglione, oil painting on canvas by Raphael, in the collection of the Musée du Louvre, Paris, France, © Scala/Art
Resource, New York; 136: Fishing for Souls, oil painting by
Adriaen van de Venne, © Rijksmuseum Amsterdam; 139:
Saltcellar of Francis I, 1539–1543, artwork by Benvenuto
Cellini, Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna, Austria, ©
Francis G. Mayer/Corbis; 149: The Emperor Charles V at
the Battle of Muhlberg, painting by Titian, © Gianni Dagli
191
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Orti/Corbis; 152: Children’s Games, oil painting by Pieter
Breughel the Elder, © Francis G. Mayer/Corbis; 157:
Engraving of St. Peter’s Square and Basilica, by Giacomo
della Porta, © Corbis; 163: Detail from The Allegory of
Good Government: The Effects of Good Government in the
City, fresco cycle by Ambrogio Lorenzetti, © David
Lees/Corbis; 169: The School of Athens, mural by Santi
Raphael, photograph by Erich Lessing, Erich Lessing/Art
Resource, New York; 178: The Princesses Sibylla, Emilia
and Sidonia of Saxony, painting by Lucas Cranach the
Elder, © Ali Meyer/Corbis; 182: Etching of Christopher
Columbus on Hispanola, © Corbis; 190: Painting of
Nicolaus Copernicus, © photograph by Erich
Lessing/Museum of Torun, Torun, Poland/Art Resource,
New York; 195: Painting of Ludovico Gonzaga, his family and court, © Arte & Immagini srl/Corbis; 199: Comfort
the Prisoner, altar panel from Altmunster in Upper
Austria, ca. 1490, © Brandstatter, Dr. Christian/Corbis.
Volume 2
Color Plates for Daily Life
1: Precious Metal Workshop, painting by School of Agnolo
Bronzino, © Archivo Iconografico, S.A./Corbis; 2: From
German manuscript Splendor Solis, illustration, The Art
Archive/British Library/British Library; 3: Portrait of a
Merchant, by Jan Gossaert, National Gallery of Art; 4:
Manufacturing Wool, painting by Mirabello Cavalori,
1570–1572, illustration, © Archivo Iconografico,
S.A./Corbis; 5: Summer, painting by Francesco Bassano,
1570–1580, © Alexander Burkatowski/Corbis; 6: Fruit
Vendor, oil painting by Bernardo Strozzi, © Arte &
Immagini srl/Corbis; 7: The Egg Dance, painting by Jan
Mostaert, The Art Archive/Museo Civico Cremona/Dagli
Orti; 8: The Fortuneteller, oil painting attributed to
Caravaggio, © Archivo Iconografico, S.A./Corbis; 9: The
Conjuror, painting on panel by Hieronymus Bosch, ©
Scala/Art Resource, New York; 10: Single panel from a
triptych of the Seven Sacraments, by Rogier Van de
Weyden, illustration, © Scala/Art Resource, New York; 11:
Temple de Lyon, Nomme Paradis, painting, The Art
Archive/University Library Geneva/Dagli Orti; 12: The
Joust in the Piazza Santa Croce, Florence, 1555, fresco
painting by Jan van der Straet, The Bridgeman Art
Library; 13: Battle of San Romano, tempera and silver foil
on wood, by Paolo Uccello, ca. 1455, National Gallery,
London, England, The Art Archive/Eileen Tweedy; 14:
Game of Chess, oil painting on canvas by Sofonisba
Anguisciola, The Bridgeman Art Library; 15: An Old Man
and His Grandson, painting on panel by Domenico
Ghirlandaio, The Art Archive/Musée du Louvre Paris/The
Art Archive.
Black-and-White Photographs
2: The Labours of the 12 Months: October, fresco, ©
Alinari/Art Resource, New York; 4: The Indoor Wedding
Dance, oil painting by Pieter Brueghel the Younger, ©
Christie’s Images/Corbis; 7 Mercury, bronze sculpture by
Giambologna, © Alinari/Art Resource, New York; 13:
Vittore Carpaccio’s Return of the Ambassadors to England,
©Archivo Iconografico, S.A./Corbis; 14: John Donne,
photograph of painting, courtesy of the National Portrait
192
Gallery, London; 17: Cityscape, by Adriaen Collaert,
British Museum, London, ©Snark/Art Resource, New
York; 20: Illustration from Chronicle of Scotland, The
Folger Shakespeare Library; 26: Engraving of Robert
Garnier, The Bridgeman Art Library; 31: Study of Praying
Hands, drawing by Albrecht Dürer, © Classic
Illustrations/Corbis; 34: De Sphaera, 15th century illuminated Lombard manuscript, © Gianni Dagli Orti/Corbis;
38: Woodcut of classroom from a 1573 Latin grammar
text, The Folger Shakespeare Library; 45: The Armada
portrait of Elizabeth I, painting by Marc Gheeraedts, The
Granger Collection, New York; 48: The Allegory of the
Tudor Succession: The Family of Henry VIII, oil on panel,
©Yale Center for British Art, Paul Mellon Collection
USA/Photo: Bridgeman Art Library; 55: Woodcut from
Shepheardes Calendar, by Edmund Spenser, The Granger
Collection, New York; 59: Desiderius Erasmus, oil on
panel, by Hans Holbein the Younger, ca. 1523, Louvre,
Paris, France, The Art Archive/Dagli Orti; 66: Map of the
Indian Ocean dedicated to King Manuel I of Portugal,
1519, illustration, Bibliothèque Nationale de France,
Paris; 70: The Madonna of Chancellor Rolin, panel painting
by Jan Van Eyck, photograph, © Francis G.
Mayer/Corbis; 73: Dutch marketplace in Anvers,
Netherlands, oil painting, Musées royaux des Beaux-arts
de Belgique, Bruxelles; 86: Cosimo de Medici, painting by
Pontormo, © Archivo Iconografico, S.A./Corbis; 90: Early
Renaissance fresco painting with figures displaying fruit,
© Archivo Iconografico, S.A./Corbis; 94: Map of Nancy,
France, in 1617, engraving after Claude La Ruelle, The
Art Archive/Musee Historique Lorrain Nancy/Dagli Orti;
99: Antoine Macault, painting, © Giraudon/Art Resource,
New York; 108: Engraving of Michel de Montaigne, The
Library of Congress; 112: Oil painting of Galileo Galilei
by Justus Sustermans, © Bettmann/Corbis; 115: Villa Este
and gardens, Tivoli, Italy, color engraving, The Art
Archive/Biblioteca Nazionale Marciana Venice/Dagli Orti;
119: Map of America, from the 1633 copy of Atlas of the
World, by Gerardus Mercator, The Art Archive/Biblioteca
Nacional Madrid/Dagli Orti; 128: Triumphal Entry into
Jerusalem, fresco by Giotto, 1305–1306, Arena Chapel
THE RENAISSANCE
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
(Cappella Scrovegni), Padua, Italy, The Art Archive/Dagli
Orti; 133: Engraving of Henry IV, King Of France, by
Delannoy Staal, © Bettmann/Corbis; 141: Johannes
Gutenberg and his printing press, photograph of an A.
Menzel painting, Corbis-Bettmann; 150: Henry VIII, portrait painting on panel by Hans Holbein the Younger, ©
Gianni Dagli Orti/Corbis; 160: Homage to Emperors
Albrecht II, Friedrich III, Maximilian I, and Karl V, © photograph by Erich Lessing, Art Resource; 166: Detail from
Angel Appearing to Zacharias, fresco cycle by Domenico
Ghirlandaio, © Sandro Vannini/Corbis; 169: Sir Thomas
More, painting by Hans Holbein the Younger, © Francis
G. Mayer/Corbis; 174: Bas relief sculpture of Matthias
Corvinus, © Archivo Iconografico, S.A./Corbis; 178:
Frontispiece with commentary by Averroes, to Opera
(Works), Volume I, by Aristotle, © The Pierpont Morgan
Library/Art Resource, New York; 185: Burning of Jewish
men accused of heresy and witchcraft by the Spanish
Inquisition, a contemporary illustration, Granada, Spain,
© Bettmann/Corbis; 188: Portrait of Hugh O’Neill, photograph, The New York Public Library; 194: The Triumph
of Death, Florentine manuscript illumination, 15th century, from Rime i Trionfi, by Petrarch, photograph, ©
Archivo Iconografico, S.A./Corbis; 197: View of Rome,
painting by anonymous artist, © Scala/Art Resource, New
York; 199: James I, King of England, oil painting by Paul
Van Somer, © Bettmann/Corbis; 202: Page from the
Hebrew Book of Abraham, printed by Elieser Toledano, ©
Christel Gerstenberg/Corbis; 206: From Haggadah for
Passover; Collection of Texts on the Script and Prayer,
German manuscript painting, © Giraudon/Art Resource,
New York; 210: Bridal casket, illustration, © The Israel
Museum, Jerusalem; 217: Ben Jonson, painting by Isaac
Oliver, © Bettmann/Corbis, New York.
Volume 3
Color Plates for the Renaissance City
1: Venice canal, painting by Carpaccio, ca. 1486, David
Lees/Corbis; 2: Pope Urban VIII in Il Ges&graveu;, painting
by Andrea Sacchi, © Scala/Art Resource, New York; 3:
View of an Ideal City, designed by Luciano Laurana, ©
Arte & Immagini srl/Corbis; 4: Portrait of Cosimo I in
Armor, tempera painting by Agnolo Bronzino, © Arte &
Immagini srl/Corbis; 5: Ferdinand of Aragon’s Fleet in
Naples Harbor, painting by Francesco Pagano, © Archivo
Iconografico, S.A./Corbis; 6: Portrait of Federigo da
Montefeltro, tempera painting by Piero della Francesca, ©
Archivo Iconografico, S.A./Corbis; 7: View of Perugia,
Italy, painting, © Archivo Iconografico, S.A./Corbis; 8:
Clock Pavilion wing of the Palais du Louvre, designed by
Pierre Lescot, The Art Archive/Dagli Orti; 9: Civitates
Orbis Terrarum: View of London, hand-colored prints, part
of book by Francis Hogenberg, © Archivo Iconografico,
S.A./Corbis; 10: Seven Acts of Mercy, Master Alkmaar feeding the hungry, painting, © Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam;
11: General View of the Port and Town of Amsterdam,
engraving by D.G. Hucquier, The Bridgeman Art Library;
12: Pierre Gilles, portrait by Quentin Massys, Konkinklijk
Museum Voor Schone Kunsten, Antwerp, Belgie; 13:
Exterior of the Plaza Mayor, Madrid, © Jim
McDonald/Corbis; 14: Cathedral of St. Michael the
Archangel, the Kremlin, photograph, © Neil Beer/Corbis;
15: The Vitava River flowing past Prague Castle and the
Hradcany (castle district), Prague, Czech Republic, illustration, © Chris Bland, Eye Ubiquitous/Corbis.
Black-and-White Photographs
2: Johannes Kepler with globe, photograph, ©
Bettmann/Corbis; 10: From Consilia, Part 4, illustration
by Bartolomeo Sozzini, courtesy of Special Collections,
THE RENAISSANCE
Biddle Law Library, University of Pennsylvania Law
School; 14 Lady with an Ermine, oil painting by Leonardo
da Vinci, © Edimedia/Corbis; 17: Pope Sixtus IV and
Platina in the Vatican Library, painting by Melozzo da
Forli, © Scala/Art Resource, New York; 22: Painting by
Botticelli from The Decameron, by Giovanni Boccaccio, ©
Archivo Iconografica, S.A./Corbis; 30: Wedding of Ottavio
Farnese and Margaret of Austria, fresco by Taddeo Zuccaro,
© Scala/Art Resource, New York; 35: Art and the Curio
Cabinet, oil painting, © photograph by Eric Lessing, Art
Resource, New York; 39: Niccolo Macchiavelli, painting
by Santi di Tito, © Archivo Iconografico, S.A./Corbis; 43:
Celestial map with signs of zodiac and mythological
characters, illustration, The Art Archive/Bodleian Library
Oxford/The Bodleian Library; 50: Portrait of Christopher
Marlowe, The Granger Collection, New York; 56: Fra
Luca Pacioli with mathematical instruments, photograph, Achivo Iconografico, S.A./Corbis; 64: Portrait of
Lorenzo the Magnificent, painting by Giorgio Vasari, ©
Archivo Iconografico, S.A./Corbis; 66: Doctor giving
treatment to sick man with cut on leg, fresco by
Domenico di Bartolo, The Art Archive/Santa Maria della
Scala Hospital Siena/Dagli Orti (A); 74: Pieta, sculpture
by Michelangelo Buonarroti, © Araldo de Luca/Corbis;
80: Woodcut depicting copper smelting process, ©
Bettmann/Corbis; 82: Portuguese Jesuit missionaries in
Japan, screen painting, The Art Archive/Museo de Arte
Antiga Lisbon/Dagli Orti; 87: The Banker and His Wife, oil
painting by Quentin Massys, © Bettmann/Corbis; 94:
Woodcut by Ambrosius Holbein from Utopia by Thomas
More, from the March 1518 edition printed in Basel by
John Froben, W.W. Norton & Company, Inc; 100: Four
Musicians Playing in a Meadow, by Erich Lessing, Art
Resource, New York; 104: The Concert, oil painting by
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Master of the Female Half-Lengths, © Francis G.
Mayer/Corbis; 109: Choir Panel from Cantoria, by Luca
Della Robbia, illustration, © Ted Spiegel/Corbis; 115:
Birth of Venus, tempera on canvas by Sandro Botticelli,
ca. 1482, Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence, Italy, The Art
Archive/Dagli Orti; 123: Pieter Corneliszoon Hooft, photograph, The New York Public Library; 131: History of the
Spedale: The Hospital and the Social Practices of Marriage
and Adoption, fresco painting by Domenico di Bartolo ©
Archivo Iconografico, S.A./Corbis; 136: Palazzo
Piccolomini, constructed by Bernardo Rossellino, painting, The Art Archive/Dagli Orti; 139: Villa Rotonda (formerly the Villa Capra), designed by Andrea Palladio, ca.
1566–1570, near Vicenza, Italy, © Sandro
Vannini/Corbis; 141: Procession of knights passing
before King Henry II of France, The Art
Archive/Bibliotheque Municipale Rouen/Dagli Orti; 144:
Hotel Nevers, Nesle Tower, and Grand Gallery of the
Louvre seen from Pont Neuf bridge, painting, The Art
Archive/Musée Carnavalet Paris/Dagli Orti; 148: Henry
Wriothesley, Earl of Southhampton, illustration, Henry
E. Huntington Library and Art Gallery; 155: Portrait of
Francesco Petrarch, © Archivo Iconografico, S.A./Corbis;
156: Philip II of Spain, painting by Titian, © Arte &
Immagini srl/Corbis; 159: Detail from Miracle of the
Sacrament, fresco by Cosimo Rosselli, Scala/Art Resource,
New York; 165: Bas relief sculpture of 15th century religious pilgrims, painting, © David Lees/Corbis; 173: The
Plague, painting by Marcantonio Raimondi, © Historical
Picture Archive/Corbis; 177: Pope Pius II (as Eneas Silvio
Piccolomini), being crowned, painting, The Art
Archive/Piccolomini Library Siena/Dagli Orti; 183:
Portrait of Edmund Spenser, Library of Congress; 187:
Stephen Bathory and Sigismund III, engraving, © Historical
Picture Archive/Corbis; 189: Jean Bodin, engraving, Art
Resource; 189: Pope Julius II, oil painting on wood by
Raphael, © National Gallery Collection, by kind permission of the Trustees of the National Gallery,
London/Corbis; 200: Peasant Dance, painting by Pieter
Bruegel the Elder, © Francis G. Mayer/Corbis; 205: Detail
of a view of Lisbon from Civitates Orbis Terrarum, painting by Georg Braun, © Archivo Iconografico, S.A./Corbis;
209: History of the Spedale: Distribution of Alms, fresco
painting by Domenico de Bartolo. © Archivo
Iconografico, S.A./Corbis; 213: Dr. King Preaching at Old
St. Paul’s before James I, painting by J. Stow, The
Bridgeman Art Library.
Volume 4
Color Plates for New Frontiers
1: Colorplate from Harmonia Macrocosmica, an atlas of
the heavens written by Andreae Cellarius, © Archivo
Inconografico, S.A./Corbis; 2: Vasco de Gama, 16th century Portuguese print, © Stapleton Collection/Corbis; 3:
Illustration from Brevis Narratio Eorum Quae in Florida
Americae, written and illustrated by Theodor de Bry, ©
Archivo Iconografico, S.A./Corbis; 4: Decorated world
map by Jan Blaeu, 16th century, illustration, © Archivo
Iconografico, S.A./Corbis; 5: Detail from The Port of
Seville, showing Magellan’s fleet, painting by Alonso
Sanchez Coello, © Giraudon/Art Resource, New York; 6:
Colchium and Ephemerum, botanical prints and text by
Girolamo Mattioli, © Araldo de Luca/Corbis; 7:
Portuguese carracks off a rocky coast by Joachim Patinir,
The National Maritime Museum; 8: Model of aerial
screw, built after a sketch, invention by Leonardo da
Vinci, © Scala/Art Resource, New York; 9: Manuscript
illumination of the dissection of a cadaver by
Bartholome l’Anglais, translated by Jehan Corbichon,
photograph, © Archivo Iconografico, S.A./Corbis; 10:
Jakob II Fugger, portrait by Dosso Dossi, The Art Archive;
11: Metal foundry for the production of cannons, fresco,
16th century, The Art Archive/Galleria degli Uffizi
Florence/Dagli Orti (A); 12: Martin Luther and the
Wittenberg Reformers, oil painting by Lucas Cranach the
Elder, Toledo Museum of Art; 13: Philip II on Horseback,
oil painting on canvas by Peter Paul Rubens, © Archivo
194
Iconografico, S.A./Corbis; 14: Betrothal of the Virgin, oil
painting by Raphael, © Archivo Iconografico,
S.A./Corbis; 15: The Sense of Hearing, oil painting on
panel by Jan Brueghel, The Art Archive/Museu del Prado
Madrid/Dagli Orti.
Black-and-White Photographs
2: Engraving of a printing press in 1520, ©
Bettmann/Corbis; 8: Martin Luther, painting on wood
panel, © Bettmann/Corbis; 12: Isabella Queen of Spain,
detail of Virgin of the Fly, painting attributed to Gerard
David, © Archivo Iconografico, S.A./Corbis; 18: Detail
from Madonna of the Fish, oil painting on canvas by
Raphael, © Francis G. Mayer/Corbis; 22: Ignatius de
Loyola, engraving ca. 1550, photograph, Hulton/Archive;
27: Thomas à Kempis, woodcut, Corbis-Bettmann; 32:
Self Portrait, painting by Giorgio Vasari, Arte Video
Immagine Italia srl/Corbis-Bettmann; 38: Elizabeth I
before Parliament, hand-colored engraving, © The Folger
Shakespeare Library; 42: Peasants taking up arms,
engraving, © Bettmann/Corbis; 63: Title page of Dialogus
Systemate Mundi, written by Galileo Galilei, ©
Bettmann/Corbis; 65: Illustration of engraving of rhinoceros by Albrecht Dürer, Library of Congress; 73: Painting
of Santorio Santoro’s weighing chair, painting by
Christel Gerstenberg, Corbis; 78: Mary Magdalene, by
Donatello, ca. 1454–1455, Museo dell Opera del Duomo,
THE RENAISSANCE
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Florence, Italy, The Art Archive/Dagli Orti; 82: The
Prodigal Son with Courtesans, painting, © Gianni Dagli
Orti/Corbis; 84: William Shakespeare, engraving by
Martin Droeshout, AP/Wide World Photos; 89:
Elizabethan galleons at sea, engraving, Corbis; 92:
Illustration from Toggenberg Bible of people suffering
with bubonic plague, 15th century painting, ©
Bettmann/Corbis; 95: Galley slave, engraving by
Vecellio, 16th century, © Christel Gerstenberg/Corbis;
102: Civitates Orbis Terrarum: Sevilla, painting by Georg
Braun, © Archivo Iconografico, S.A./Corbis; 105:
Lithograph of Garcilaso de la Vega, photograph, The
Library of Congress; 110: A Game of Football in the Piazza
Santa Maria Novella, fresco by Giovani Stradano, William
L. Clements Library, University of Michigan; 112: James
I of England, painting by Paul van Somer, © Gianni
Dagli Orti/Corbis; 118: Le Diverse et Artifiose Machine,
illustration/figure LXXV, by Agostino Ramelli, © Corbis;
121: Teatro Olimpico, view of stage and amphitheater,
designed by Andrea Palladio, painting, © Scala/Art
Resource, New York; 130: Tournament, manuscript illustration by Ogier le Danois, © Archivo Iconografico,
S.A./Corbis; 133: Travellers in a Landscape, painting by
THE RENAISSANCE
Jan Brueghel the Elder, © Victoria & Albert Museum,
London/Art Resource, New York; 135: The ruins of the
Colosseum, built by the Emperor Vespasian, 72–80 b.c.,
Roman Imperial Period, Rome, Italy, painting, ©
Timothy McCarthy/Art Resource, New York; 140:
Meeting of Doctors of the University of Paris, engraving,
The Art Archive/Bibliotheque des Arts Decoratifs
Paris/Dagli Orti; 151: The Arsenal, detail from Map of
Venice, drawing by Jacopo de Barbari, © Erich Lessing/Art
Resource, New York; 153: Warrior Handing a Letter to a
Page, painting by Veronese, © Christie’s Images/Corbis;
156: View of Vienna, Austria, painting by Jollain, ©
Archivo Iconografico, S.A./Corbis; 159: Tortures and executions of Dutch freedom fighters and protestants, copper engraving, © Christel Gerstenberg/Corbis; 164: The
Victory of Camollio, painting by Giovanni di Lorenzo
Cini, © Alinari/Art Resource, New York; 172: Medieval
woodcut of two witches standing at a cauldron, taken
from a 15th century book on alchemy, photograph, ©
Bettmann/Corbis; 175: Details from Allegory of March:
Triumph of Minerva, fresco by Francesco del Cossa, ©
Archivo Iconografico, S.A./Corbis.
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Plate 1
The Renaissance was a period of tremendous growth and discovery. Scholars not only learned more about
their world but turned their attention to the rest of the universe as well. Nicolaus Copernicus, Tycho
Brahe, and others brought about a revolution in astronomy by challenging long-established ideas about
the nature of the universe. Copernicus claimed that the Sun, rather than the Earth, stood at the center of
the universe. Tycho rejected this theory but agreed with Copernicus that the other planets of the solar system traveled around the Sun and not around the Earth. This illustration of Tycho's theory appeared in a
Renaissance guide to the heavens.
Plate 2: Left
In 1497–1498 Portuguese explorer Vasco da
Gama sailed around Africa and found a sea route
to India. Europeans wanted spices and silks from
Asia, but the overland trade route to the east was
long and difficult. Da Gama's voyage opened the
way for profitable trade in these luxury goods
and for a Portuguese empire in East Africa and
Asia.
Plate 3: Below
During the 1500s Europeans began to establish
settlements in North America. The French built a
fort on the northeast coast of present-day Florida
in 1564, but the fort was soon taken over by
Spanish forces based in St. Augustine. The illustrations of Flemish artist Theodore de Bry, such
as this one of French colonists and Indians in
Florida, provided Europeans with some of their
first images of the New World.
Plate 4: Above
Willem and Jan Blaeu were leading mapmakers in Holland in the 1600s, and they
published impressive multivolume atlases.
This world map by Jan shows European
knowledge of the world about 1630. Blaeu's
maps often have illustrations of figures, animals, and places around the outer edges.
Plate 5: Right
In the 1500s the Spanish city of Seville
emerged as a lively center of international
exploration and trade. In 1519 Portuguese
navigator Ferdinand Magellan set off from
Seville with a fleet of five ships on what was
to be the first complete voyage around the
world.
Plate 6: Left
Renaissance scholars took great interest in natural
science, including botany. The revival of ancient
texts, the discovery of new plants, and the growth
of printing all contributed to the development of
botany as a science. There were major efforts to
study, describe, and classify plants and to publish
illustrated texts. This detailed print of Colchicum
(a crocus-like plant) and Ephemerum (a hyacinthlike plant) appeared in a famous book of plants by
Pietro Andrea Mattioli, first published in 1554.
Plate 7: Below
By the late 1400s European shipbuilders had
developed a new three-masted vessel that had a
rear rudder and both square and triangular sails.
The larger ships of these new ships, usually called
carracks, could carry enormous loads of cargo and
found service primarily in trade. This painting (ca.
1521) by Flemish artist Joachim Patinir provides a
glimpse of Portuguese carracks at sea.
Plate 8: Left
Leonardo da Vinci of Italy was a man of
great curiosity and imagination. Some of
his ideas were far ahead of his times. As an
artist he explored new techniques for using
light and arranging figures in paintings. As
a scientist he probed the fields of anatomy,
geology, and engineering. Leonardo left
many notebooks filled with sketches of
ingenious devices and machines of the
future. The modern model of the aerial
screw, shown here, was based on one of his
sketches.
Plate 9: Below
Renaissance medicine made great strides in
explaining the structure of the human
body. Scholars began to focus on observation rather than theory, and the practice of
dissection became an important tool for
learning about human anatomy. This illustration from a manuscript of the 1400s
shows a dissection in progress.
Plate 10: Left
The Fugger family of Germany built a
financial empire and acquired substantial
economic and political influence in
Renaissance Europe. The family lent
money to rulers for wars and foreign expeditions and took silver and copper mines
as security. Christoph Fugger, shown here,
played a key role in the election of the
Holy Roman Emperor Charles V in 1519.
Plate 11: Below
Weapons and methods of warfare changed
considerably during the Renaissance.
Primitive pistols packed with gunpowder
and bullets appeared in the early 1300s.
The invention of firing mechanisms in the
1400s made firearms more reliable and easier to use. Heavy cannons that fired large
stones or iron balls came into use around
the same time. By the late 1400s smaller
cannons emerged that could be mounted
on wheels and transported, even on ships.
Cannons were produced in foundries, such
as the one in this illustration.
Plate 13: Below
The empire of Philip II, king of Spain, included
Portugal, the Netherlands, and colonies in the New
World. Philip's brief marriage to Mary I, queen of
England, also made him co-ruler of England from 1554
to 1558. However, the cost of running this huge empire
drained the Spanish treasury. Flemish artist Peter Paul
Rubens portrayed the king as a commanding figure on
horseback.
Plate 14: Left
The Renaissance brought new ideas and innovations
in many fields, including art. One major advance during this period was a better understanding of perspective, an artistic technique for creating the illusion of
three-dimensional space on a flat surface. Artists
achieved this illusion by using lines that appeared to
lead toward a distant “vanishing point,” as shown in
the painting Nuptials of the Virgin by Raphael.
Plate 15: Below
Many advances occurred in music as well, including
the development of new instruments and improvements in older ones. One of the most important new
instruments was the violin, which has survived into
the modern era with almost no change. This detail
from The Sense of Hearing, painted around 1617 by
Jan Brueghel the Elder, features the violin and a variety of other Renaissance instruments.
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Note: Volume numbers precede each page number, separated by a colon. Page numbers in
boldface type refer to main discussions of a topic.
A
Abravanel, Benvenida, 2:211
Abravanel, Judah, 2:214
Absolutism, 2:78, 132–34, 209
Academies, 1:1, 45, 130, 141, 4:121
Acarie, Barbe-Jeanne, 1:137–38
Accounting, 1:1–2, 2:87, 3:88
Adam of Bodenstein, 4:71
Adrian VI, Pope, 1:148
Africa, 1:2–5 (map), 2:65, 66, 69, 3:13,
81, 82, 206, 4:95, 96
Agincourt, Jean-Baptiste Seroux d’,
4:32
Agricola, Georgius, 3:80, 4:71
Agricola, Rudolf, 1:6, 141, 3:26, 137,
157, 4:15, 16, 44
Agriculture, 1:6–8 (illus.)
Americas, 1:16
cities and urban life, 1:162
economy and trade, 2:33, 34
France, 2:100–101
irrigation, 1:8, 4:117–18
peasantry, 3:151
slavery, 4:95
social status of farmers, 4:97
Spain, 4:101
technology, 4:117–18
trade goods, 2:37
Agrippa d’Aubigné, 2:109
Agrippa of Nettesheim, Heinrich,
1:8–9, 2:176, 4:12–13
Ailly, Pierre d’, 2:120
Albergati, Niccolò, 3:125
Albert I, Holy Roman Emperor, 2:142
Albert II, Holy Roman Emperor,
1:110, 2:142
Alberti, Leon Battista, 1:9–11 (illus.)
architecture, 1:28
art, education and training, 1:45
Jacopo Bellini, 1:85
Carracci family, 1:130
classical antiquity, 1:169
gardens, 2:115
humanism in Italy, 2:165
individualism, 2:180
THE RENAISSANCE
Italian language and literature,
2:193
Mantua, 3:47
palaces and townhouses, 3:135
perspective, 1:42
Spain and Portugal, 1:68
Albertine Saxony, 4:59, 60
Albrecht V, Duke of Bavaria-Munich,
1:83, 3:18
Albrecht von Brandenburg, 2:137
Alchemy, 1:11–12, 4:63, 70
Aldine Press, 4:3, 4
Alemanno, Rabbi Yohanon, 2:214,
3:44, 4:27–28
Alençon, François de, 1:104
Alexander VI, Pope, 1:13, 99–101,
171, 2:219, 3:39, 161, 198, 4:58
Alexander Jagiellonczyk, King of
Poland, 3:4–5
Alfonso I, King of Naples. See Alfonso
V of Aragon
Alfonso II, King of Naples, 3:18, 117,
4:115
Alfonso V of Aragon, 1:68, 100, 2:41,
165, 3:117, 4:145
Alfonso X, King of Castile and León,
4:103, 105
Alfonso of Castile, 2:190
Alhazen, 4:68, 69
Allegory, 2:16, 3:23–24, 47, 4:28, 51,
77, 108–9, 120, 153
Allegri, Antonio. See Correggio
Alleyn, Edward, 4:122
Almosnino, Moses, 4:28
Alphonso I, King of Kongo, 3:81
Altarpieces, 1:66, 191, 2:69, 3:145,
4:17, 18, 78, 125, 154
Altdorfer, Albrecht, 1:77
Amadeus VI, Duke of Savoy, 3:162
Amadeus VII, Duke of Savoy, 3:162
Ambassador. See Diplomacy
Amboise, Peace of, 4:169
Americas, 1:13–19 (map) (illus.)
agriculture, 1:7
Amsterdam, 1:19
Christian missions, 3:82–83
colonization of, 1:17–19
disease, 3:67
economy and trade, 2:35
England, 2:52
European exploration of, 1:13–16
exploration, 2:67–68
Habsburg dynasty, 2:142, 144
industry, 2:182
jewelry, 2:201
Bartolomé de Las Casas, 3:4
money, 3:89
Thomas More, 3:93
museums, 3:98
popes and papacy, 3:194
Seville, 4:79
slavery, 4:96
Spain, 4:100, 101
Amsterdam, 1:19–20, 2:35, 3:123
Anabaptists, 3:101, 4:8
Anatomy, 1:20–22 (illus.), 2:30,
110–11, 3:16, 4:35, 66, 67, 77, 142,
154–55
Ancona, 2:208, 210
Andreae, Johann Valentin, 4:144
Angelico, Fra, 1:22, 57, 2:177
Angelics of St. Paul, 4:25
Anger, Jane, 2:78
Anghiera, Pietro Martire d’, 2:67
Anglican Church, 1:202, 2:14, 46, 48,
49–50, 188, 217, 3:85, 95, 179,
4:10, 11, 39, 141
Anguissola, Sofonisba, 1:23, 41,
2:145, 4:178
Anjou, Duke of, 1:94
Anna of Austria, 3:156
Anne de Beaujeu, 2:97
Anne of Austria, 4:177
Anne of Brittany, 1:23, 111
Anne of Cleves, 1:202
Anne of Denmark, 1:145, 2:198
Anti-Semitism, 1:24, 188–89, 2:185,
209
Antoine de Bourbon, 1:104, 2:200
Antwerp, 1:9, 25, 38, 63, 112, 113,
2:37, 95, 3:72, 122, 4:50–52
Apian, Peter, 2:119
197
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INDEX
Apprenticeship, 1:44–45, 69–70, 102,
127, 153, 2:30, 139, 3:13, 46, 73,
127, 132, 138, 4:19, 124, 125
Aquapendente, Girolamo Fabrici da,
1:21
Aquinas, Thomas, 1:160, 4:25, 27
Arabic language, 2:191–92, 4:3, 142
Aragon, 4:38, 90, 98, 99, 101
Aragon family, 1:61. See also
Catherine of Aragon
Arca, Niccolò dell’, 1:97
Archimedes, 4:67
Architecture, 1:25–29 (illus.). See also
specific architects
Antwerp, 1:25
Austria, 1:77–78
baroque, 1:81
Bohemia, 1:96
Brussels, 1:119
châteaus and villas, 1:150–51,
2:116, 117, 3:138, 139
cities and urban life, 1:165
Croatia and Dalmatia, 1:201
Ferrara, 2:81
Florence, 1:56, 2:88
French national style, 1:51–52
gardens, 2:115
humanism in Britain, 2:169, 170
Iberian art, 1:67–69
influence of the Renaissance, 4:34
London, 3:28
Cosimo de’ Medici, 3:63
Michelangelo, 3:75
Milan, 1:58
palaces and townhouses, 3:135–37
(illus.)
Rome, 4:47
Scandinavian kingdoms, 4:61–62,
62
Scotland, 4:75
sculpture, 4:78
Seville, 4:80
Switzerland, 4:114
technology, 4:118
theaters, 4:120–22
theory, 1:28–29, 2:103
tombs, 4:128–29
urban planning, 1:165
Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola,
4:157–58
Archivolti, Samuel, 2:204
Arcimboldo, Giuseppe, 1:96
Aretino, Pietro, 3:25, 4:127
Argyropoulos, John, 2:135
Ariosto, Ludovico, 1:29–30, 155,
2:172, 3:7, 24, 76, 116, 200, 4:13,
132, 148, 177
198
Aristocracy, 1:31–33 (illus.), 106, 111,
2:3, 29, 4:37, 39, 79, 81, 149
Aristotelianism, 1:34–35
Aristotle, 1:33–35
astronomy, 1:72
Leonardo Bruni, 1:116
Giordano Bruno, 1:117
Tommaso Campanella, 1:126
Christian theology, 1:160
classical scholarship, 1:172, 174
constitutionalism, 1:187
Greek émigrés, 2:135
humanism in France, 2:166
humor, 2:170
illumination, 2:178
Italian language and literature,
2:194
Jewish scholarship, 2:214
literary theory, 3:22
logic, 3:25–26
man, dignity of, 3:46
medicine, 3:66
Philipp Melanchthon, 3:70
metaphysics, 3:159
moral philosophy, 3:158
music, 3:101
natural philosophy, 3:158–59
Neoplatonism, 3:175
Pico della Mirandola, Giovanni,
3:161
Pietro Pomponazzi, 3:192
Petrus Ramus, 4:15, 16
religious thought, 4:25, 26, 27
rhetoric, 4:43, 44
science, 4:63–64, 63 (illus.), 66, 67,
68
scientific method, 4:73
tragedy, 2:16
translation, 4:131
universities, 4:141
Lorenzo Valla, 4:145
works and teachings of, 1:33–34
Armada, Spanish, 1:35–36, 144, 2:15,
46, 51, 3:156, 157, 4:101
Armada Portrait, 2:45
Arms and armor, 1:36–38 (illus.), 2:7.
See also Weapons
Art, 1:38–44 (illus.). See also
Academies; Architecture;
Mannerism; Naturalism; specific
artists
anatomy, 1:20
Austria, 1:77–78
baroque, 1:81
Basel, 1:82
Bavaria, 1:83
Bohemia, 1:96
Britain, 1:46–47
Brussels, 1:119
Central Europe, 1:47–49 (illus.),
200–201, 3:211
Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor,
1:150
chivalry, 1:155, 156
coins and medals, 1:180–81
confraternities, 1:185
Council of Trent, 4:138
court, 1:195
decorative arts, 2:6–8 (illus.)
defining the Renaissance era, 4:29,
30
forgeries, 2:92–93
France, 1:49–53 (illus.), 121, 2:105
Germany, 1:53–55 (illus.), 3:128.
See also specific artists
humor, 2:172
ideas, spread of, 2:175
influence of the Renaissance, 4:34
interpreting the Renaissance, 4:32,
33
Italy. See Art in Italy
Jews, 2:211–12
Maximilian II, 3:60
museums, 3:98–99
myth, 3:116–17
Netherlands, 1:19–20, 63–66
(illus.). See also specific artists
papal patronage, 3:194–95
pastoral, 3:146
patronage. See Patronage
perspective. See Perspective
Portugal, 1:67–69 (illus.), 3:40, 157
printing and publishing, 4:4
Protestant Reformation, 4:9
realism, 1:112, 127, 4:77, 78
Renaissance images of antiquity,
1:170–71
Rome, 4:45
Russia, 4:53
Saxony, 4:60
Scandinavian kingdoms, 4:60, 61
sculpture. See Sculpture
Philip Sidney, 4:92
Spain, 1:67–69 (illus.), 3:40, 157,
4:104. See also El Greco
Switzerland, 4:114
Titian, 4:127
Vienna, 4:156
women, 4:178
Art, education and training, 1:44–45.
See also Apprenticeship
Art in Italy, 1:55–63 (illus.). See also
specific artists
Bologna, 1:97
Emilia-Romagna, 1:58
Florence, 1:56–57, 2:84, 88
THE RENAISSANCE
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INDEX
France, 1:50–51
Genoa and Milan, 1:58–60, 2:117,
3:77
House of Gonzaga, 2:130
humanism in Italy, 2:165
Cosimo de’ Medici, 3:63
House of Medici, 3:62
Lorenzo de’ Medici, 3:64
Naples, 1:61–62, 3:118
Rome, 1:60–61
sculpture, 4:76–78
Siena, 1:57–58
Umbria, 1:60
Venice, 1:62–63, 4:152
Paolo Veronese, 4:153
Andrea del Verrocchio, 4:154
Arthur, King of Wales, 1:155–56, 170
Arthur, Prince of Wales, 1:134
Articles of Faith, 1:197, 4:142
Artillery, 1:38, 2:93, 94. See also
Cannons
Artisans, 1:69–70, 2:139, 4:36, 95,
97, 118–19, 119, 150, 175
Asia, 1:70–72 (map), 181, 183, 2:65,
114, 3:41, 83–84, 206
Asiatic style, 2:54
Astrology, 1:72, 107, 3:1, 42, 44, 4:9,
63. See also Magic and astrology
Astronomy, 1:72–73, 117, 123,
2:111–13, 146, 3:57, 4:9–10, 68,
69, 72. See also Brahe, Tycho;
Copernicus, Nicolaus; Kepler,
Johannes
Asylums. See Hospitals and asylums
Atahualpa, Incan emperor, 1:17
Atlantic Ocean, 3:166, 167
Attaignant, Pierre, 3:100
Attic style, 2:54
Augsburg, 1:73–74, 2:157, 3:18, 4:3
Augsburg, Interim of, 1:149
Augsburg, Peace of, 2:79, 161
August I, Elector of Saxony, 4:60
August the Younger, Duke of
Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, 1:118
Augustine of Hippo, 1:74–75, 92,
156, 3:93, 4:26, 81, 163
Aurelius, Marcus, Emperor of Rome,
1:46, 173
Austria, 1:75–78, 3:58, 4:42, 52, 78,
129
Autobiography. See Biography and
autobiography
Averroes (Ibn Rushd), 2:214, 3:159,
4:27
Avignon (France), 1:157, 2:164,
3:154, 197
THE RENAISSANCE
B
Bacon, Francis, 1:78–79 (illus.), 2:54,
3:19, 44, 90, 178, 4:44–45, 74, 88,
144
Baldus of Ubaldis, 3:9, 10
Baltic states, 1:79–80
Banking. See Fugger family; Money
and banking
Barakovic, Juraj, 1:200
Barbari, Jacopo de’, 3:56
Barbaro, Daniele, 3:139, 4:153
Barbarossa (Khayr ad-Din), 2:104,
4:113
Barberini, Federico, 3:17
Bardi, Giovanni de’, 3:129
Barga, Antonio da, 3:45
Barnabites, 4:23–24
Barocci, Federico, 1:80–81, 130
Baron, Hans, 1:116–17, 4:33
Baroque, 1:81, 97, 119, 129, 130,
191, 192, 2:200, 3:40, 91, 103,
129, 4:49, 50
Barros, João, 3:207
Bartolo, Domenico di, 3:66, 209
Bartolommeo della Porta, Fra, 1:57,
81–82
Bartolus of Sassoferrato, 3:9, 10
Barzizza, Gasparino, 4:162
Bas-relief. See Relief
Basel, 1:82, 4:3–4, 114
Basel, Council of, 1:193, 3:125
Bastion, 2:94, 95
Battuta, Ibn, 2:192
Bavaria, 1:83, 3:137, 4:39
Bavaria, Duke of, 3:5
Bayezid I, Ottoman sultan, 1:186
Beaufort, Margaret, 2:47
Beaumont, Francis, 2:24
Beccadelli, Antonio, 3:25
Beccafumi, Domenico, 1:58
Behaim, Martin, 2:120
Behn, Aphra, 1:83–84
Belgium. See Antwerp; Brueghel family; Brussels
Bellarmine, Robert, 1:84
Bellay, Jean du, 4:14
Bellay, Joachim du, 2:107, 108
Bellini, Gentile, 1:85, 86, 129, 2:126,
4:125
Bellini, Giovanni, 1:58, 85, 2:30,
4:125
Bellini, Leonardo, 2:178–79
Bellini family, 1:62, 85–87 (illus.),
4:152
Bembo, Pietro, 3:180
ben David, Calonymous, 3:44
ben Hayyim, Abraham, 1:91
Benedetti, Giovanni Battista, 3:159,
4:70
Benedictine Rule, 4:21
Benedictines, 4:22
Bentivoglio, Annibale, 1:97
Bentivoglio, Giovanni II, 1:97
Bentivoglio, Santo, 1:97
Berenson, Bernard, 4:33
Bergeron, Pierre, 4:136
Bernini, Giovanni Lorenzo, 1:81, 4:52
Berruguette, Pedro, 1:68–69
Bertram, Master, 1:54
Bérulle, Pierre de, 4:24
Besold, Christoph, 3:191
Bessarion, 2:135, 3:17, 175
Bèze, Théodore de, 2:26
Bibbiena, Bernardo Dovizi da, 2:18
Bible, 1:87–91 (illus.)
Biblical studies, 1:156, 157
Christian humanism, 3:189
Christian theology, 1:161
classical scholarship, 1:174
Council of Trent, 4:137–38
Thomas Cranmer, 1:197
Thomas Cromwell, 1:202
Desiderius Erasmus, 2:59
Galileo Galilei, 2:113
German language, 2:121
Hebrew verse, 2:203
humanism in France, 2:166
illumination, 2:177, 179
James I, 2:199
Jewish scholarship, 2:214
John Knox, 3:3
Ladino literature, 2:204
Laski family, 3:5
Leiden, 3:11–12
Martin Luther, 3:33
Netherlands language/literature,
3:123
numerology, 3:127
Pico della Mirandola, Giovanni,
3:162
preaching and sermons, 3:212
printing, 1:90–91, 4:4
Puritanism, 4:10
religious poetry, 3:178
religious thought, 4:25–26, 28
revolts, 4:41
Scandinavian kingdoms, 4:60–61
Spanish language and literature,
4:106
textbooks, 2:40
translation and interpretation,
1:87–88
vernacular Bible, 1:88–90
Yiddish literature, 2:205
Bibliotheca Marciana, 2:135
199
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INDEX
Bibliotheca Rotunda, 1:118
Bill of exchange, 2:36, 3:88
Biography and autobiography,
1:91–92
Biondo, Flavio, 4:30
Biringuccio, Vannoccio, 3:81, 4:70–71
Birth control, 3:97, 4:81
Bishops’ Wars, 1:147
Black Death. See Plague
Blood, 1:21–22, 2:146, 147, 3:66
Boccaccio, Giovanni, 1:92–94 (illus.),
141, 2:88, 91, 106, 123, 129, 172,
193, 3:10, 22, 23, 115, 146,
154–55, 171, 179, 201, 4:162
Bodin, Jean, 1:94–95, 188, 2:29,
132–33, 155–56, 3:189, 190, 4:114
Boece, Hector, 2:167
Boethius, 1:156, 3:25, 4:69–70
Bohemia, 1:49, 95–96, 2:144, 3:59,
186, 4:8, 123. See also Prague
Boleyn, Anne, 2:44, 49, 150, 151
Bologna, 1:96–97, 3:8, 125, 153, 193,
4:36, 152
Bologna, Concordat of, 2:102, 104
Boniface VIII, Pope, 3:165
Book of Common Prayer, 1:197,
2:49–50
The Book of the Courtier (Baldassare
Castiglione), 1:131–33, 195, 2:46,
107, 193, 3:29, 102, 198–99, 4:13,
179
Bookkeeping. See Accounting
Books and manuscripts, 1:97–99,
4:1–4, 19–21, 30, 53, 58, 130. See
also Illumination; Printing and
publishing
Borgia, Cesare, 1:99, 100, 3:15, 38, 39
Borgia, House of, 1:99–101
Borgia, Lucrezia, 2:61
Borgia, Rodrigo. See Alexander VI,
Pope
Borro, Girolamo, 4:74
Borromeo, Carlo, 1:137
Borromeo, Federigo, 1:113
Borromini, Francesco, 1:81
Boscán, Juan, 4:105
Bosch, Hieronymus, 1:63–64, 101
Bosworth, Battle of, 2:148
Botany, 4:64–66, 68
Botticelli, Sandro, 1:41, 57, 94, 102–3
(illus.), 170, 2:85, 175, 3:22, 64,
116, 4:57, 154
Bourbon family and dynasty,
1:104–5, 2:78, 97, 100, 130, 147,
3:92, 4:147
Bourdichon, Jean, 1:23
Bourgeois, Louise, 4:178
Bourgeoisie, 1:105–6
200
Bouts, Albert, 1:106
Bouts, Dirck, 1:106
Bouts, Dirck, the Younger, 1:106
Boyle, Elizabeth, 4:108, 109
Boytac, Diogo, 1:68
Bozidarevic, Nikola, 1:201
Bracciolini, Poggio, 1:171, 2:165, 168,
177, 4:44, 145, 180
Bradford, William, 3:11
Brahe, Sophie, 4:61, 178
Brahe, Tycho, 1:73, 96, 107, 3:1,
4:61, 72
Bramante, Donato, 1:26, 41, 59, 61,
107–10 (illus.), 151, 2:126, 4:17,
18
Brandenburg, 1:110–11
Brandenburg, Prince of, 4:109
Brant, Isabella, 4:50
bread riots, 4:161, 179
Brethren of the Common Life, 2:9
Breton War of Succession, 1:111
Britain, 1:46–47, 169–70, 2:167,
168–70. See also England
Brittany, 1:111, 2:100
Bronze, 2:12, 13
Brueghel, Jan, the Elder, 1:113, 4:133
Brueghel, Pieter, the Elder, 1:64, 101,
112, 119, 152, 3:200, 201
Brueghel family, 1:112–13 (illus.)
Brunelleschi, Filippo, 1:25, 42, 47, 56,
108, 114–15 (illus.), 169, 2:12, 88,
175, 4:34, 77, 118
Brunfels, Otto, 4:65
Bruni, Leonardo, 1:56, 91, 115–17,
187, 2:88, 134, 155, 3:189, 4:30,
33, 131
Bruno, Giordano, 1:73, 117–18, 118,
2:60, 3:43, 4:27
Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, 1:118, 3:18
Brussels, 1:65, 118–19, 121, 2:58,
3:142, 4:171
Bry, Theodore de, 2:120
Bubonic plague. See Plague
Buchanan, George, 2:41, 3:191, 4:76
Buckingham, Duke of. See Villiers,
George
Buda (Budapest), 1:47, 2:173
Budé, Guillaume, 2:166, 170, 3:18
Buonamici, Francesco, 4:74
Burckhardt, Jakob, 1:9, 119–20,
2:180, 3:134, 4:32–33
Bureus, Johannes, 4:62
Burghers, 1:105, 4:39
Burgomasters, 4:37–38
Burgundy, 1:120–21 (illus.), 195,
2:32–33, 104, 3:58, 100, 119, 120,
148, 4:113, 145–46
Byrd, William, 1:121–22, 3:101, 103,
106
Byzantine Empire, 1:159, 170, 172,
193, 3:69, 194. See also
Constantinople, Fall of
C
Cabeza de Vaca, Álvar Núñez, 1:17,
4:136
Cabot, John, 2:52, 67
Cabral, Pedro Álvares, 2:66–67
Caesar, Julius, 1:92, 123, 2:155
Calabria, Duke of, 4:56
Calasanz, St. José, 4:23
Calculus, 3:2
Calderón de la Barca, Pedro, 1:122,
3:40
Calendars, 1:123–24, 4:157
Calixtus III, Pope, 1:13, 100, 3:117,
170
Calvin, John, 1:124–25
Augustine of Hippo, 1:75
Bible, 1:90
Bourbon family and dynasty,
1:104
Brandenburg, 1:110
constitutionalism, 1:187
John Donne, 2:14
French literature, 2:106
Jeanne d’Albret, 2:200
Lyon, 3:37
music, vocal, 3:110
Netherlands, 3:121, 123
Palatinate, 3:137
pilgrimage, 3:166
printing and publishing, 4:5
Protestant clergy, 1:176
Protestant missions, 3:84
Protestant Reformation, 1:158, 4:8,
9
religious thought, 4:26
revolts, 4:41
sumptuary laws, 3:36
Wars of Religion, 4:168
Calvinism, 2:136, 4:8, 41
Cambrai, League of, 2:97, 219
Cambridge University, 4:121
Camden, William, 1:170
Camões, Luíz Vaz de, 1:125, 3:208,
4:136
Campanella, Tommaso, 1:75,
125–27, 4:144
Campin, Robert, 4:171
Canary Islands, 1:5, 182
Cannons, 1:38, 2:93, 182–83, 4:166
Cano, Juan Sebastián del, 2:68
Cantors, 2:212
THE RENAISSANCE
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INDEX
Cão, Diogo, 1:5
Cape of Good Hope, 2:66
Capet, House of, 2:32, 4:145
Capitalism, 2:33, 181
Caravaggio, Michelangelo Merisi da,
1:62, 127–29 (illus.)
Cardano, Giorlamo, 3:56, 57, 4:71
Carew, Richard, 1:170
Carew, Thomas, 3:185
Caribbean, 1:17, 181, 2:15
Il Cariteo, 3:180
Carmelites, 1:137–38, 4:120
Carnival, 2:75–76, 90, 123, 171,
3:129
Carpaccio, Vittore, 1:62, 129
Carracci family, 1:58, 130–31
Carrack, 2:64, 4:89, 90
Cartier, Jacques, 2:68
Cartography, 2:64, 120–21, 3:56–57.
See also Geography and cartography
Cartwright, Thomas, 4:10
Cary, Elizabeth, 2:24
Casa de Contratación, 4:79
Castagno, Andrea del, 1:57
Castelfranco, Giorgione da, 1:62,
3:116
Castiglione, Baldassare, 1:131–33
(illus.)
Giovanni Boccaccio, 1:93
court, 1:195
Giorgione da Castelfranco, 2:126
Italian language and literature,
2:193
love and marriage, 3:29
music, 3:101–2
popular culture, 3:198–99
princely rule, 3:189
querelle des femmes, 4:13
sports, 4:109, 110
translation, 4:131
Castile, 4:38, 41–42, 98, 99, 100, 103
Cateau-Cambrésis, Treaty of, 4:168
Catherine de Médicis, 1:52, 133–34,
2:5, 98, 147, 3:92, 4:12, 48, 146,
169, 177
Catherine of Aragon, 1:134, 197,
2:47, 48, 49, 148, 149, 150, 3:52,
85, 182, 4:9, 13, 141, 174, 178
Catholic Church. See Roman Catholic
Church
Catholic League, 2:98, 99, 100, 140,
148
Catholic Reformation and CounterReformation, 1:135–38. See also
Counter-Reformation
Federico Barocci, 1:80
THE RENAISSANCE
Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor,
1:148
Christianity, 1:157–58
Council of Trent. See Trent,
Council of
Margaret of Navarre, 3:48
Milan, 3:77
religious literature, 4:21
Peter Paul Rubens, 4:50
Girolamo Savonarola, 4:59
Cato, 1:6
Cats, Jacob, 3:124
Cavalieri, Tommaso de’, 3:75
Cavendish, Margaret, 1:138
Caxton, William, 1:155
Cecil, William, Lord Burghley, 2:45
Celibacy, 3:32, 4:81
Cellini, Benvenuto, 1:51, 55, 92,
138–40 (illus.), 180, 3:15, 149,
4:78
Celtis, Conrad, 1:77, 141, 196, 2:167,
3:137, 4:157
Censorship, 1:141–43, 2:25, 167,
3:78. See also Index of Prohibited
Books
Central America, 1:183, 2:68, 3:4
Central Europe, art in, 1:47–49
(illus.), 200–201, 3:211
Cereta, Laura, 4:178
Cervantes Saavedra, Miguel de,
1:144–45 (illus.), 155, 2:172, 3:24,
146, 166, 4:104, 107, 136
Cesare, Duke of Romagna, 1:13
Cesmicki, Ivan, 1:200
Chapman, George, 2:24, 4:131
Charity, 1:185, 3:37, 166, 4:25. See
also Poverty and charity
Charlemagne, 2:158
Charles, Duke of Vendôme, 1:104
Charles I, King of Great Britain,
1:145–47, 2:118, 146, 189, 199,
218, 4:39, 111
Charles I, King of Spain. See Charles
V, Holy Roman Emperor
Charles II, King of Scotland, 4:111
Charles IV, King of Bohemia, 1:95,
2:158, 3:128
Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor,
1:147–50 (illus.)
art in Spain and Portugal, 1:69
Augsburg, 1:74
House of Borgia, 1:101
Bourbon family and dynasty,
1:104
Baldassare Castiglione, 1:131
dynastic rivalry, 2:33
Desiderius Erasmus, 2:58
Ferdinand I, 2:79
Ferdinand of Aragon, 2:80
Florence, 2:86
France, 2:97, 98
Francis I, 2:104
Fugger family, 2:110
House of Gonzaga, 2:130
Francesco Guicciardini, 2:138
Habsburg dynasty, 2:144
Henry VII, King of England, 2:148
Henry VIII, King of England, 2:150
Holy Roman Empire, 2:158, 160
humanism in Spain, 2:167
Index of Prohibited Books, 2:179
Bartolomé de Las Casas, 3:4
Martin Luther, 3:33
Margaret of Austria, 3:47, 48
Mary I, Queen of England, 3:53
Maximilian II, 3:59
mercantilism, 3:71
monarchy, 3:84–85
Netherlands, 3:121
Nürnberg, 3:128
Ottoman Empire, 3:132
parades and pageants, 3:142
Parmigianino, 3:145
patronage, 3:149
Philip II, King of Spain, 3:156
Portugal, 3:206
Protestant Reformation, 4:7
revolts, 4:41–42
Rome, 4:47
Saxony, 4:59, 60
Siena, 4:94
Spain, 4:100–101
Süleyman I, 4:113
Titian, 4:126
Valois dynasty, 4:146
Wars of Italy, 4:168
Charles V, King of France, 3:172
Charles VII, King of France, 1:104
Charles VIII, King of France, 1:13, 23,
111, 2:85, 97, 126, 3:48, 117,
168–69, 4:58, 146, 164, 165, 167,
168
Charles IX, King of France, 1:133,
134, 2:98, 3:92, 4:48, 147, 169
Charles of Anjou, 4:90
Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy,
1:65, 121, 2:33, 97, 129, 3:120,
148, 4:38
Charles de Bourbon, 1:104, 148
Charles Gustavus, King of Sweden,
1:161
Chastity, 3:32, 4:13, 21, 23
Châteaus and villas, 1:27–28,
150–51, 2:116, 117, 3:138, 139,
4:34
Chaucer, Geoffrey, 1:93, 3:179, 4:107
201
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INDEX
Chemistry, 3:67, 68, 140, 4:70–72
Chiaroscuro, 2:118
Chigi, Agostino, 3:149
Childbirth, 3:97, 4:92, 176
Childhood, 1:151–54 (illus.), 2:5, 59,
3:130–32 (illus.)
Childrearing, 1:152, 3:97–98
China, 1:70–71, 3:84, 4:23, 45
Chivalry, 1:154–56, 2:47, 56, 57,
3:199, 200, 4:106, 107, 129, 165
Chrétien de Troyes, 1:155
Christian II, King of Denmark, 4:60
Christian III, King of Denmark, 4:60
Christian IV, King of Denmark, 2:215,
4:61–62, 62
Christian era, dating of, 1:123
Christian humanism, 3:189–90
Christian Kabbalah, 3:162
Christian theology, 1:160–61
Christians/Christianity, 1:156–61
(illus.)
Africa, 1:5
alchemy, 1:12
anti-Semitism, 1:24
East Asia, 1:71–72
Christian theology, 1:160–61
colonization of America, 1:16
conversos, 1:188–89
defining the Renaissance era, 4:30
Marsilio Ficino, 2:82
Islam, 2:191
Jewish magic, 3:44
Jewish printing and publishing,
2:213
Jewish scholarship, 2:214
Jews, 2:206, 207–8, 210, 211
metaphysics, 3:159–60
myth, 3:116
Neoplatonism, 3:175
numerology, 3:127
Orthodox Christianity, 1:158–60
Ottoman Empire, 3:134
paganism, 3:134
pawnbrokers, 3:87
piracy, 3:166
preaching and sermons, 3:212
Protestant Reformation, 4:6–9
religious literature, 4:19–21
religious thought, 4:25–27
Matteo Ricci, 4:45
Roman Catholic Church, 1:156–58
Rome, 4:47
Russia, 4:53
Coluccio Salutati, 4:56
Girolamo Savonarola, 4:58
Saxony, 4:59
slavery, 4:96
Spain, 4:98, 99, 102
202
Spanish America, 1:18
Christina of Sweden, 1:161–62, 4:62,
81, 177
Christine de Pizan. See Pizan,
Christine de
Chrysoloras, Manuel, 1:173, 2:134,
137, 155, 165, 4:56, 130
Chrysostom, John, 4:26
Church councils. See Councils
Church of England. See Anglican
Church
Chylde, Machabyas, 4:108
Cicero, 1:132, 162, 171, 172, 2:54,
164, 167, 171, 175, 3:6–7, 23, 154,
188, 214, 4:15, 42–43, 44, 45, 144
Circulatory system, 1:21–22. See also
Blood
Cisneros, Francisco Jiménes de, 1:88
Cities and urban life, 1:162–65
(illus.). See also specific cities
bourgeoisie, 1:105–6
daily life, 2:3
demographic patterns, 3:203–4
fortifications, 2:95
ghetto. See Ghetto
guilds. See Guilds
Italy, 2:195
representative institutions, 4:36,
37, 39
revolts, 4:41, 42
sexuality and gender, 4:81–82
slavery, 4:95
social status, 4:97
universities, 4:138, 140
utopias, 4:144
Citizenship, 1:164, 166, 167, 3:118
City of God (St. Augustine), 1:74, 75,
4:163
City-states, 1:166–68, 2:198, 4:32, 94
Civic humanism, 3:188–89
Civic life, 3:140–42 (illus.)
Civil service/civil servants, 4:5, 6, 138
Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy,
The (Jakob Burckhardt), 1:119,
120, 4:32–33
Class system. See Social classes
Classical antiquity, 1:168–71 (illus.).
See also Greek language and literature; Latin language and literature
architecture, 1:26
aristocracy, 1:31
art, 1:39–40, 61
Botticelli, 1:102–3
defining the Renaissance era, 4:29,
30
discovering the past, 1:168–70
Donatello, 2:11
French drama, 2:26
Spanish drama, 2:27
Albrecht Dürer, 2:30
English writing style, 2:53–54
Desiderius Erasmus, 2:59
erudite comedy, 2:18
food and drink, 2:89
forgeries, 2:92
French literature, 2:106–7, 108–9
Fra Giocondo, 2:126
Luis de Góngora y Argote, 2:130
Greek émigrés, 2:134
historians, 2:154–55
humanism, 2:163, 165
interpreting the Renaissance, 4:32
Islam, 2:191
Pléiade, 2:108
representative institutions, 4:36
Rome, 4:47
Peter Paul Rubens, 4:50
Coluccio Salutati, 4:56
Scandinavian kingdoms, 4:60–61
Scotland, 4:75
sculpture, 4:77
William Shakespeare, 4:85
Titian, 4:126
Classical languages. See Greek language and literature; Latin language and literature
Classical scholarship, 1:171–74. See
also Latin language and literature
Bible, 1:87
biblical studies, 1:156, 157
biography, 1:91
Boccaccio, 1:94
Giovanni Boccaccio, 1:92–94
Donato Bramante, 1:108
Leonardo Bruni, 1:116
John Calvin, 1:124
Baldassare Castiglione, 1:132
censorship, 1:141
Christian theology, 1:160
defining the Renaissance era, 4:30
England, 2:52
Euclid, 2:62
Europe, idea of, 2:63
Marsilio Ficino, 2:82
golden age, 2:51
Hugo Grotius, 2:136
Guarino Guarini, 2:137
humanism, 2:163–70
humanist education, 2:40
ideas, spread of, 2:175
Italian language and literature,
2:192, 193
Italian political thought, 3:188
Ben Jonson, 2:216
literacy, 3:21
THE RENAISSANCE
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INDEX
literature, 3:21–23
man, dignity of, 3:45
Andrea Mantegna, 3:46
Christopher Marlowe, 3:50
mathematics, 3:55
medicine, 3:65–67
Philipp Melanchthon, 3:70
Montaigne, 3:90
moral philosophy, 3:158
Thomas More, 3:93
museums, 3:98–99
music, 3:101
Neo-Stoicism, 3:191
nepotism, 3:118–19
numerology, 3:127
opera, 3:129–30
Orthodox Christianity, 1:159
Orthodox Church, 1:159
paganism, 3:134
Andrea Palladio, 3:138
parades and pageants, 3:140
Petrarch, 3:153–56
philosophy, 3:157
poetry, 3:176–78
Pope Pius IV, 3:171
popular culture, 3:200
Portuguese language and literature,
3:207
preaching and sermons, 3:214
Protestant Reformation, 4:7
Reformation in England, 2:49
Renaissance images of antiquity,
1:170–71
Matteo Ricci, 4:45
Roman Catholic Church, 1:156
Spanish language and literature,
4:104–5
textbooks, 2:39, 40
tragedy, 2:16
urban planning, 1:165
Lorenzo Valla, 4:144–45
Venice, 4:152
Clement VII, Pope, 1:131, 133, 139,
148, 2:86, 138, 207, 3:13, 38, 61,
75, 197, 4:24, 47
Clement VIII, Pope, 1:84, 3:194, 4:23
Clement XI, Pope, 4:24
Clergy, 1:174–76, 179, 4:5, 6, 38, 39,
58, 75, 96, 100, 137, 138. See also
Religious orders
Clèves, Duke of, 2:200
Clocks, 1:176
Clothing, 1:177–79 (illus.)
Clouet, François, 1:52
Clouet, Jean, 1:52
Clovino, Giulio, 2:179
Coat of arms, 1:180, 2:152–53, 4:75,
97, 128
THE RENAISSANCE
Coecke, Mayken, 1:112
Coecke, Pieter van Aelst, 1:112
Cognac, League of, 2:138
Coins and medals, 1:180–81. See also
Medals
Colet, John, 2:41
College of Arms, 2:153
College of Cardinals, 1:175, 3:12
College of Navarre, 2:166
Colleoni, Bartolomeo, 4:154
Cologne, 1:53–54, 4:3
Colon, Hernando, 4:80
Colonization, 1:17–19, 3:206, 207,
4:79, 91. See also Exploration
Colonna, Vittoria, 3:75, 155
Columbus, Christopher, 1:13,
181–83 (illus.), 2:67, 80, 90, 3:194,
4:89, 100, 102, 104, 157
Columella, 1:6, 7
Comedy, 2:18–19, 26, 216, 217,
4:85–86, 148. See also Farces;
Humor
Commedia dell’arte, 1:184, 2:25, 171,
3:200–201
Commoners, 4:96–98
Commonplace books, 2:39–40, 3:6
Communication. See Transportation
and communication
Company of St. Ursula, 4:24
Comparative anatomy, 1:21
Compasses, 4:72–73
Complutensian Polyglot, 1:88
Composers, 3:102–3. See also specific
composers
confraternities, 1:185–86, 2:16, 162,
163, 207, 3:210, 4:24, 124, 143,
150
Congregation of the Council, 3:198
Conquistadors, 2:68, 4:136. See also
Cortés, Hernán
Constance, Council of, 3:198
Constantine I (the Great), Emperor of
Rome, 1:158, 186
Constantine IX, Byzantine Emperor,
1:187
Constantinople, 1:85, 158–59, 2:137,
3:126, 4:130
Constantinople, fall of, 1:34, 87, 170,
186–87, 2:65, 135, 175, 191, 3:68,
69, 126, 132, 194
Constitutionalism, 1:187–88
Contract fighters. See Mercenaries
Conventuals, 4:22
conversos, 1:24, 188–89, 2:185, 186,
4:99, 106, 127
Cookery, 2:91–92
Copernican system. See Solar system
Copernicus, Nicolaus, 1:189–91
(illus.)
astronomy, 1:72, 73
Tycho Brahe, 1:107
Giordano Bruno, 1:117
Euclid, 2:62
Galileo Galilei, 2:112, 113
geometry, 3:57
Johannes Kepler, 3:1
Ptolemy, 4:10
science, 4:63
Coronado, Francisco Vásquez de, 2:68
Correggio, 1:58, 80, 130, 191–92,
3:145
Corsi, Jacopo, 3:129
Cortés, Hernán, 1:192, 2:68, 144
Cortona, Pietro da, 1:81
Corvinus, Matthias, King of Hungary,
1:47, 2:173, 179
Cosimo I, Duke of Florence, 1:140
Cossa, Francesco del, 4:175
Coster, Laurens, 4:1
Cotton, Robert, 1:170
Councils, 1:192–94, 3:195, 212,
4:113–14, 127. See also specific
councils, e.g.: Trent, Council of
Counter-Reformation, 1:135–38
Antwerp, 1:25
Christian theology, 1:160
cities and urban life, 1:164
confraternities, 1:186
Spanish drama, 2:27
ghetto, 2:124
Hungary, 2:174
Italian language and literature,
2:194
Petrarch, 3:155
pilgrimage, 3:166
political thought, 3:190
Prague, 3:211
Protestant Reformation, 1:135–38,
158
Court, 1:194–96
Burgundy, 1:121
Charles I, King of Great Britain,
1:146
chivalry, 1:154
Christina of Sweden, 1:161, 162
clothing, 1:179
Elizabeth I, Queen of England,
2:46
Ferrara, 2:81
Francesco di Giorgio Martini,
2:103
gender and class, 2:1
German language, 2:121
Habsburg dynasty, 2:146
James I, 2:199
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INDEX
Jews, 2:209
Ben Jonson, 2:217
Johannes Kepler, 3:1
Leonardo da Vinci, 3:16
libraries, 3:18
Madrid, 3:40
madrigals, 3:111–12
Margaret of Austria, 3:48
Milan, 3:77
music, 2:213, 3:99, 100
Naples, 3:118
women, 4:177
Court masque, 1:47, 2:24, 52, 200,
215
Courtesans, 4:80, 82
Courtship, 1:153–54, 3:31
Cousin, Jean, 1:52
Covarrubias y Orozco, Sebastián de,
4:105
Coverdale, Miles, 1:89, 3:178
Covilhã, Pero da, 1:5
Cranach, Lucas, 1:54, 196–97, 4:179
Cranach, Lucas the Elder, 1:178, 4:8
Cranmer, Thomas, 1:197, 202,
2:49–50, 151, 3:5, 52, 53, 4:9
Cremonini, Cesare, 1:35
Crépy, Peace of, 2:144
Crescenzi, Pietro de, 1:6
Crime and punishment, 1:198–99,
3:166–67, 4:81, 83, 150, 158,
159–60, 171
Croatia and Dalmatia, 1:199–201,
2:28–29
Croll, Oswald, 4:71
Cromwell, Thomas, 1:147, 197, 202,
2:151, 188, 4:9
Cuba, 1:183, 3:4, 83
Cujas, Jacques, 2:156
Culture, classical. See Classical antiquity
Culture, popular. See Popular culture
Curia, 3:127, 196–97
Currency. See Money and banking
D
Daily life, 2:1–3 (illus.)
Dalmata, Giovanni, 1:201
Dalmatinac, Juraj, 1:201
Dance, 2:3–5 (illus.), 3:103, 4:62
“Dance of death,” 2:6
Daniel, Samuel, 3:180
Dante Alighieri, 1:92, 93, 102, 156,
200, 2:82, 88, 129, 192, 3:29, 146,
179
Darnley, Lord, 2:198
Davis, John, 2:68
204
Death, 2:5–6, 4:91, 95. See also
Funerals
Decameron (Boccaccio), 1:92–94,
141–42, 2:107, 108, 172, 193, 3:7,
22, 29, 201
Decorative arts, 2:6–8 (illus.), 4:77
Dee, John, 1:46
Del Bene, David, 3:214
Della Francesca, Piero, 1:60, 86
Della Robia, Luca, 1:57, 2:8, 3:109
Delmedigo, Elijah, 2:214
Demosthenes, 1:116
Denmark, 4:7, 39, 41, 60–61
De Poitiers, Diane, 3:116
Descartes, Réne, 2:109, 3:58, 90
Desert Fathers, 4:20
Despauterius, Johannes, 2:39, 41
Devoted Married Laity of St. Paul,
4:24
Devotio Moderna, 1:135, 2:8–9
Dias, Bartholomeu, 1:5, 2:66, 114
Dignity of man. See Man, dignity of
Dionysius Exiguus, 1:123
Dioscorides, Pedanius, 4:65, 66
Diplomacy, 1:195, 2:9–11 (illus.), 28,
60, 4:50–52, 55, 132, 134, 174
Disease. See Plague; Sickness and disease
Divine right, 2:133, 3:84–85, 4:41, 76
Divorce, 2:48, 49, 3:31, 52, 4:174
Dolce, Lodovico, 4:125
Dominicans, 1:117, 126, 3:4, 83,
4:22, 57–59
Don Quixote (Cervantes), 1:145, 155
Donatello, 1:56, 85, 2:11–13, 84,
124, 165, 175, 3:46, 63, 4:77, 78,
128, 154
Donation of Constantine, 2:92–93,
4:145
Donne, John, 1:92, 2:13–15 (illus.),
57, 183, 216, 3:150, 178, 181, 184,
185
Doria, Andrea, 1:59, 2:117
Dowland, John, 3:112
Drake, Francis, 1:35, 36, 2:15, 52, 68,
146, 4:93
Drama, 2:15–19 (illus.). See also
Commedia dell’arte; Playwrights
Austria, 1:77
Aphra Behn, 1:84
clothing, 1:179
Dubrovnik, 2:28
Elizabethan, 2:19–23
English, 2:19–24 (illus.), 47, 4:85,
94
English literary patronage, 3:150
erudite comedy, 2:18–19
French, 2:25–27 (illus.)
German, 2:123
humor, 2:170–71
Italian, 4:115
Jacobean, 2:23–24
London, 2:20–21
Madrid, 3:40
Christopher Marlowe, 3:50–52
musical instruments, 3:112
popular culture, 3:200–201
religious, 2:15–16, 4:3
Seville, 4:80
William Shakespeare, 4:85
Spanish, 2:27–28, 4:104, 107
theaters, 4:120–22
tragedy, 2:16–18
Lope Félix de Vega Carpio, 4:147
Venice, 4:152
Vienna, 4:157
Dramatists. See Playwrights
Drayton, Michael, 3:180, 186
Dresden, 4:59, 60
Drugs, 3:65, 67, 140, 4:71
Drummond, William, 3:181
Drzic, Marin, 1:200, 2:28
Du Bartas, Guillaume, 3:178
Dubrovnik, 1:199, 201, 2:28–29
Dudley, Guildford, 2:136
Dudley, John, 2:43, 49, 136
Dudley, Mary, 4:92–93
Dudley, Robert, 2:45, 4:93
Duel, 2:29, 4:160
Dufay, Guillaume, 3:109, 110
Duplessis-Mornay, Philippe, 4:41
Dürer, Albrecht, 2:30–31 (illus.)
anatomy, 1:20
art, education and training, 1:45
Bible, 1:90
Lucas Cranach, 1:196
forgeries, 2:92
Fugger family, 2:110
geometry, 3:57
Habsburg dynasty, 2:144
Nürnberg, 3:128
Nürnberg chronicle, 3:129
portraits, 1:92
printing and publishing, 4:4
science, 4:65, 66
sculpture, 4:78
Dutch Bible (State Bible), 3:11–12,
123
Dutch East India Company, 2:136
Dutch Reformed Church, 1:19
Dynastic rivalry, 2:32–33
E
Economics, 3:158
Economy and trade, 2:33–37 (illus.)
THE RENAISSANCE
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INDEX
Amsterdam, 1:19
Augsburg, 1:73, 74
Bavaria, 1:83
Bologna, 1:97
Brittany, 1:111
Brussels, 1:119
cities and urban life, 1:165
clothing, 1:177
England, 2:52
exploration, 2:65
fairs, 2:73–74
Florence, 2:87
France, 2:100–101
Ireland, 2:187
Lisbon, 3:19
Lyon, 3:36, 37
Mediterranean Sea, 3:68
mercantilism, 3:71
Milan, 3:76–77
money and banking, 3:86–89
(illus.)
Naples, 3:118
Nürnberg, 3:128
Paris, 3:143, 144
peasantry, 3:151
Piedmont-Savoy, 3:163
Poland, 3:187
poverty and charity. See Poverty
and charity
Rouen, 4:49
Sicily, 4:90
Siena, 4:94
slavery, 4:95–96
Spain, 4:103–4
Toledo, 4:127
weights and measures, 4:170–71
Education, 2:37–42 (illus.). See also
Universities
Antwerp, 1:25
art education and training,
2:44–45
childhood, 1:152–53
cities and urban life, 1:164
Desiderius Erasmus, 2:59
humanist education, 2:40–42, 165
influence of the Renaissance, 4:34,
35
Philipp Melanchthon, 3:69
professions, 4:5–6
Protestant Reformation, 4:8
rhetoric, 4:42, 44–45
Coluccio Salutati, 4:56
Scandinavian kingdoms, 4:61, 62
science, 4:65–66
Scotland, 4:75
Spain, 4:104
Alessandra Macinghi Strozzi, 4:111
travel and tourism, 4:134–35
THE RENAISSANCE
Pier Paolo Vergerio, 4:152
Virgil, 4:162
Vittorino da Feltre, 4:162–63
Juan Luis Vives, 4:163
Edward III, King of England, 4:145
Edward VI, King of England, 1:134,
143, 2:42–43, 49, 50, 3:52, 4:9, 10
Egerton, Thomas, 2:13
Egerton family, 3:78
Egypt, 1:171, 2:190–91, 192, 3:68, 69
Eighty Years’ War, 2:95
Einarsson, Oddur, 4:62
El Greco, 1:42, 69, 2:43–44, 4:128
Eleanor of Portugal, 2:103, 142
Elections, 3:84
Elegies, 2:13, 4:106
Eleonore of Austria, 2:123
Elisabeth von Nassau-Saarbrücken,
2:123
Elizabeth I, Queen of England,
2:44–47 (illus.)
Francis Bacon, 1:78
censorship, 1:143
chivalry, 1:156
clothing, 1:179
Francis Drake, 2:15
England, 2:52
English literary patronage, 3:150
English literature, 2:53
espionage, 2:60
William Gilbert, 2:125
golden age, 2:50–51
Henry VIII, King of England, 2:151
James I, 2:199
John Knox, 3:3
Mary I, Queen of England, 3:53
Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots, 3:53,
54
music, 3:101
poetry, English, 3:181
Protestant Reformation, 4:9
Puritanism, 4:10, 11
queens and queenship, 4:12
representative institutions, 4:39,
39 (illus.)
sexuality and gender, 4:81
Spanish Armada, 1:35
Stuart dynasty, 4:111
tournaments, 4:129–30
travel and tourism, 4:135
women, 4:177
Elizabeth of Valois, 3:156
Elizabeth of York, 2:148
Elizabethan drama, 2:19–23
Elizabethan literature, 2:55–57
Elizabethan poetry, 3:183–85
Elyot, Sir Thomas, 2:151, 168, 4:13
Embroidery, 1:65, 2:7–8
Emmanuel Philibert, Duke of Savoy,
3:48, 162–63
Encina, Juan del, 2:27
Encomienda, 1:17, 3:4, 83
Engineering, 4:64, 67, 118
England, 2:47–52 (illus.) (map). See
also Hundred Years’ War; London
Burgundy, 1:121
censorship, 1:143
confraternities, 1:186
drama, 2:19–24 (illus.), 47, 4:85,
94
economy and trade, 2:35
espionage, 2:60
fairs, 2:73, 74
feminism, 2:78
humanist education, 2:41
Ireland and, 2:187–89
language and literature. See
English language and literature
law, 3:10
literacy, 3:20
madrigals, 3:112
mercantilism, 3:71
music, instrumental, 3:105
musical instruments, 3:113
nation-state, 3:118
notaries, 3:127
Philip II, King of Spain, 3:156, 157
piracy, 3:167
poetry, 2:54–55, 3:181–86 (illus.)
printing and publishing, 4:2
Protestant Reformation, 4:9
Puritanism, 4:10–11
queens and queenship, 4:12
querelle des femmes, 4:13
representative institutions, 4:38–40
revolts, 4:41, 42
rhetoric, 4:44
Peter Paul Rubens, 4:52
Scotland, 4:75, 76
servants, 4:79
Spain, 4:103
Spanish Armada, 1:35–36
sports, 4:110
Stuart dynasty, 4:111–13
taxation and public finance, 4:116
technology, 4:117
theaters, 4:120–22
trade goods, 2:37
translation, 4:131
travel and tourism, 4:134–35
English Civil War, 1:147, 2:146, 169,
215–16, 4:180
English language and literature,
2:53–57 (illus.), 3:150–51, 180–81.
See also specific authors
Engraving, 2:30, 31
205
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INDEX
Entertainment, 1:163–64, 4:62. See
also Popular culture; specific forms
of entertainment
Erasmus, Desiderius, 2:58–59 (illus.)
aristocracy, 1:31
Augustine of Hippo, 1:75
Basel, 1:82
Bible, 1:87–88
Giordano Bruno, 1:117
Catholic Reformation, 1:135
Christian humanism, 3:189
Christian missions, 3:84
Christian theology, 1:160
church reform, 1:158
Cicero, 1:162
classical scholarship, 1:174
death, 2:6
defining the Renaissance era, 4:30
French literature, 2:106
Habsburg dynasty, 2:144
Hans Holbein the Younger, 2:157
humanism, 2:167, 168
humanist education, 2:41
Index of Prohibited Books, 2:180
Laski family, 3:5
Martin Luther, 3:34
Thomas More, 3:93
Netherlands, 3:121
Ottoman Empire, 3:134
paganism, 3:134
philosophy, 3:157–58
Poland, 3:187
preaching and sermons, 3:214
printing and publishing, 4:4
Protestant Reformation, 4:7
religious thought, 4:25, 26
rhetoric, 4:44
satire, 3:24
Switzerland, 4:114
textbooks, 2:40
translation, 4:131
travel and tourism, 4:136
Lorenzo Valla, 4:145
Venice, 4:151
Juan Luis Vives, 4:163
Ercilla y Zúñiga, Alonso de, 4:106
Ercker, Lazarus, 4:71
Ernestine Saxony, 4:59
Erudite comedy, 2:18–19
Espionage, 2:60
Essay, 3:89–90
Essex, Earl of, 1:78, 2:45
Estates General, 2:101, 4:38
Este, Alfonso I d’, 2:61, 4:126
Este, Beatrice d’, 1:31
Este, Borso d’, Duke of Ferrara, 2:61,
81, 179
206
Este, Ercole I d’, Duke of Ferrara,
1:58, 2:81
Este, House of, 1:11, 29, 58, 2:61–62,
80–81, 91, 137, 3:149, 215, 4:126
Este, Isabella d’, 2:130, 3:46, 98, 101,
149, 153, 4:179
Este, Leonello d’, 2:81
Este, Luigi de’, 4:115
Este, Nicolò III d’, 1:11, 2:61
Estienne, Henri, 1:173, 2:106, 167,
4:5
Estienne, Robert, 1:173, 2:167
Estrées, Françoise d’, 4:48
Ethics. See Morality/ethics
Ethiopia, 1:4–5, 3:82
Ethiopian Orthodox Church, 1:4–5
Euclid, 2:62, 3:57
Eugenius IV, Pope, 1:22, 3:125, 126,
169, 198, 4:145
Euripedes, 1:94, 2:26
Europe, idea of, 2:62–63
Eustachi, Bartolomeo, 1:21
Excommunication, 3:33, 4:7, 58
Exploration, 2:64–69 (map). See also
specific explorers
England, 2:52
Europe, idea of, 2:63
food and drink, 2:90
French agriculture and trade, 2:101
Lisbon, 3:19
Portugal, 2:65–67, 3:205, 206, 207
ships and shipbuilding, 4:89
Spain, 4:103–4
transportation and communication, 4:133
travel and tourism, 4:134, 136
Eyck, Hubert van, 1:63, 2:69
Eyck, Jan van, 1:63, 65, 112, 121,
2:69–71 (illus.), 3:70, 148, 149,
4:171
F
Fabriano, Gentile da, 3:169
Facio, Bartolomeo, 3:45
Factions, 2:71–72, 132
Faenza Codex, 3:106
Fairfax, Edward, 4:132
Fairs and festivals, 2:36–37, 72–76
(illus.), 4:103
Falloppio, Bagriele, 4:67
Family and kinship, 2:76–77,
3:118–19, 4:80, 111, 175–76
Farces, 2:25–26, 171, 4:56, 57
Farel, Guillaume, 1:124
Farmers/farming. See Agriculture
Farnese, Alessandro. See Paul III, Pope
Farnese, Giulia, 1:13
Farnese, House of, 1:92, 2:77–78,
4:157
Farnese, Ottavio, 2:77, 3:30
Farnese, Ranuccio I, 1:131, 2:77–78
Feast, 2:90, 91
Feast of Asses, 2:75
Feast of Fools, 2:75
Fedele, Cassandra, 4:152, 178
Federico, Duke of Urbino, 4:143
Feminism, 2:78–79, 4:12–13, 120,
179–80
Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor
(King of Hungary and Bohemia),
1:47, 49, 77, 95, 96, 2:79, 144,
173, 3:59, 211, 4:101, 123, 156
Ferdinand I, King of Spain, 1:100
Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor,
2:146
Ferdinand II, King of Spain, 3:117
Ferdinand of Aragon, 1:66, 108, 134,
148, 181–83, 189, 2:80, 97, 167,
185, 189, 190, 3:85, 4:12, 80, 99,
101–2
Fermat, Pierre de, 3:58
Fernando, King of Portugal, 3:204
Ferrante I, King of Naples, 3:117
Ferrara, 1:29, 58, 2:39, 61, 80–81,
137, 3:130, 4:121
Ferrara, Duke of. See Este, Borso d’,
Duke of Ferrara
Ferrara-Florence, Council of, 2:135
Ferreira, António, 3:207
Festivals. See Fairs and festivals
Feudalism, 2:33. See also Peasantry;
Serfs
Fichet, Guillaume, 2:166
Ficino, Marsilio, 2:82–83
academies, 1:1
Heinrich Agrippa of Nettesheim,
1:9
Augustine of Hippo, 1:74, 75
Christian theology, 1:160
Hungary, 2:173
ideas, spread of, 2:176
individualism, 2:181
man, dignity of, 3:45
Cosimo de’ Medici, 3:63
metaphysics, 3:159
music, 3:101
paganism, 3:134
Plato, 3:175
religious thought, 4:26, 27
Girolamo Savonarola, 4:57
sexuality and gender, 4:83
theories of magic, 3:42, 43
translation, 4:131
Fiction, 2:56, 4:35, 93, 104, 106–7,
129, 136
THE RENAISSANCE
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Fifth Lateran Council, 1:193, 2:83
Finance, public. See Taxation and
public finance
Finland, 4:42, 60
Fiorentino, Rosso, 1:41, 57
Firearms, 1:38, 4:160, 167
Firentinac, Nikola, 1:201
First Estate, 4:96
Fishing, 4:89, 133
Fitzgeralds of Kildare, 2:187, 188
Flanders/Flemish, 1:54, 64, 3:57, 102,
110, 119, 4:38. See also specific
artists and composers
Flémalle, Master of, 4:171
Fletcher, John, 2:24
Flight, human-powered, 3:16
Florence, 2:83–88 (illus.)
architecture, 1:25
art, 1:38, 56–57
Boccaccio, 1:93–94
Giovanni Boccaccio, 1:93–94
Giotto di Bondone, 2:127
Botticelli, 1:102
Filippo Brunelleschi, 1:114–15
Leonardo Bruni, 1:115, 116
Benvenuto Cellini, 1:139, 140
census, 3:201, 202
city-states, 1:166, 167
coins, 1:180
constitutionalism, 1:187
councils, 1:193
economy, society, and culture,
2:87–88
Greek historians, 2:155
Francesco Guicciardini, 2:138
guilds, 2:139
history and politics, 2:83–87
humanism in Italy, 2:165
ideas, spread of, 2:175
industry, 2:182
Italian political thought, 3:189
Italy, 2:195, 197–98
law, 3:9
Pope Leo X, 3:12
Leonardo da Vinci, 3:15
libraries, 3:18–19
literacy, 3:20
Niccolò Machiavelli, 3:37, 38
man, dignity of, 3:45
Marie de Médicis, 3:49
Masaccio, 3:54, 55
merchant banks, 3:87–88
Michelangelo, 3:73, 75
museums, 3:99
music, 3:100
Pope Nicholas V, 3:125
oligarchy, 2:131
opera, 3:129
THE RENAISSANCE
palaces and townhouses, 3:135
parades and pageants, 3:142
patronage, 3:147
Pisa, 3:168
Raphael, 4:17
representative institutions, 4:36,
37
Coluccio Salutati, 4:56
Girolamo Savonarola, 4:57, 58, 59
sculpture, 4:77–78
sumptuary laws, 3:36
taxation and public finance, 4:116,
117
travel and tourism, 4:135
Andrea del Verrocchio, 4:154
Wars of Italy, 4:168
Florence, Council of, 1:193, 3:159
Florin, 1:180, 2:87, 3:89
Foix, Germaine de, 4:100
Folklore/folktales, 3:97, 199–201
Fontainebleau, 1:51, 2:105, 3:18
Fontana, Prospero, 1:58
Fonte, Bartolomeo della, 3:23
Fonte, Moderata, 2:79, 4:178
Food and drink, 2:89–92 (illus.), 4:40
Foppa, Vincenzo, 1:60
Ford, John, 2:22, 24, 183
Forgeries, 2:92–93, 4:144–56
Forli, Melozzo da, 1:61
Fornovo, Battle of, 3:72
Fortifications, 1:162, 166, 2:93–95
(illus.), 4:156, 166–67
Forty-Two Articles of Faith, 1:197
Foundlings. See Orphans and
foundlings
Fourment, Helena, 4:52
Fracastoro, Girolamo, 4:70, 91
France, 2:95–102 (map) (illus.). See
also Hundred Years’ War
absolutism, 2:134
art, 1:49–53 (illus.), 121, 2:105
Brittany, 1:111
Burgundy, 1:121
Benvenuto Cellini, 1:139–40
chanson, 3:111
châteaus and villas, 1:150–51
classical scholarship, 1:173
commedia dell’arte, 1:184
constitutionalism, 1:187–88
dance, 2:4–5
diplomacy, 2:10
drama, 2:25–27 (illus.)
economy, government, and society, 2:100–102
England, 2:52
fairs, 2:73
feminism, 2:78
festivals, 2:75
Genoa, 2:117
historians, 2:166–67
history, 2:97–100
humanism in, 2:166–67
humanist education, 2:40–41
interpreting the Renaissance, 4:32
Ireland, 2:188
Italy, 2:198
Pope Julius II, 2:219
language and literature, 2:105–9
(illus.). See also specific writers
law, 3:10
Pope Leo X, 3:12
Leonardo da Vinci, 3:15–16
libraries, 3:18
madrigals, 3:111
Margaret of Austria, 3:48
Maximilian I, 3:58
mercantilism, 3:71
monarchy, 3:85
myth, 3:116
Naples, 3:117
nation-state, 3:118
palaces and townhouses, 3:136–37
Paris. See Paris
printing and publishing, 4:3, 4
Protestant Reformation, 4:6, 7, 8
Petrus Ramus, 4:16
Reformation in England, 2:49
religious drama, 2:16
representative institutions, 4:38
revolts, 4:41, 42
Rome, 4:47
salons, 4:55
Scotland, 4:75
sculpture, 4:78
Spain, 4:103
sports, 4:110
taxation and public finance, 4:116
Thirty Years’ War, 4:123
tombs, 4:129
trade goods, 2:37
transportation and communication, 4:133
universities, 4:141
Valois dynasty, 4:145–47
Francesco II of Gonzaga, Marquis of
Mantua, 1:131, 2:130, 3:47
Francesco di Giorgio Martini, 2:103
Francis, Duke of Guise, 2:98
Francis I, King of France, 2:103–5
art in France, 1:49, 51
Bourbon family and dynasty,
1:104
Benvenuto Cellini, 1:139
Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor,
1:148
châteaus, 1:151
207
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INDEX
defining the Renaissance era, 4:30
Fontainebleau, 1:51
France, 2:97–98, 99
French government, 2:101
French language, 2:105
Guise-Lorraine family, 2:140
Habsburg dynasty, 2:144
humanism in France, 2:166
humanist education, 2:40
Jeanne d’Albret, 2:200
jewelry, 2:201
Leonardo da Vinci, 3:15
libraries, 3:18
Lyon, 3:36
Margaret of Austria, 3:48
Margaret of Navarre, 3:48
palaces and townhouses, 3:136
Paris, 3:143
patronage, 3:149
Petrus Ramus, 4:16
Raphael, 4:18
Süleyman I, 4:113
tombs, 4:129
universities, 4:142
Valois dynasty, 4:146
Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola, 4:157
Wars of Italy, 4:168
Francis II, Duke of Brittany, 1:111,
133, 2:98, 3:92, 4:147
Francis II, King of France, 2:140,
4:169
Francis of Assisi, 1:156, 4:22
Francis of Valos, 4:76
Franciscans, 2:209, 3:83, 96, 209, 4:22
Francisco de Almeida, Dom, 3:41
Francke, Master, 1:54
Franco, Veronica, 4:152
Frederick III, Elector of Saxony
(Frederick the Wise), 2:31, 3:33,
4:59
Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor,
1:77, 85, 2:142, 3:125, 170
Frederick II, King of Denmark, 1:107,
4:61
Frederick V, King of Bohemia, 2:52,
199, 3:137
Frederick of Aragon, 4:56
Frederick of Hohenzollern, 1:110
Frederick of Meissen and Thuringa,
4:59
Frederick the Wise. See Frederick III,
Elector of Saxony
Frederico II of Gonzaga, 3:47
Free will, 3:46, 4:41
Frescoes
Fra Angelico, 1:22
art, 1:40–41
Botticelli, 1:102
208
Donato Bramante, 1:108
Carracci family, 1:130–31
Correggio, 1:191
Florence, 1:56–57
Fontainebleau, 1:51
Genoa, 2:117
Artemisia Gentileschi, 2:118
Pope Julius II, 2:219
Leonardo da Vinci, 3:15
Andrea Mantegna, 3:46
Masaccio, 3:55
Parmigianino, 3:145
Piero della Francesca, 3:163–64
Pisanello, 3:169
Raphael, 4:18
Renaissance images of antiquity,
1:171
Titian, 4:125
Virgil, 4:162
Friars Minor, 4:22
Froben, Johann, 1:82
Froben, Johannes, 4:3–4
Froben Press, 4:3–4
Frobisher, Martin, 2:68
Fuchs, Leonhard, 4:65
Fugger, Jacob, 3:89
Fugger family, 1:74, 2:36, 76,
109–10, 3:18, 59
Fundamental Laws, 1:188
Funerals, 2:6, 3:141, 142
Fust, Johann, 4:1
G
Galen, 1:20, 21, 174, 2:107, 110–11,
147, 154, 168, 3:65, 68, 140, 4:14,
66, 73, 131, 141, 155
Galilei, Galileo, 2:111–14 (illus.)
Aristotle and Aristotelianism, 1:35
astronomy, 1:72, 73
Robert Bellarmine, 1:84
books and manuscripts, 1:98
Tommaso Campanella, 1:127
censorship, 1:142
clocks, 1:176
Nicolaus Copernicus, 1:191
Artemisia Gentileschi, 2:118
Italian language and literature,
2:194
Johannes Kepler, 3:1
John Milton, 3:78
natural philosophy, 3:159
Pisa, 3:169
political thought, 3:191
science, 4:63 (illus.), 64, 68, 69, 74
scientific instruments, 4:72, 73
University of Padua, 4:143
Gama, Vasco da, 1:125, 2:66, 90, 114,
3:206, 207, 208, 4:157
Gardens, 2:114–16 (illus.)
Garnier, Robert, 2:26
Gascoigne, George, 3:183
Gelosi company, 1:184
Gemilut Hasadim, 2:207
Gemistus Pletho, George, 1:160,
3:134, 159, 175
Gender, 2:1, 5, 4:80–83, 136
Geneva, 3:36, 4:5, 8
Genoa, 1:5, 58–59, 181, 2:116–17,
3:68, 142, 4:104, 148
Gentileschi, Artemisia, 1:41, 2:118,
4:178
Geoffrey of Monmouth, 1:170
Geography and cartography,
2:118–21 (map), 146, 4:32, 136
Geology, 4:64
Geometry, 3:56–57, 4:142
George of Trebizond, 2:134–35
George Podebrady, King of Bohemia,
3:211
Gerhaert, Nicholas, 1:54, 4:78
Gerhard, Hubert, 1:55
Gérines, Jacques, de, 1:65
Gerlach, Catherina, 3:101
Germany
art, 1:53–55 (illus.), 3:128. See also
specific artists
Bourbon dynasty, 2:100
Jan Brueghel the Elder, 1:113
classical scholarship, 1:173
drama, 2:123
economy and trade, 2:35
fairs, 2:74
historians, 2:167
humanism in, 2:168
humanist education, 2:41–42
Jews, 2:208
language and literature, 2:121–23,
205, 3:57
law, 3:10
mercantilism, 3:71
music, vocal, 3:112
Pope Nicholas V, 3:125
Nürnberg, 3:128
oligarchy, 2:131, 132
printing and publishing, 4:1–4
Protestant Reformation, 4:6, 7
representative institutions, 4:40
revolts, 4:41, 42
Saxony, 4:59–60
sculpture, 4:78
sexuality and gender, 4:82
social status, 4:97
Süleyman I, 4:113
sumptuary laws, 3:36
THE RENAISSANCE
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INDEX
Gerson, Jean de, 4:41
Gesner, Conrad, 4:67, 71
Gesualdo, Carlo, 3:111
Ghent Altarpiece, 2:69
Ghetto, 1:24, 2:123–24, 210, 212,
4:47, 151
Ghibelllines, 2:83
Ghiberti, Lorenzo, 1:56, 114, 2:12,
88, 124–25, 129, 3:63, 4:77
Ghirlandaio, Domenico, 3:64, 73,
4:154
Ghisolfi, Francesco, 3:43
Gilbert, William, 2:125
Giocondo, Fra, 2:126
Giolito press, 4:5
Giorgione da Castelfranco, 1:86,
2:126–27, 4:33, 125
Giotto di Bondone, 1:40–41, 55,
2:127–29 (illus.), 3:76, 4:30, 31
Giovanni, Fra. See Angelico, Fra
Giovanni, Stefano di. See Sassetta
Giraldi, Giambattista Cinzio, 2:16
Globe Theater, 3:27, 4:85, 122
Goes, Hugo van der, 2:129
Góis, Damião de, 2:167
Gold, 1:11, 12, 17, 44, 2:7, 201, 3:89
Gold Coast, 1:5
“Golden Age,” 2:50–51, 4:33
Golden Bull, 2:158
Goldsmiths and goldsmithing,
1:64–65, 74, 114, 2:201
Góngora y Argote, Luis de, 2:129–30
Gonzaga, Ercole, 3:47
Gonzaga, House of, 1:11, 131,
2:130–31, 179, 3:46, 47, 4:126
Gonzaga, Ludovico II, 3:47
Gossaert, Jan, 1:64
Gothic architecture, 1:49, 50–51, 58,
61, 68, 108, 119, 151, 3:19, 40
Goujon, Jean, 1:52
Gournay, Marie de, 4:13
Government
aristocracy, 1:32–33
cities and urban life, 1:164
court. See Court
Dubrovnik, 2:28
Florence, 2:83–85
France, 2:101
Italy, 2:197–98
Lyon, 3:36–37
Netherlands, 3:119, 120
Ottoman Empire, 3:132, 133
Paris, 3:144–45
peasantry, 3:151
Pisa, 3:168
representative institutions, 3:85,
4:36–40, 116
revolts, 4:40–41
THE RENAISSANCE
Rome, 4:45, 46
Coluccio Salutati, 4:56
Girolamo Savonarola, 4:58, 59
Scotland, 4:74–75, 75
Siena, 4:94
Spain, 4:103
Switzerland, 4:114
taxation and public finance,
4:116–17
transportation and communication, 4:132
universities, 4:140, 141, 142
Venice, 4:149
Government, forms of, 1:187–88,
2:131–34, 3:84–86. See also
Republican government
Grains, 2:89, 4:90
Granada, 2:190, 191, 4:98, 99, 101
Granvelle, Antoine Perrenot de, 1:119
Great Britain. See Charles I, King of
Great Britain
Great Western Schism, 3:197–98
Greco, El. See El Greco
Greece, ancient, 1:170, 3:127, 129,
130, 4:29, 30, 83, 110–11. See also
Classical antiquity; Classical scholarship
Greek émigrés, 2:134–35, 175, 3:175,
4:150
Greek language and literature
classical languages, 1:173–74
classical poetry, 3:176
classical scholarship, 1:172
education, 2:39
Desiderius Erasmus, 2:59
Marsilio Ficino, 2:82
Guarino Guarini, 2:137
humanist education, 2:40, 42
influence of the Renaissance, 4:34
Philipp Melanchthon, 3:70
Pirckheimer family, 3:168
Plato, 3:175
printing and publishing, 4:3, 4
rhetoric, 4:44
Coluccio Salutati, 4:56
translation, 4:130, 131
universities, 4:141
Greek Orthodox Church, 3:126
Greek scholarship. See Classical scholarship
Greene, Robert, 2:56
Gregorian calendar, 1:123–24
Gregorian chant, 3:108, 110
Gregory XIII, Pope, 1:123, 3:108, 194
Grey, Jane, Queen of England, 1:197,
2:50, 135–36, 4:93
Grote, Geert, 2:9, 4:24
Grotius, Hugo, 2:136, 3:11, 191
Grünewald, Matthias, 2:136–37, 4:78
Guarini, Giovanni Battista, 3:23, 130,
146
Guarini, Guarino, 2:39, 137–38, 155,
175
Guerrero, Gonzalo, 1:17
Guevara, Antonio de, 4:107, 132
Guicciardini, Francesco, 2:138, 155,
4:143, 168
Guicciardini, Lodovico, 2:129
Guild republics, 4:36–37
Guilds, 2:139–40
art apprenticeship, 1:45
art in Florence, 1:56
artisans, 1:69–70
Augsburg, 1:74
Basel, 1:82
bourgeoisie, 1:105
Jan Brueghel the Elder, 1:113
Pieter Brueghel the Elder, 1:112
Pieter Brueghel the Younger, 1:113
Ludovico Carracci, 1:130
court, 1:195
Florence, 2:83, 84, 88
Hugo van der Goes, 2:129
hospitals and asylums, 2:162
jewelry, 2:201
Leonardo da Vinci, 3:13
manufacturing, 2:35
manuscripts, 1:98
Netherlands, 3:121
notaries, 3:127
Paris, 3:143, 144
Pisa, 3:168
professions, 4:6
representative institutions,
4:36–38, 39
social status, 4:97
urban economy, 1:165
Venice, 4:150
women, 4:175
Guinegate, Battle of, 3:58
Guise-Lorraine family, 1:133, 2:98,
140–41, 4:147, 169
Gundulic, Ivan, 2:28
Gunpowder, 2:93, 4:167
Gunpowder Plot, 2:217
Gustavus Adolphus, King of Sweden,
1:161, 4:60, 62, 123
Gutenberg, Johann, 1:90, 98, 2:121,
141–42 (illus.), 3:22, 4:1
Gutenberg Bible, 1:89, 90, 98,
2:141–42
Guy de La Brosse, 4:71
209
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INDEX
H
Habsburg dynasty, 2:142–46 (map)
(illus.)
art in Central Europe, 1:47
Austria, 1:75–77
Bohemia, 1:95–96
city-states, 1:167
dynastic rivalry, 2:32–33
Ferdinand I, 2:79
Genoa, 2:117
House of Gonzaga, 2:130
Henry VII, King of England, 2:148
Holy Roman Empire, 2:158
Hungary, 2:173–74
Italy, 2:198
James I, 2:199
kinship and power, 2:76
Pope Leo X, 3:12
Mantua, 3:47
Margaret of Austria, 3:47, 48
Maximilian I, 3:58, 59
Maximilian II, 3:59
Milan, 3:76
Netherlands, 3:120–21
Netherlands language/literature,
3:122, 123
Ottoman Empire, 3:132
Palatinate, 3:137
Philip II, King of Spain, 3:156
representative institutions, 4:38
Rudolf II, 4:53
Sicily, 4:90
Spain, 4:99
Süleyman I, 4:113
Switzerland, 4:113
Toledo, 4:127
Valois dynasty, 4:146
Vienna, 4:155
Wars of Italy, 4:168
Hakluyt, Richard, 2:120, 146, 4:136
Handel, George Frideric, 1:30
Hans von Aachen, 1:55
Hanseatic League, 4:133
Harington, Sir John, 4:132
Harrington, John, 4:144
Harriot, Thomas, 4:72
Harvey, William, 1:21–22, 35,
2:146–47, 4:143
Haskins, Charles Homer, 4:33
Hassler, Hans Leo, 3:112
Hathaway, Anne, 4:84
Hawkins, John, 2:15, 52
Hebrew, 2:201–4, 203, 213–14, 3:43,
70, 162, 4:3
Hebrew Bible, 1:90–91, 157, 3:214
Heinsius, Daniel, 3:124
Helmont, Jan van, 4:71–72
Henlein, Peter, 1:176
210
Henri, Duke of Guise, 2:140, 4:169
Henrietta Maria, Queen of England,
1:138, 146
Henry, Prince of Wales, 2:215
Henry II, King of France, 1:104, 111,
133, 149, 2:98, 3:53, 92, 116, 141,
4:16, 60, 129, 146, 147, 168–69
Henry III, King of France, 1:94, 134,
2:98–100, 140, 148, 3:145, 4:147,
169
Henry IV, King of France (Henry of
Navarre), 2:147–48
absolutism, 2:133, 134
art in France, 1:52
Bourbon family and dynasty,
1:104, 105, 2:100
Catherine de Médicis, 1:133, 134
cities and urban life, 1:163
France, 2:97–100, 98
French agriculture and trade, 2:101
Marie de Médicis, 3:49
Montmorency family, 3:92
opera, 3:129
Paris, 3:145
popes and papacy, 3:194
William Shakespeare, 4:86
Wars of Religion, 4:169–70
Henry IV, Spanish King of Castile and
León, 2:189
Henry V, Duke of Saxony, 4:59
Henry V, King of England, 2:22, 4:86
Henry VII, King of England, 1:156,
2:47, 48, 148–49, 4:75, 86, 111,
173
Henry VIII, King of England,
2:149–51 (illus.)
art in Britain, 1:46
Bible, 1:89
Catherine of Aragon, 1:134
censorship, 1:143
classical antiquity, 1:169
Thomas Cranmer, 1:197
Thomas Cromwell, 1:202
Edward VI, 2:42
Elizabeth I, 2:44
England, 2:49
France, 2:97
Francis I, 2:104
Jane Grey, 2:135
Hans Holbein the Younger, 2:157
humanism in Britain, 2:168
Ireland, 2:187–88, 188, 189
law, 3:10
Pope Leo X, 3:13
London, 3:27
Mary I, Queen of England, 3:52
monarchy, 3:85
Thomas More, 3:93, 95
Oxford University, 4:141
patronage, 3:149
poetry, English, 3:181, 182
Protestant Reformation, 4:9
queens and queenship, 4:12
Reformation in England, 2:48, 49
representative institutions, 4:39
Scotland, 4:75, 76
sports, 4:109
Stuart dynasty, 4:111
tournaments, 4:129
Thomas Wolsey, 4:173–74
Henry of Bourbon. See Henry IV, King
of France
Henry of Navarre. See Henry IV, King
of France
Henry the Navigator, 2:65
Henslowe, Philip, 4:122
Hepburn, James, 2:198, 3:54
Heraldry, 2:152–53
Herbert, George, 3:178, 181, 185
heresy, 2:104, 183–86, 209, 3:193,
4:7, 144–56, 151, 168–69, 172
Herrera, Gabriel Alonso de, 1:6–7
Herrera, Juan de, 1:69
Herrick, Robert, 3:179, 185
Hessus, Helius Eobanus, 4:131
High Renaissance, 1:57, 2:193–94
Hippocrates, 1:174, 2:107, 110, 154,
3:65, 4:14
Hispaniola, 1:17, 182–83, 192, 3:4, 83
Historians, 1:116, 200, 2:138, 155–56,
4:29–34. See also specific historians
History, writing of, 2:154–56
classical historians, 2:154–55
defining the Renaissance era, 4:30
influence of the Renaissance, 4:34
Nürnberg chronicle, 3:129
Philip Sidney, 4:93
Spanish language and literature,
4:107
Switzerland, 4:114
travel and tourism, 4:136
universities, 4:142
Pier Paolo Vergerio, 4:152
History play, 2:21–22, 4:84, 86–87,
148
Holbein, Abrosius, 3:94
Holbein, Hans, the Elder, 1:74, 2:48,
110, 157
Holbein, Hans, the Younger, 1:46, 54,
82, 2:59, 150, 151, 157, 169, 4:114
Holbeins, the, 2:157
Holidays, 2:90–91, 3:141
Holy League, 2:49, 97, 149, 219, 3:72,
145, 4:146, 169
Holy Office, 2:184
THE RENAISSANCE
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Holy Roman Emperors. See specific
emperors
Holy Roman Empire, 2:158–61 (map)
(illus.). See also Habsburg dynasty
Basel, 1:82
Bavaria, 1:83
Brandenburg, 1:110
city-states, 1:166, 167
Florence, 2:83
heraldry, 2:153
Jews, 2:209
law, 3:10
Pope Leo X, 3:12
Naples, 3:117
Netherlands, 3:120
Nicholas of Cusa, 3:126
Nürnberg, 3:128
Ottoman Empire, 3:132, 134
Palatinate, 3:137
Peasants’ War, 3:152
Prague, 3:211
Saxony, 4:59
Spain, 4:98
Switzerland, 4:113
transportation and communication, 4:134
Venice, 4:149
Homer, 1:94, 168, 172, 3:70, 115,
4:131
Homily, 3:212, 213
Homosexuality, 4:80, 81, 83
Honor, 2:29, 161–62, 4:98
Honor plays, 4:147–48
Hood, Thomas, 4:73
Hooft, Pieter Cornelisz, 3:123, 124
Horace, 1:102, 2:16, 3:6, 22
Horses, 1:8, 4:132
Hospitals and asylums, 2:162–63,
3:65, 130, 131, 174, 210, 4:92, 121
Hotman, François, 2:170
House of Commons (England), 4:39
House of Lords (England), 4:38–39
Housing, 2:1–3
Howard, Henry, Earl of Surrey, 3:180,
182
Howard, Thomas, Earl of Arundel,
1:46, 2:215, 4:135
Hudson, Henry, 2:68
Huguenots, 1:104, 105, 133, 134,
2:98, 100, 148, 200, 3:92, 4:147,
169
Huitfeldt, Arild, 4:61
Human rights, 3:4
Humanism, 2:163–70 (illus.)
academies, 1:1
Leon Battista Alberti, 1:9, 10
Ludovico Ariosto, 1:30
aristocracy, 1:31
THE RENAISSANCE
Aristotelianism, 1:35
art, 1:35, 60
Augsburg, 1:74
Augustine of Hippo, 1:75
Austria, 1:77
Basel, 1:77, 82
Bavaria, 1:83
Biblical studies, 1:156
Bohemia, 1:95
Leonardo Bruni, 1:116–17
Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, 1:118
John Calvin, 1:124, 125
Carracci family, 1:130
Catholic Reformation, 1:135
Conrad Celtis, 1:141
censorship, 1:141–42
Christian theology, 1:161
Cicero, 1:162
classical antiquity, 1:168
classical scholarship, 1:171, 174
Council of Trent, 4:137
Counter-Reformation, 1:137
court, 1:195
Lucas Cranach, 1:196
Croatia and Dalmatia, 1:199–200
defining the Renaissance era, 4:29,
30
dignity of man, 3:45
diplomacy, 2:10
education, 2:37–42, 40–42
Edward VI, 2:43
El Greco, 2:43
England, 2:47
English writing style, 2:53
Europe, idea of, 2:63
Jan van Eyck, 2:71
feminism, 2:78
festivals, 2:74–75
Florence, 2:88
Francis I, 2:105
French drama, 2:26
French literature, 2:106
Fra Giocondo, 2:126
House of Gonzaga, 2:130
Greek émigrés, 2:134
Jane Grey, 2:135
Francesco Guicciardini, 2:138
Habsburg dynasty, 2:142
Hebrew language, 2:202
Henry VII, King of England, 2:148
Henry VIII, King of England, 2:151
historians, 2:155–56
humor, 2:171
Hungary, 2:174
ideas, spread of, 2:175
Ignatius Loyola, 2:176
Index of Prohibited Books, 2:180
influence of the Renaissance, 4:34
Inns of Court, 2:183
interpreting the Renaissance, 4:32,
33
Isabella of Castile, 2:190
Italian language and literature,
2:193
Italian political thought, 3:188–89
James I, 2:198, 199
Jewish scholarship, 2:214
Laski family, 3:4
Latin language/literature, 3:6, 7
law, 3:10, 11
libraries, 3:16–17
literacy, 3:21
logic, 3:26–27
Lyon, 3:37
Niccolò Machiavelli, 3:37
Mantua, 3:47
mathematics, 3:55
medicine, 3:65
Philipp Melanchthon, 3:69, 70
Michelangelo, 3:73
Middle Ages, 3:76
Thomas More, 3:93
museums, 3:98
music, 3:101
Netherlands, 3:121
Netherlands language/literature,
3:123
Nicholas of Cusa, 3:125
Pope Nicholas V, 3:124, 125
Nürnberg chronicle, 3:129
opera, 3:130
Oxford University, 4:141–42
Palatinate, 3:137
Andrea Palladio, 3:138, 139
patronage, 3:148, 194
Petrarch, 3:155–56
Pirckheimer family, 3:167, 168
Christino de Pizan, 3:171
poetry, English, 3:181
Poland, 3:186, 187
political thought, 3:189–90
popular culture, 3:199
pornography, 3:24–25
preaching and sermons, 3:213–14
printing and publishing, 4:3, 4
Protestant Reformation, 4:7–8
querelle des femmes, 4:13
François Rabelais, 4:14
Raphael, 4:18
religious orders, 4:23
religious thought, 4:25, 26
representative institutions, 4:37
rhetoric, 4:43, 44
Rome, 4:47
Russia, 4:53
Coluccio Salutati, 4:56
211
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INDEX
Girolamo Savonarola, 4:57
Saxony, 4:59
Scandinavian kingdoms, 4:60, 62
science, 4:65–66, 66
Scotland, 4:74, 75–76
sculpture, 4:76
Spanish language and literature,
4:105, 106
sports, 4:110–11
Switzerland, 4:114
tragedy, 2:16
translation, 4:130, 131
universities, 4:141–42
Lorenzo Valla, 4:144
Venice, 4:151–52
Pier Paolo Vergerio, 4:152
Vienna, 4:156, 157
Virgil, 4:162
Vittorino da Feltre, 4:162–63
Juan Luis Vives, 4:163
Thomas Wolsey, 4:173
women, 4:178
writing, 4:180
Humor, 2:170–72. See also Comedy;
Satire
Humors, theory of, 2:91, 110,
3:65–67
Hundred Years’ War, 1:111, 121, 2:32,
100, 101, 4:145, 165, 166
Hungary, 1:47–48, 95, 2:144, 173–74
(illus.), 3:59, 132, 186, 4:8, 41, 132
Hus, Jan, 1:157, 3:211
Huygens, Christiaan, 1:176
Hymns, 2:122, 212, 3:110
I
Ibn al ‘Arabi, Muhyi al-Din, 4:29
Ibn Taymiya, 4:29
Iceland, 4:60, 62
Ideas, spread of, 2:174–76. See also
Printing and publishing
Ignatius Loyola, 2:176–77, 209, 4:22
(illus.), 23
Ilario, Pier, 3:145
Illness. See Sickness and disease
Illumination, 1:65, 98, 2:141–42,
177–79 (illus.), 212
Illustration, 1:196, 3:129, 4:3, 65
Immanuel of Rome, 2:203
Immortality, 3:192, 4:27
Imperial Chamber of Justice, 3:128
Imperial Diet, 2:158–60
Improvisation/embellishment, 3:103,
105
Index of Prohibited Books, 1:136,
142, 191, 2:113, 179–80, 186,
3:193, 4:5
212
India, 2:66, 67, 114, 191, 3:83, 84,
4:23
Individualism, 2:3, 180–81, 3:90,
154, 4:32, 33
Indonesia, 1:70, 3:41
Indulgences, 3:33, 165
Industry, 2:181–83, 4:47, 49. See also
Manufacturing; Printing and publishing
Infant death, 4:91–92
Infanticide, 2:5, 3:131
Inflation, 2:34, 52
Innocent VII, Pope, 1:116
Innocent VIII, Pope, 3:46, 64, 161
Inns of Court, 2:13, 21, 183, 3:93
Inquisition, 2:183–86 (illus.), 211,
3:121, 206, 4:5. See also Portuguese
Inquisition; Roman Inquisition;
Spanish Inquisition
Institute of the Blessed Virgin Mary,
4:24
Instrumental music, 3:103–7 (illus.)
International trade, 2:36, 73–74. See
also Trade
Iran, 2:191, 192
Iraq, 2:191, 192
Ireland, 2:46, 187–89 (illus.)
Iron, 3:80
Irrigation, 1:8, 4:117–18
Isabella of Bourbon, 1:65
Isabella of Castile, 1:66, 108, 134,
181–83, 189, 2:41, 80, 167, 185,
189–90, 3:85, 149, 4:11–12 (illus.),
80, 99, 100, 101–2, 177
Isabella of Portugal, 1:150, 2:70
Isenheim Altarpiece, 4:78
Islam, 2:190–92, 3:55, 4:28–29. See
also Muslims
Italian language and literature,
2:192–95 (illus.). See also specific
writers
Italian League, 2:197, 4:149
Italy, 2:195–98 (map) (illus.). See also
specific headings, e.g.: Venice
anti-Semitism, 1:24
architectural theory, 1:28–29
art. See Art in Italy
banking, 3:88–89
chanson, 3:110
châteaus and villas, 1:150–51
childhood education, 1:153
city-states, 1:166
classical antiquity, 1:168
classical scholarship, 1:172
clothing trade, 1:177
commedia dell’arte, 1:184
constitutionalism, 1:187
contract fighters, 3:72–73
conversos, 1:189
court, 1:195
crime and punishment, 1:198–99
Croatia and Dalmatia, 1:199–200
daily life, 2:3
dance, 2:4, 5
defining the Renaissance era, 4:29,
30
diplomacy, 2:9
drama, 4:115
Albrecht Dürer, 2:31
economy and trade, 2:35
education, 2:37–39, 39
El Greco, 2:43, 44
feminism, 2:78–79
Ferdinand of Aragon, 2:80
festivals, 2:74
fortifications, 2:94, 95
gardens, 2:114, 115
ghetto, 2:123, 124
historians, 2:155
hospitals and asylums, 2:162
humanism, 2:163–65
Hungary, 2:174
illumination, 2:177–79
interpreting the Renaissance, 4:32,
33
Jewish communities, 2:208–9
Jewish magic, 3:44
Jewish printing and publishing,
2:213
Jews, 2:208, 210, 211
Pope Julius II, 2:219
language and literature. See Italian
language and literature
Latin language/literature, 3:6
law, 3:8–9, 10
libraries, 3:16–17
Lyon, 3:36
madrigals, 3:111–12
man, dignity of, 3:45
material culture, 3:34
Maximilian I, 3:58
Mehmed II, 3:69
merchant banks, 3:87–88
music, 3:100
oligarchy, 2:131
patronage, 3:147
Poland, 3:187
political thought, 3:188–89
princes and princedoms, 3:214
printing and publishing, 4:2–5
religious drama, 2:16
religious orders, 4:22
religious thought, 4:27
representative institutions, 4:36–37
salons, 4:55
sculpture, 4:76–78, 78
THE RENAISSANCE
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sexuality and gender, 4:81, 82
Siena, 4:94
slavery, 4:95–96
Spain, 4:101
sports, 4:110
taxation and public finance, 4:116,
117
technology, 4:117–18
theaters, 4:121
trade, 2:36, 37
tragedy, 2:16, 17
translation, 4:130
travel and tourism, 4:134, 135–36
universities, 4:141
urban planning, 1:28
villas, 1:151
Rogier van der Weyden, 4:171
woodwork, 2:8
Yiddish literature, 2:205
Ivan III, Grand Duke of Russia, 4:55
J
Jacobean drama, 2:23–24
Jagiellon dynasty, 2:33, 3:186, 187
James I, King of Scotland and
England, 1:36, 46, 78, 79, 145,
2:14, 23, 29, 46, 51–52, 78, 125,
146, 198–200 (illus.), 217, 3:36,
54, 150, 181, 4:11, 75, 76, 109,
111 (illus.)
James IV, King of Scotland, 2:47, 51,
148, 169, 4:75
James V, King of Scotland, 3:53,
4:75–76
James VI, King of Scotland, 4:111
(illus.). See also James I, King of
Scotland and England
Jansen, Zacharias, 4:72
Japan, 1:71–72, 181, 3:84, 4:23
Jean de Meun, 3:171
Jeanne d’Albret, 1:104, 2:200
Jefferson, Thomas, 1:117, 4:34
Jérez, Francisco de, 2:64
Jesuits
Augsburg, 1:74
Robert Bellarmine, 1:84
Christian missions, 3:82–84
Counter-Reformation, 1:137
education, 2:39
William Gilbert, 2:125
humanism in Spain, 2:168
humanist education, 2:41
Ignatius Loyola, 2:176–77
Japan, 1:71
logic, 3:26
metaphysics, 3:160
Moriscos, 3:96
THE RENAISSANCE
Netherlands language/literature,
3:124
preaching and sermons, 3:212
religious orders, 4:22, 23
Matteo Ricci, 4:45
Scholasticism, 3:160
Seville, 4:80
Jewelry, 2:200–201. See also
Goldsmiths and goldsmithing
Jewish language and literature,
1:90–91, 2:201–5 (illus.). See also
Kabbalah/Kabbalists
Jewish law, 2:208, 210, 211
Jews/Judaism, 2:205–15 (illus.)
anti-Semitism. See Anti-Semitism
conversos. See Conversos
Ferdinand of Aragon, 2:80
Florence, 2:88
ghetto. See Ghetto
Kabbalah. See Kabbalah/Kabbalists
language and literature, 1:90–91,
2:201–5 (illus.)
magic, 3:44
Pope Nicholas V, 3:125
Ottoman Empire, 3:133
pawnbrokers, 3:87
Philip II, King of Spain, 3:157
Pico della Mirandola, Giovanni,
3:162
Portugal, 3:206
Portuguese Inquisition, 2:186
preaching and sermons, 3:214
religious thought, 4:27–28
Rome, 4:47
social status, 4:98
Spain, 4:99, 101
Spanish Inquisition, 2:185
taxation and public finance, 4:116
Urbino, 4:143
Venice, 4:151
Juan Luis Vives, 4:163
Jihad, 4:113
Joachim I, Elector of Brandenburg,
1:110
Joachim II, Elector of Brandenburg,
1:110
Joanna of Castile, 1:147
João, King of Portugal, 3:204
João (John) II, King of Portugal, 2:66,
3:205, 206
João (John) III, King of Portugal,
2:186, 3:206
Jodelle, Étienne, 2:26, 108
Johann von Neumarkt, 2:121
John III, count of Holland, 2:69
John IV, Duke of Brittany, 1:111
John VIII Palaeologus, Byzantine
Emperor, 1:180, 3:169
John George, Elector of Brandenburg,
1:110
John George, Elector of Saxony, 4:60
John of Küstrin, 1:110
John of Montfort, 1:111
John of the Cross, 1:137, 4:21, 106,
120
John the Fearless, Duke of Burgundy,
1:121
Jones, Inigo, 1:46, 47, 2:24, 52, 169,
200, 215–16, 218, 3:28, 139,
4:120, 121, 135
Jonson, Ben, 2:24, 52, 57, 200,
216–18 (illus.), 3:185–86
Jónsson, Arngrímur, 4:62
Josquin des Prez, 1:150, 2:218–19,
3:102, 108, 4:162
Jousting, 4:109, 129, 161
Juan de Zumárraga, 3:83
Julian calendar, 1:123
Julius, Duke of BrunswickWolfenbüttel, 1:118
Julius II, Pope, 1:61, 97, 100, 108,
132, 2:10, 97, 219, 3:12, 38, 74,
119, 127, 149, 153, 195, 198, 4:17,
18, 77, 129, 146
Julius III, Pope, 3:138, 4:157, 158
Justinian, 2:170, 3:8
K
Kabbalah/Kabbalists, 1:161, 2:203,
207, 213, 214, 3:43, 44, 160, 161,
162, 4:25, 27, 28
Keats, John, 4:109
Kepler, Johannes, 1:72, 73, 96, 107,
191, 2:125, 3:1–3 (illus.), 57–58,
4:69
Khaldun, Ibn, 2:192
Kievan Rus’, 4:53
Kildare, Earl of, 2:187, 188
King, Edward, 3:78
King James Bible, 1:89, 2:51, 199
Kinship. See Family and kinship
Klesl, Melchior, 2:146
Knights, 1:37, 79, 122, 2:152–53, 162,
4:39, 52, 93, 100. See also Chivalry;
Tournaments
Knights of the Round Table, 1:155,
170
Knox, John, 3:3, 54, 4:8, 13
Koberger, Anton, 3:129
Kochanowski, Jan, 2:172
Kristeller, Paul Oskar, 4:33
L
Labé, Louise, 2:78, 109
Labor, 2:74, 4:95–96
213
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INDEX
Laetus, Erasmus, 4:61
Lancaster, House of, 2:47
Language. See Literature; Translation;
specific languages
Lanyer, Aemelia, 3:178, 186
Las Casas, Bartolomé de, 1:16, 3:4, 83
Laski family, 3:4–5
Lasso, Orlando di, 3:5–6, 102, 112,
4:162
Latin language and literature, 3:6–8
classical languages, 1:173
classical poetry, 3:176
Council of Trent, 4:138
Croatia and Dalmatia, 1:200
defining the Renaissance era, 4:30
diplomacy, 2:10
education, 2:39
Desiderius Erasmus, 2:59
French language, 2:105
Greek émigrés, 2:134, 135
Guarino Guarini, 2:137
humanist education, 2:40, 42
Hungary, 2:173
ideas, spread of, 2:176
influence of the Renaissance, 4:34
literary theory, 3:22–23
Philipp Melanchthon, 3:70
myth, 3:115
notaries, 3:126
Nürnberg chronicle, 3:129
pastoral, 3:146
Plato, 3:175
English poetry, 3:181–82
Poland, 3:187–88
popular culture, 3:199
Portuguese language and literature,
3:207
printing and publishing, 4:3
professions, 4:5
rhetoric, 4:44
Jacopo Sannazaro, 4:56
Scandinavian kingdoms, 4:60–61
Spanish language and literature,
4:104, 105
textbooks, 2:39, 40
translation, 4:130, 131
universities, 4:141
Lorenzo Valla, 4:145
Latini, Brunetto, 2:164, 4:40
Lattes, Bonet de, 3:44
Laud, William, 4:11
Laurana, Luciana, 1:201
Laureti, Tommaso, 1:58
Law, 3:8–11
Florence, 2:84–85
Inns of Court, 2:183
Islam, 2:191, 192
Jews, 2:208–9
214
legal humanism, 2:170
notaries, 3:126–27
professions, 4:5
representative institutions, 4:36
sexuality and gender, 4:80
Siena, 4:94
slavery, 4:95
Spain, 4:103
trying/punishing crime, 1:198–99
universities, 4:141, 143
witchcraft, 4:173
Law, rule of, 1:187–88
Lawes, Henry, 3:78
Lawyers, 4:97, 138
Le Bovier de Fontenelle, Bernard,
1:84
Le Breton, Gilles, 1:50
De Leeuw, Jan, 1:65
Le Jeune, Claude, 3:111
Lefèvre d’Étaples, Jacques, 1:87, 90,
2:166, 4:7
Legal humanism, 2:170, 4:141
Legal texts, 2:155–56
Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm, 1:118
Leicester, Earl of, 4:108
Leiden, 3:11–12
Leipzig, 4:60
Leland, John, 1:169–70
Lentino, Giacomo da, 3:179
Leo X, Pope, 1:41, 65, 2:75, 126,
3:12–13, 33, 38, 61, 75, 149, 194,
4:17–18, 22
Leo XI, Pope, 3:61
Leon, Judah Messer, 2:214, 3:214
León, Luis de, 4:106
Leonardo da Vinci, 3:13–16 (illus.)
anatomy, 1:20
architecture, 1:28
Donato Bramante, 1:108
Correggio, 1:191
Francis I, 2:105
influence of the Renaissance, 4:34
interpreting the Renaissance, 4:33
Italy, 1:57
Masaccio, 3:54
Milan, 1:59, 60, 3:77
parades and pageants, 3:142
patronage, 3:149
Raphael, 4:17
Rome, 1:61
science and engineering, 3:13–16,
4:66
technology, 4:118
Andrea del Verrocchio, 4:154
Leoniceno, Nicolò, 1:174, 3:18
Lepanto, Battle of, 2:145, 3:69, 132,
156, 4:149, 167
Lescot, Pierre, 1:52
Leyden, Lucas van, 1:65, 4:179
Libavius, Andreas, 4:71
Libraries, 1:66, 99, 118, 2:105, 175,
3:16–19 (illus.), 21, 63, 137, 4:80
Lily, William, 2:39, 41
Linacre, Thomas, 2:168
Lippi, Fra Filippino, 1:102, 3:55, 64
Lipsius, Justus, 3:191
Lisbon, 3:19, 156, 4:96
Literacy, 1:12, 2:3, 3:19–21, 199, 4:1
Literature, 3:21–25 (illus.). See also
Fiction; Poetry; Romances
Austria, 1:77
chivalry, 1:154–55
Croatia and Dalmatia, 1:200
defining the Renaissance era, 4:30
humanist literature, 2:165
humor, 2:171–72
influence of the Renaissance, 4:35
Margaret of Navarre, 3:48
Cosimo de’ Medici, 3:63
numerology, 3:127–28
pastoral, 3:146
patronage, 3:150–51
printing and publishing, 4:5
religious literature, 4:19–21
Ronsard, Pierre de, 4:48
salons, 4:55
Coluccio Salutati, 4:56
Scandinavian kingdoms, 4:60–61,
62
sexuality and gender, 4:81
Philip Sidney, 4:92, 93
travel and tourism, 4:136
women, 4:178
Lithuania, 3:186, 4:53
Liuzzi, Mondino dei, 1:20
Livy, 1:172, 2:154, 3:38
Loans, 2:36, 3:86, 87, 88, 4:116–17
Logic, 1:33, 2:170, 3:25–27, 157,
4:16, 43, 64, 142
London, 2:20–21, 23, 35, 215,
3:27–29 (map), 4:55, 120–22
Lord Chamberlain’s Men, 2:216, 4:85
Lorenzetti, Ambrogio, 1:57, 58
Louis II, King of Bohemia, 1:95, 3:132
Louis II, King of Hungary, 4:113
Louis XI, King of France, 1:104, 121,
2:97, 101, 3:71, 92, 4:116, 133,
145
Louis XII, King of France, 1:23, 2:97,
171, 218, 3:38, 117, 142, 4:75,
129, 146, 167
Louis XIII, King of France, 1:105, 127,
2:100, 136, 3:49
Louis XIV, King of France, 2:102, 134
Louise of Savoy, 1:9, 104
Louvre, 2:104, 105
THE RENAISSANCE
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INDEX
Lovati, Lovato dei, 2:164
Love and marriage, 3:29–32 (illus.).
See also Marriage
Lovelace, Richard, 3:186
Loyet, Gérard, 1:65
Lucian of Samosata, 3:93
Lucrezia, Duchess of Ferrara, 1:13,
100
Ludolph of Saxony, 4:20
Luini, Bernardino, 1:60
Luria, Isaac, 4:28
Lute, 3:112, 113
Luther, Martin, 3:32–34, 4:8 (illus.)
anti-Semitism, 1:24
Augustine of Hippo, 1:75
Bible, 1:88–89
Brandenburg, 1:110
John Calvin, 1:124
Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor,
1:148
Council of Trent, 1:136, 4:137
Counter-Reformation, 1:135
Lucas Cranach, 1:196
German language and literature,
2:121–22
Habsburg dynasty, 2:144
Josquin des Prez, 2:218
Pope Leo X, 3:13
Philipp Melanchthon, 3:69, 70
metaphysics, 3:160
Thomas More, 3:95
music, 3:101, 110
Nürnberg, 3:128
Ottoman Empire, 3:134
Palatinate, 3:137
pilgrimage, 3:166
portraits, 1:92
printing and publishing, 4:4
Protestant clergy, 1:175
Protestant missions, 3:84
Protestant Reformation, 1:158, 4:7,
8
religious poetry, 3:178
religious thought, 4:26
revolts, 4:41
Girolamo Savonarola, 4:59
Saxony, 4:59
sculpture, 4:78
sexuality and gender, 4:83
universities, 4:142
Wars of Religion, 4:168
Lutheranism, 3:21, 128, 4:7, 60
Luxury, 2:65, 182, 3:34–36 (illus.)
Lyly, John, 2:54, 56
Lyon, 2:107, 3:36–37, 4:3
Lyric poetry, 2:122–23, 193, 194,
4:115
THE RENAISSANCE
M
Machiavelli, Niccolò, 3:37–40 (illus.)
House of Borgia, 1:100
Leonardo Bruni, 1:117
constitutionalism, 1:187
Europe, idea of, 2:63
factions, 2:72
humor, 2:171
Italian language and literature,
2:193
mercenaries, 3:72
princely rule, 3:189
Renaissance historians, 2:155
Sicily, 4:90
sovereignty and reason of state,
3:191
Switzerland, 4:114
tragedy, 2:17
Machuca, Pedro, 1:69
Madrid, 1:67, 3:40, 157, 4:80, 121
Madrigals, 1:121, 3:91, 102, 111–12,
137
Magellan, Ferdinand, 1:150, 2:67–68,
144, 3:41
Magic and astrology, 3:42–44 (illus.),
175–76, 4:63, 70, 172
Magnus, Johannes, 4:60
Magnus, Olaus, 4:60
Maimonides, Moses, 4:27
Mairet, Jean, 2:27
Major, John, 2:167
Malatesta, Sigismondo, 3:91
Malaysia, 1:70–71
Malory, Thomas, 1:155
Mamluks, 2:190–92
Man, dignity of, 3:44–46, 157,
161–62
Manetti, Giannozzo, 3:45
Mannerism, 1:41–42, 51, 57, 130,
139, 140, 2:44, 3:145, 153, 4:77
Manners, 1:196, 2:3, 162
Mantegna, Andrea, 1:85, 171, 191,
195, 2:30, 3:46–47
Mantua, 1:191, 2:39, 61, 130, 3:47,
91, 100, 4:162
Mantua, Duke of, 4:50
Manuel I, King of Portugal, 1:68,
2:114, 3:19, 206
Manuelino style, 1:68
Manufacturing, 2:35–36, 4:118, 127.
See also Industry
Manuscript illumination. See
Illumination
Manuscripts, 1:98, 4:181. See also
Books and manuscripts
Manuzio, Aldo, 4:4
Manuzio, Paolo, 4:5
Maps, 3:56–57, 4:18, 45, 79, 113. See
also Cartography
Marcellus II, Pope, 3:138
Margaret of Austria, 1:9, 63, 148,
3:30, 47–48, 121, 149, 4:12, 178
Margaret of Flanders, 1:121
Margaret of Navarre, 2:106–8, 172,
3:29, 30, 48
Margaret of Parma, 3:121
Margaret of Savoy, 2:148
Margaret of Valois, 1:104, 133, 2:98
Maria, Donna, 1:146
Maria of Portugal, 3:156
Marie de Médicis, 1:105, 2:100, 3:49,
129, 4:51
Marinella, Lucrezia, 2:78–79, 4:178
Marlowe, Christopher, 1:9, 2:22, 51,
54, 60, 3:49–52 (illus.), 185
Marot, Clément, 2:106, 107, 4:158
Marriage, 3:30–31
courtship, 1:153–54, 3:31
demographic patterns, 3:203
divorce, 2:48, 49, 3:31, 52, 4:174
House of Este, 2:61
House of Farnese, 2:77
Florence, 2:87–88
House of Medici, 3:61
queens and queenship, 4:11–12
Scotland, 4:75, 76
servants, 4:79
sexuality and gender, 4:80, 81
Spain, 4:99
Stuart dynasty, 4:111
youth, 1:153–54
Marston, John, 2:24
Martin V, Pope, 1:193, 3:90, 198,
4:144
Martini, Simone, 1:57
Marulic, Marko, 1:200
Marvell, Andrew, 3:186
Mary I, Queen of England, 1:134,
143, 149, 197, 2:43, 45, 47–50,
135, 136, 3:3, 5, 52–53, 156, 4:9,
10, 13, 111
Mary of Guise, 3:3
Mary of Hungary, 1:119, 4:12
Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots, 2:45, 51,
60, 98, 140, 198, 3:3, 53–54, 4:8,
76, 109–10, 111
Masaccio, 1:56–57, 59, 3:54–55
Masque, 1:47, 179, 2:4, 27, 3:78. See
also Court masque
Mass, 2:50, 3:5, 102, 108–10, 138,
212
Mathematics, 3:1, 2, 18, 55–58
(illus.), 164, 4:35, 64, 68, 73, 142,
143
215
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INDEX
Matthias, Holy Roman Emperor,
2:146, 4:53
Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor,
3:58–59
Austria, 1:77
Bavaria, 1:83
Brittany, 1:111
Burgundy, 1:121
Conrad Celtis, 1:141
Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor,
1:148
Christianity, 1:159
Albrecht Dürer, 2:31
Fugger family, 2:109
Habsburg dynasty, 2:142–44
Holy Roman Empire, 2:158
Niccolò Machiavelli, 3:38
Netherlands, 3:120, 121
patronage, 3:148–49
Spain, 4:100
tombs, 4:129
transportation and communication, 4:134
Vienna, 4:157
Maximilian II, Holy Roman Emperor,
2:144–45, 3:59–60, 4:52, 156
Mechanics, 2:113–14, 4:67–68
Medals, 1:139, 180–81, 2:7, 3:169
Medici, Alessandro de’, 2:86, 3:169
Medici, Cosimo de’, 1:1, 2:82, 85, 86
Medici, Cosimo I de’, 1:138, 2:87,
162, 3:61, 62, 4:168
Medici, Cosimo II de’, 2:113, 3:62
175, 3:34, 60, 62–63, 98, 175,
4:77–78, 94
Medici, Giovanni de’, 3:60, 61. See
also Leo X, Pope
Medici, Giuliano de’, 3:12, 37, 38, 64,
192, 4:77, 128
Medici, Giulio. See Clement VII, Pope
Medici, House of, 3:60–62 (illus.)
art in Italy, 1:56
châteaus and villas, 1:151
city-states, 1:167, 168
classical scholarship, 1:172
commedia dell’arte, 1:184
constitutionalism, 1:187
Donatello, 2:12
factions, 2:71
Florence, 2:83, 85–87
Francesco Guicciardini, 2:138
illumination, 2:177
Italy, 2:197–98
kinship and power, 2:76
Pope Leo X, 3:12
Lyon, 3:36
Niccolò Machiavelli, 3:38
Marie de Médicis, 3:49
216
Michelangelo, 3:75
music, 3:100
patronage, 3:147, 149
princely rule, 3:189
representative institutions, 4:37
Girolamo Savonarola, 4:58, 59
sculpture, 4:77
Alessandra Macinghi Strozzi, 4:111
tapestries, 1:65
Andrea del Verrocchio, 4:154
Wars of Italy, 4:168
Medici, Lorenzo de’, 3:63–64 (illus.)
art in the Netherlands, 1:65
Botticelli, 1:102
Catherine de Médicis, 1:133
Florence, 2:85
illumination, 2:177
Niccolò Machiavelli, 3:37
House of Medici, 3:60
Michelangelo, 3:73
Naples, 3:117
Perugino, 3:153
Pico della Mirandola, Giovanni,
3:161
Pisa, 3:168
Angelo Poliziano, 3:191–92
princes and princedoms, 3:215
Girolamo Savonarola, 4:57
sculpture, 4:77
tombs, 4:128
translation, 4:131
Medici, Piero de’, 2:85, 3:60, 4:58
Medici bank, 2:36, 3:87–88
Medicine, 3:64–68 (illus.). See also
Physicians
anatomy, 1:20
classical scholarship, 1:174
Marsilio Ficino, 2:82
influence of the Renaissance, 4:35
magical practices, 3:42
plague, 3:173–74
poor relief, 3:210
science, 4:64, 65–66, 66, 71
scientific instruments, 4:73
sickness and disease, 4:91
surgeons/surgery, 3:65, 4:92
translation, 4:131
universities, 4:141
Andreas Vesalius, 4:154
women, 4:178
Médicis, Catherine de. See Catherine
de Médicis
Médicis, Marie de. See Marie de
Médicis
Medieval style, 1:60, 2:136, 137, 4:77,
105. See also Middle Ages
Medina, Pedro de, 2:167
Mediterranean region, 2:1
Mediterranean Sea, 2:36, 198,
3:68–69, 166, 167
Meervenne, Aleyt Goyaerts van der,
1:101
Mehmed II, Ottoman sultan, 1:85,
186, 2:191, 3:68, 69, 132, 4:113
Mei, Girolamo, 3:130
Melanchthon, Philipp, 1:175, 2:39,
42, 137, 167, 168, 3:5, 69–70, 167,
4:26, 59, 60
Meldolla, Andrea, 1:201
Memling, Hans, 1:54, 3:70
Mena, Juan de, 4:105
Mendes Pinto, Fernão, 3:207
Mendoza, Bernardino de, 2:60
Mendoza, Diego Hurtado de, 2:167
Mercantilism, 3:71
Mercator, Gerard, 2:120–21, 146, 3:57
Mercenaries, 2:102, 196, 3:71–73,
152, 4:114, 161, 165, 166, 169
Merici, Angela, 4:24
Mersenne, Marin, 3:44
Messianic movement, 2:207, 4:28
Messina, Antonello da, 4:90
Metallurgy. See Mining and metallurgy
Metalworking, 1:65, 180–81. See also
Mining and metallurgy
Metaphysics, 2:82, 3:159–60, 4:28–29,
64
Mexico, 1:17–18, 192, 2:68, 3:83,
4:23
Michelangelo Buonarroti, 3:73–76
(illus.)
anatomy, 1:20
Sofonisba Anguissola, 1:23
architecture, 1:26
art, 1:40, 41
Fra Bartolommeo della Porta, 1:82
Carracci family, 1:130, 131
Correggio, 1:191
Florence, 2:84
forgeries, 2:92
influence of the Renaissance, 4:34,
35
interpreting the Renaissance, 4:33
Italy, 1:56, 57
Pope Julius II, 2:219
Pope Leo X, 3:13
Mannerism, 1:42
parades and pageants, 3:142
Parmigianino, 3:145
patronage, 3:148
Pope Pius IV, 3:171
printing and publishing, 4:4
Raphael, 4:17, 18
Rome, 1:61, 4:46
Girolamo Savonarola, 4:57
THE RENAISSANCE
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INDEX
sculpture, 4:77
Tintoretto, 4:124
Titian, 4:127
tombs, 4:128, 129
Andrea del Verrocchio, 4:154
Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola, 4:157
Michelet, Jules, 4:32
Michelozzo, 2:12
Michiel, Marcantonio, 2:127
Middle Ages, 3:76. See also Medieval
style
banking, 2:36
chivalry, 1:154
Christian theology, 1:160
city-states, 1:166–67
clocks, 1:176
contract fighters, 3:73
crime and punishment, 1:198
defining the Renaissance era, 4:30
duel, 2:29
economy and trade, 2:33
espionage, 2:60
Europe, idea of, 2:63
Florence, 2:83
fortifications, 2:93
French nobility, 2:102
Gregorian Chant, 3:108
Matthias Grünewald, 2:137
heraldry, 2:152
hospitals and asylums, 2:162
illumination, 2:177
individualism, 2:181
industry, 2:181
Italian language and literature,
2:194
Italy, 2:198
Latin language/literature, 3:6
law, 3:8–9
Montmorency family, 3:92
museums, 3:98
myth, 3:115
numerology, 3:127
Orthodox Church, 1:159
peasantry, 3:151
pilgrimage, 3:166
popular culture, 3:199
Protestant Reformation, 4:7
religious drama, 2:15
Renaissance historians, 2:155
rhetoric, 4:43
Roman Inquisition, 2:184
Scholasticism, 3:160
science, 4:64
sexuality and gender, 4:81
ships and shipbuilding, 4:89
Spain, 4:102
technology, 4:117
utopias, 4:144
THE RENAISSANCE
Middleton, Thomas, 2:23–24
Midwives, 3:97
Milan, 3:76–77
art, 1:58–60
Donato Bramante, 1:108
dynastic rivalry, 2:33
House of Este, 2:61
fortifications, 2:95
France, 2:97
Francis I, 2:104
illumination, 2:177, 178
Italy, 2:195, 198
Pope Leo X, 3:12
Leonardo da Vinci, 3:14–15
music, 3:100
parades and pageants, 3:142
Petrarch, 3:155
Valois dynasty, 4:146
Venice, 4:148–49
Wars of Italy, 4:167, 168
Milan, Duke of, 3:169, 4:167
Milton, John, 2:169, 3:77–79, 127,
178, 181, 4:30, 88, 107, 109
Mining and metallurgy, 2:35, 182,
3:79–81 (illus.), 4:70–71, 119
Missions, Christian, 3:81–84 (illus.),
4:45, 134
“Modern” era, 4:30, 32, 34
Mohács, Battle of, 2:173, 3:186
Molcho, Shelomo, 2:207
Molière, 1:184, 2:25
Mona Lisa (Leonardo da Vinci),
3:15–16
Monarchy, 3:84–86, 187, 4:12, 41,
56, 75, 76, 116, 149
Money and banking, 3:86–89 (illus.)
currency exchange, 2:73
economy and trade, 2:36, 37
Florence, 2:87
Cosimo de’ Medici, 3:62
House of Medici, 3:60
Lorenzo de’ Medici, 3:64
Medici bank, 2:36, 3:87–88
money, 3:89
poor relief, 3:210
Spain, 4:104
taxation and public finance, 4:116
travel and tourism, 4:136
types of banks, 3:86–89
Mongols, 2:191, 192
Montaigne, Michel de, 1:92, 2:108–9,
3:89–90, 191, 4:134
Montefeltro, Antonio da, 2:179, 3:90,
4:143
Montefeltro family, 3:90–91, 4:143
Montemayor, Jorge de, 4:107
Monteverdi, Claudio, 1:30, 81, 3:91,
103, 111
Montmorency family, 2:98, 3:92
Monuments, 4:77–78
Moors, 1:67, 2:80, 190, 3:193, 4:98,
105, 107
Moral code. See Chivalry; Honor
Morality/ethics, 2:22–23, 3:158, 192,
4:64, 131, 142
Morality play, 2:16, 25
More, Ann, 2:13–14
More, Thomas, 3:92–95 (illus.)
Augustine of Hippo, 1:75
biography, 1:91
Christian humanism, 3:190
Thomas Cromwell, 1:202
Desiderius Erasmus, 2:58
Henry VIII, King of England, 2:151
historians, 2:167
Hans Holbein the Younger, 2:157
humanism in Britain, 2:168, 169
poetry, English, 3:182
satire, 3:24
translation, 4:131
Tudor dynasty, 2:48
utopias, 4:143, 144
Juan Luis Vives, 4:163
Moriscos, 1:188, 2:186, 3:95–96, 4:99
Morley, Thomas, 3:112
Morton, John, 3:93
Moscato, Judah, 3:214
Moscovy, 4:53–55 (map)
Motet, 3:5, 91, 102, 103, 108, 137
Motherhood, 2:76, 3:96–98, 130–32
Moveable type, 1:98, 4:3, 53
Muhammed II, Ottoman Emperor,
2:63
Müller, Johann, 3:57
Multscher, Hans, 1:54
Münster, Sebastian, 2:119
Murad II, Ottoman sultan, 1:186
Murals, 2:128, 3:64, 4:50, 124
Museums, 3:98–99
Music, 3:99–103 (illus.). See also specific composers
Austria, 1:77
baroque, 1:81
Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor,
1:150
instrumental, 3:103–7 (illus.)
Jews, 2:212–13
Maximilian I, 3:59
Maximilian II, 3:60
Milan, 3:77
musical forms and composers,
3:102–3
papal patronage, 3:195
polyphony, 3:91, 102, 105, 108,
110–12
printing and publishing, 4:3
217
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INDEX
Protestant Reformation, 4:9
sacred, 3:91, 99, 101, 108–10,
137–38, 195
Scandinavian kingdoms, 4:62
science, 4:70
Philip Sidney, 4:92
tournaments, 4:130
Vienna, 4:157
vocal, 3:105, 107–12 (illus.). see
also Madrigals; Opera
Musical instruments, 3:105, 112–14
Muslims, 2:190–92. See also Islam
Africa, 1:4
East Asia, 1:70
conversos, 1:189
councils, 1:193
Europe, idea of, 2:63
Iberian art, 1:67
Moriscos. See Moriscos
Northern Africa, 1:4
Orthodox Church, 1:159
Ottoman Empire, 3:133, 134
piracy, 3:166
popes and papacy, 3:194
Portugal, 3:206
slavery, 4:95, 96
social status, 4:98
Spain, 4:98, 99, 101
Mussato, Alberto, 2:164
Mysticism, 1:135, 160–61, 2:207,
3:160, 4:21, 27, 29, 70, 106, 120
Myth/mythology, 1:103, 2:63,
3:114–17 (illus.), 129, 214, 4:41,
66, 67, 126
N
Najara, Israel, 2:203
Nanni, Giovanni, 2:93
Nantes, Edict of, 2:100, 148, 4:8, 170
Napier, John, 3:57
Naples, 3:117–18
art, 1:61–62
Caravaggio, 1:129
dynastic rivalry, 2:33
House of Este, 2:61
Ferdinand of Aragon, 2:80
Florence, 2:85
France, 2:97
Fra Giocondo, 2:126
Iberian art, 1:68
Italy, 2:195, 198
Jews, 2:208
libraries, 3:18
music, 3:100
revolts, 4:41
Sicily, 4:90
Spain, 4:99
218
Valois dynasty, 4:146
Wars of Italy, 4:167
Narratives, 2:123, 4:124, 136
Nashe, Thomas, 2:57, 3:50
Nasi, Doña Gracia, 2:211
Nation-state, 3:118
Natural law, 3:10–11
Natural philosophy, 3:158, 159, 4:64,
143
Natural sciences, 4:64–67 (illus.), 119
Naturalism, 1:54, 55, 127, 130, 2:127,
129, 4:126
Navarre, 4:98, 99, 100
Navigation, 2:64, 120, 3:57, 4:72–73
Nebrija, Antonio de, 2:39, 167, 4:105
Nebrija, Francisca, 2:42
Neoplatonism, 3:42, 175, 4:26–27
Nepotism, 2:77, 3:118–19
Netherlands, 3:119–22 (map)
art, 1:19–20, 63–66 (illus.). See also
specific artists
art in Germany, 1:53–54
classical scholarship, 1:173
constitutionalism, 1:188
Albrecht Dürer, 2:31
economy and trade, 2:35, 37
Elizabethan romances, 2:56–57
golden age, 2:51
humanism in, 2:168
humanist education, 2:41–42
Jews, 2:208
language and literature, 3:122–24
(illus.). See also specific authors
Christopher Marlowe, 3:52
material culture, 3:35
music, 3:101
Philip II, King of Spain, 3:156, 157
piracy, 3:167
Protestant Reformation, 4:6, 7, 8
queens and queenship, 4:12
religious drama, 2:16
representative institutions, 4:37–38
revolts, 4:41
Peter Paul Rubens, 4:50–51
sculpture, 4:78
Philip Sidney, 4:93
social status, 4:97
Spain, 4:100, 101, 104
technology, 4:117
New Christians, 2:209, 210. See also
Conversos
New Testament, 1:174, 2:59, 4:3, 26
Niccoli, Niccolò, 3:19, 4:180–81
Nicholas V, Pope, 1:22, 97, 2:135,
142, 155, 165, 179, 3:17–18, 81,
124–25, 4:145, 149
Nicholas de Bourbon, 2:200
Nicholas of Cusa, 1:73, 2:180–81,
3:125–26, 175, 4:143, 157
Nicholas of Hagenau, 4:78
Ninety-five Theses, 3:33, 4:7, 59
Nobili, Roberto di, 3:84
Noblemen/nobility, 1:31–32, 154,
2:161–62, 4:96–97
Nogarola, Isotta, 4:178
Noot, Jan van der, 3:123
Northwest Passage, 2:15, 68
Norway, 4:39, 60
Notaries, 3:126–27, 4:6
Notation, musical, 3:105–6, 4:3
Novels, 4:93, 104, 106–7. See also
Fiction
Numerology, 3:127–28, 162
Nuns, 3:101, 4:24–25, 80
Nürnberg, 2:31, 3:128, 167, 4:3
Nürnberg chronicle, 3:129
Nutrition, 2:91, 4:66
Nzinga Nkuwu, King of Kongo, 3:81
O
Occult sciences, 1:8–9, 4:53
Odes, 4:48, 106
Oil painting, 1:63, 67, 2:71, 4:125. See
also Painting
Olbracht, Jan, King of Poland, 1:49
Old Pretender, 4:111
Old Testament, 4:26, 28
Olier, Jean-Jacques, 4:24
Oligarchy, 2:131–32
O’Neill, Hugh, 2:188
Opera, 1:81, 122, 3:91, 102, 129–30,
4:35, 130
Optics, 3:1, 57, 4:68–69, 119
Orange, Prince of, 4:109
Orators, 2:176, 4:42–45. See also
Cicero
Oratory of Mary and Jesus, 4:24
Orazio (son of Titian), 4:126, 127
Orlando Furioso (Ludovico Ariosto),
1:29–30, 155, 2:107, 172, 3:76,
116, 200, 4:13
Orphans and foundlings, 1:152,
3:130–32 (illus.)
Orsini, Fulvio, 2:43
Orta, Garcia da, 3:207
Ortelius, Abraham, 2:121
Orthodox Christianity, 1:157–60,
193, 3:194, 4:26, 53
Osuna, Francisco de, 1:137
Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor, 2:158
Ottoman Empire, 3:132–34 (map)
art in Hungary, 1:48
Austria, 1:78
Bible, 1:87
THE RENAISSANCE
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INDEX
Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor,
1:148
Constantinople, fall of, 1:186–87
conversos, 1:189
Dubrovnik, 2:28
dynastic rivalry, 2:33
Islam, 2:191
Jewish women, 2:211
Ladino literature, 2:204
Mediterranean Sea, 3:68–69
Northern Africa, 1:4
Orthodox Christianity, 1:159
Poland, 3:186
religious thought, 4:28
Süleyman I, 4:113
trade routes, 2:36
Venice, 4:149
Ottoman Turks
Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor,
1:148, 150
Ferdinand I, 2:79
Francis I, 2:104
Habsburg dynasty, 2:143, 144, 145
Hungary, 2:173
Maximilian I, 3:58
Mediterranean Sea, 3:68–69
Mehmed II, 3:69
Nicholas of Cusa, 3:126
Nürnberg, 3:128
Ottoman Empire, 3:132
Philip II, King of Spain, 3:156
Poland, 3:186
Pope Pius II, 3:170
popes and papacy, 3:194
Rudolf II, 4:53
Spain, 4:101
Süleyman I, 2:79, 98, 3:132, 4:113
Vienna, 4:156
Ovid, 1:102, 2:130, 3:6, 7, 50, 115,
116, 117, 185, 4:131
Oxford University, 4:68, 93, 121,
141–42
P
Pacific Ocean, 2:15, 68, 3:41
Pacioli, Luca, 1:108, 3:164
Padua, 2:12–13, 3:26, 4:36
Paganism, 3:84, 114, 115, 134, 158,
4:30, 56
Pageants. See Parades and pageants
Painters. See specific painters
Painting, 1:53–54, 4:33, 78, 94, 138.
See also Art; Oil painting
Palaces and townhouses, 3:135–37
(illus.)
Palatinate, 3:137
THE RENAISSANCE
Palestrina, Giovanni Pierluigi da,
3:102, 137–38
Palissy, Bernard, 1:51
Palladio, Andrea, 1:29, 62, 151, 2:215,
3:138–39 (illus.), 148, 4:34, 121,
135
Palmieri, Matteo, 4:29, 30
“Pamphlet wars,” 2:176
Pannonius, Janus, 2:173
Paolo, Giovanni di, 1:58
Papacy. See Popes and papacy
Papal States, 1:166, 167, 2:124, 195,
198, 208, 210, 219, 3:12, 119, 125,
193, 197, 198
Paper, 1:43, 4:1
Pappus, 4:67, 73
Paracelsus, 1:12, 2:154, 3:43, 67–68,
140, 4:68, 70, 71
Parades and pageants, 3:140–42
(illus.)
Paré, Ambroise, 3:143
Paris, 3:143–45 (illus.)
art in France, 1:52–53
Catherine de Médicis, 1:134
chanson, 3:111
French agriculture and trade, 2:101
French language, 2:105
Hugo Grotius, 2:136
Ignatius Loyola, 2:176
music, 3:100
printing and publishing, 4:3
revolt, 4:42
salons, 4:55
Wars of Religion, 4:169–70
Parlement of Paris, 2:101, 104
Parliament, 2:13, 4:38–40 (illus.)
Parma, 2:78, 3:145–46
Parma, Duke of, 1:35, 36
Parmigianino, 1:41, 58, 3:145–46,
4:153
Parr, Katherine, 2:135, 4:12
Pastoral, 2:26–27, 127, 193, 3:29, 130,
146, 4:56, 57, 106–8, 115
Pater, Walter, 4:33
Patron saints, 2:139–40, 3:141
Patronage, 3:146–51 (illus.)
art, 1:38–40
artistic patronage, 3:148–50
Augsburg, 1:74
Bohemia, 1:96
Burgundy, 1:121
Benvenuto Cellini, 1:140
Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor,
1:150
Christina of Sweden, 1:161, 162
city-states, 1:167
clients, 3:147–48
confraternities, 1:185
court, 1:194
Albrecht Dürer, 2:31
Edward VI, 2:43
Jan van Eyck, 2:69, 70
House of Farnese, 2:77
Ferrara, 2:81
Florence, 2:83
Francis I, 2:104–5
Fugger family, 2:110
guilds, 2:139
Habsburg dynasty, 2:142, 144, 146
Henry VII, King of England, 2:148
Isabella of Castile, 2:190
Italian language and literature,
2:193
Italy, 2:197
James I, 2:198, 199
Pope Julius II, 2:219
Pope Leo X, 3:13
literary patronage in England,
3:150–51
Madrid, 3:40
Margaret of Austria, 3:48
Marie de Médicis, 3:49
Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots, 3:54
Maximilian I, 3:59
medals, 1:180
Cosimo de’ Medici, 3:63
House of Medici, 3:62
Lorenzo de’ Medici, 3:64
music, 3:99–100, 100
Naples, 3:118
natural philosophy, 3:158
Pope Nicholas V, 3:125
papal, 3:194–95
Ambroise Paré, 3:143
patrons and clients, 3:147–48
Perugino, 3:153
Philip II, King of Spain, 3:156, 157
Pisanello, 3:169
poor relief, 3:210–11
Pope Pius IV, 3:170, 171
popes and papacy, 3:193, 194–95
François Rabelais, 4:14
Raphael, 4:17
representative institutions, 4:37
Rudolf II, 4:52
salons, 4:55
Scandinavian kingdoms, 4:61
William Shakespeare, 4:85
Spain, 4:104
Edmund Spenser, 4:108
Torquato Tasso, 4:115
Tintoretto, 4:124
Titian, 4:125, 126
Vienna, 4:156
Wars of Religion, 4:168
Thomas Wolsey, 4:173
219
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INDEX
women in art, 4:178
Paul II, Pope, 1:179
Paul III, Pope, 1:135, 139, 2:77, 184,
210, 3:4, 30, 75, 171, 193–95, 198,
4:5, 47, 127, 136
Paul IV, Pope, 1:136, 2:124, 180, 210,
3:53, 138, 193, 4:168
Pavia, Battle of, 4:146, 168
Pawnbrokers, 3:86, 87, 210
Pazzi family, 2:85, 3:64
Peace of Westphalia, 4:123
Peasantry, 3:151
daily life, 2:2
economy and trade, 2:33, 34
England, 2:52
French agriculture, 2:100–101
Holy Roman Empire, 2:161
representative institutions, 4:39
revolts, 4:40–42
serfs, 2:33, 161, 3:151, 4:97
sickness and disease, 4:91
social status, 4:97
Peasants’ War, 1:32, 2:161, 3:34, 140,
152, 4:7, 42 (illus.)
Pecci, Giovanni, 4:128
Pedersen, Christiern, 4:60
Pedersen, Mogens, 4:62
Pendulum, 1:176, 4:68
Pepin the Short, 2:198
Perera, Benito, 3:160
Pérez de Hita, Ginés, 4:107
Peri, Jacopo, 3:129
Perspective
Leon Battista Alberti, 1:10
art, 1:42–43
Jacopo Bellini, 1:85
Filippo Brunelleschi, 1:114
Artemisia Gentileschi, 2:118
geometry, 3:57
influence of the Renaissance, 4:34
Masaccio, 3:54
Piero della Francesca, 3:164
Raphael, 4:19
sculpture, 4:77
Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola, 4:157
Perugino, 1:60, 3:64, 152–53, 4:17
Perugino, Pietro, 4:154
Peruzzi, Baldassare, 3:153, 4:157
Peter of Ghent, 3:83
Petition of Right, 1:146
Petrarch, 3:153–56 (illus.)
Rudolf Agricola, 1:6
Augustine of Hippo, 1:74
autobiography, 1:92
biography, 1:91
Giovanni Boccaccio, 1:93
Giotto di Bondone, 2:129
Cicero, 1:162
220
classical antiquity, 1:171, 172, 173,
2:154, 3:176
Croatia and Dalmatia, 1:200
defining the Renaissance era, 4:30
education, 2:37–38
Florence, 2:88
French literature, 2:106, 107
humanism, 2:164
humanism in Italy, 2:164
humor, 2:171
ideas, spread of, 2:175
individualism, 2:180
interpreting the Renaissance, 4:32,
33
Italian language and literature,
2:193, 194
Italian political thought, 3:188
Italy, 2:197
Latin language/literature, 3:6, 7
libraries, 3:16
literary theory, 3:23
love and marriage, 3:29
man, dignity of, 3:45
Middle Ages, 3:76
myth, 3:116
pastoral, 3:146
philosophy, 3:157
poetry, English, 3:182
representative institutions, 4:37
rhetoric, 4:44
Ronsard, Pierre de, 4:48
Coluccio Salutati, 4:56
Jacopo Sannazaro, 4:56
sonnets, 3:179
travel and tourism, 4:134
Virgil, 4:162
writing, 4:180
Petrarchan sonnets, 3:179–80
Petrucci, Ottaviano dei, 3:100
Petrucci, Pandolfo, 4:94
Philip I, Archduke of Austria, 1:147
Philip II, King of Spain, 3:156–57
(illus.)
architecture, 1:27
art in Spain and Portugal, 1:68, 69
Brussels, 1:119
Luíz Vaz de Camões, 1:125
Cervantes, 1:144
Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor,
1:149, 150
El Greco, 2:44
golden age, 2:51
Habsburg dynasty, 2:144, 145
influence of the Renaissance, 4:35
libraries, 3:18
Lisbon, 3:19
Madrid, 3:40
Mary I, Queen of England, 3:53
myth, 3:116
Netherlands, 3:121
Portugal, 3:206
printing and publishing, 4:5
Rudolf II, 4:52
Philip Sidney, 4:93
Spain, 4:101
Spanish Armada, 1:35
Titian, 4:126
Toledo, 4:127
Valois dynasty, 4:146
Andreas Vesalius, 4:155
Rogier van der Weyden, 4:171
Philip III, King of Spain, 1:36, 2:145,
4:50
Philip VI, King of France (Philip of
Valois), 4:145
Philip the Bold, Duke of Burgundy,
1:121, 3:119
Philip the Good, Duke of Burgundy,
1:63, 65, 66, 121, 2:7, 69, 70,
3:119, 148
Philip the Handsome, Duke of
Burgundy, 3:121
Philippines, 2:67–68, 3:41
Philology, 4:144–56
Philosophy, 3:157–60 (illus.). See also
specific philosophers
alchemy, 1:11–12
astronomy, 1:72
classical scholarship, 1:174
dignity of man, 3:44–46, 161–62
Montaigne, 3:89–90
religious thought, 4:27
science, 4:70
translation, 4:131
universities, 4:141
Lorenzo Valla, 4:144–56
Physicians, 2:125, 3:64, 65, 4:5, 6, 35,
66, 91, 97, 138, 73. See also
Medicine
Physics, 4:64, 67–70
Piast dynasty, 2:33
Piccolomini, Enea Silvio. See Pius II,
Pope
Pico della Mirandola, Giovanni, 1:9,
2:181, 3:16–17, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46,
161–62, 3:134, 159–60, 175, 4:27,
28, 57, 143
Piedmont-Savoy, 3:162–63
Piero della Francesca, 3:57, 163–64
Pietro, Guido di. See Angelico, Fra
Pigment, 1:44, 63
Pilgrimage, 3:164–66, 4:103, 132,
134
Pinelli, Gian Vincenzo, 1:98
Piombo, Sebastiano del, 1:61
THE RENAISSANCE
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INDEX
Piracy, 3:166–67, 4:3, 89, 104, 135,
161
Pirckheimer family, 3:167–68
Pires, Tomé, 1:70
Pisa, 2:111, 3:12, 37–38, 55, 168–69
Pisa, Council of, 3:198
Pisanello, Antonio Pisano, II, 1:180,
2:7, 3:47, 169–70
Pisano, Nicola, 4:77
Pistols, 1:38, 4:160
Pitati, Bonifazio de’, 4:124
Pius II, Pope, 1:77, 165, 2:63, 3:126,
170, 4:53, 94
Pius IV, Pope, 3:170–71, 4:5
Pius V, Pope, 3:198, 4:6
Pius XI, Pope, 1:84
Pizan, Christine de, 2:78, 3:171–72,
4:178
Pizarro, Francisco, 2:144
Plague, 3:172–74 (illus.)
death, 2:5
Florence, 2:83
Christopher Marlowe, 3:52
Naples, 3:118
orphans and foundlings, 3:130
pilgrimage, 3:165
population, 3:202, 203
Portugal, 3:204
Seville, 4:80
sickness and disease, 4:91, 92
Siena, 4:94
slavery, 4:95
Spain, 4:101
Thomas Wolsey, 4:174
Plantin, Christophe, 1:90, 4:5
Plato
academies, 1:1
Heinrich Agrippa of Nettesheim,
1:9
Aristotle and Aristotelianism,
1:33–35
Leonardo Bruni, 1:116
Baldassare Castiglione, 1:132
Christian theology, 1:160
classical scholarship, 1:172, 174
Marsilio Ficino, 2:82
Greek émigrés, 2:135
ideas, spread of, 2:176
Italian political thought, 3:188
Jewish scholarship, 2:214
love and marriage, 3:29
man, dignity of, 3:46
mathematics, 3:55
metaphysics, 3:159
music, 3:101
myth, 3:115
numerology, 3:127
paganism, 3:134
THE RENAISSANCE
Pico della Mirandola, Giovanni,
3:161
religious thought, 4:26, 27, 28
scientific method, 4:73
translation, 4:131
Plato, Platonism, and Neoplatonism,
3:174–76
Platonic Academy, 1:1
Platonic love, 3:29
Plautus, 2:18, 26, 193, 4:85, 148
Playhouses. See Theaters
Playwrights, 2:21, 23–24, 24, 109,
3:207. See also specific playwrights
Pléiade, The, 2:108, 3:111, 4:48
Pletho, George Gemistus. See
Gemistus Plethon, George
Pliny the Elder, 4:65, 66
Pliny the Younger, 1:27, 169
Plotinus, 3:175
Plutarch, 1:91, 116, 2:155, 4:131
Pneumonic plague. See Plague
Poetry, 3:176–81 (illus.). See also specific poets
Austria, 1:77
Giovanni Boccaccio, 1:94
Tommaso Campanella, 1:126
Margaret Cavendish, 1:138
classical antiquity, 1:168
classical poetry, 3:176–78
Croatia and Dalmatia, 1:200
Elizabethan bawdy, 2:57
English, 2:54–55, 3:181–86 (illus.)
French literature, 2:107, 109
German literature, 2:122–23
Hebrew verse, 2:203
Hungary, 2:174
Ireland, 2:189
Italian language and literature,
2:193
literature, 3:23
love and marriage, 3:29
lyric poetry, 2:122–23, 193, 194,
4:115
Lorenzo de’ Medici, 3:64
Philipp Melanchthon, 3:70
Michelangelo, 3:75–76
myth, 3:116
Netherlands language/literature,
3:123–24
numerology, 3:127–28
Petrarch, 3:153–56
Angelo Poliziano, 3:192
Portuguese language and literature,
3:207–8
religious literature, 4:20
religious poetry, 3:178–79
rhetoric, 4:43
Scandinavian kingdoms, 4:61, 62
William Shakespeare, 4:84–85, 88
Philip Sidney, 4:93
sonnets. See Sonnets
Spanish language and literature,
4:104, 105–6
Edmund Spenser, 4:109
Lope Félix de Vega Carpio, 4:148
Venice, 4:152
François Villon, 4:158
Virgil, 4:161–62
Poland, 1:48–49, 2:33, 3:186–88
(illus.), 4:8, 53
Pole, Reginald, 2:50, 3:53
Political censorship, 1:142, 143
Political comedies, 2:171
Political organization, 2:208, 3:118,
4:114. See also Government, forms
of
Political thought, 1:187–88,
3:188–91 (illus.). See also Bodin,
Jean; Bruni, Leonardo;
Machiavelli, Niccoló; The Prince
(Machiavelli)
Poliziano, Angelo, 1:102, 172–74,
3:116, 191–92, 4:131, 145
Pollaiuolo, Antonio, 4:77
Polo, Gaspar Gil, 4:107
Polybius, 2:155
Polyphony, 3:91, 102, 105, 108,
110–12
Pomponazzi, Pietro, 3:43, 192–93,
4:27
Ponet, John, 2:132, 3:190
Pontormo, Jacopo Carucci da, 1:41,
57, 2:86
Poole, John, 3:51
“Poor of Christ,” 3:208, 209
“Popery,” 2:217
Popes and papacy, 3:193–98 (illus.)
(map). See also specific popes
Council of Trent, 4:137
councils, 1:193
Counter-Reformation, 1:136–37
court, 1:195
forgeries, 2:92–93
interpreting the Renaissance, 4:31
nepotism, 3:119
patronage, 3:148, 149
princes and princedoms, 3:215
professions, 4:6
reform, 1:157
religious orders, 4:24
revolts, 4:41
Rome, 4:45, 47
Coluccio Salutati, 4:56
Scotland, 4:75
transportation and communication, 4:134
221
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INDEX
Lorenzo Valla, 4:145
Venice, 4:151
Popular culture, 3:198–201 (illus.),
4:5, 35, 55
Popular sovereignty, 1:166
Population, 3:201–4
Porta, Giambattista della, 4:69
Portugal, 3:204–6 (illus.)
art, 1:67–69 (illus.), 3:40, 157
East Asia, 1:70–72
Christian missions, 3:81, 82, 83
Christopher Columbus, 1:181
conversos, 1:189
economy and trade, 2:35
exploration, 2:65–67
humanism, 2:41, 167–68
Jews, 2:208
language and literature, 3:207–8
Philip II, King of Spain, 3:156
piracy, 3:167
popes and papacy, 3:193
slavery, 4:95, 96
Spain, 4:98, 99, 101
Spanish Armada, 1:35
trade routes, 2:36
Portuguese Inquisition, 2:186, 211,
3:206
Postal service, 4:133–34
Pottery, 2:8, 4:119
Poverty and charity, 1:152, 2:3,
3:130–32 (illus.), 144, 208–11
(illus.), 4:6, 21, 23, 90–92
Prague, 1:95, 96, 2:146, 3:1, 211–12
Prayer books, 2:177, 3:166
Preaching and sermons, 2:14,
3:212–14, 4:20, 43, 57, 58, 106,
138
Pregnancy, 3:96–97, 4:79
“Prester John,” 1:4, 5
Primaticcio, Francesco, 4:78
Prince, The (Machiavelli), 1:100, 187,
3:37–40, 189, 191
Princes and princedoms, 1:194, 195,
196, 2:32, 3:189, 214–15, 4:40,
123, 143
Printing and publishing, 4:1–5
(illus.). See also Gutenberg, Johann;
Illumination
Amsterdam, 1:19–20
Bible, 1:90–91
books and manuscripts, 1:98–99
Elizabethan fiction, 2:56
forgeries, 2:92
German language, 2:121
growth of Renaissance printing,
4:3–4
humanism in Britain, 2:168
industry, 2:183
222
Jews, 2:213–14
Lyon, 3:36
Madrid, 3:40
manufacturing, 2:36
music, 3:100–101
religious literature, 4:20
Russia, 4:53
Scandinavian kingdoms, 4:60
Seville, 4:80
Switzerland, 4:114
technology, 4:119
travel and tourism, 4:134
Tudor dynasty, 2:47
Venice, 4:152
Printing press, 1:97–99, 160, 2:141,
175, 4:1–2 (illus.), 5, 60, 128. See
also Gutenberg, Johann
Problem plays, 2:22–23, 4:87–88
Procaccini, Ercole, 1:58
Professions, 4:5–6
Prostitutes, 3:36, 97, 4:80, 81–83
Protest, women and, 4:179–80
Protestant Reformation, 4:6–9 (illus.).
See also Luther, Martin
Augsburg, 1:74
Austria, 1:75, 76
Basel, 1:77, 82
Brandenburg, 1:110
Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, 1:118
John Calvin, 1:124
censorship, 1:141, 142
Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor,
1:148
Christianity, 1:158
cities and urban life, 1:164
clothing, 1:179
confraternities, 1:186
Council of Trent, 4:136–38
councils, 1:194
Counter-Reformation, 1:135, 158
Lucas Cranach, 1:196–97
defining the Renaissance era,
4:30–31
England, 2:48–49, 50
Desiderius Erasmus, 2:58, 59
espionage, 2:60
France, 2:97
French literature, 2:106
German literature, 2:122
Habsburg dynasty, 2:144
Henry VIII, King of England, 2:149
Holy Roman Empire, 2:160–61
humanist education, 2:42
humor, 2:172
Hungary, 2:174
Index of Prohibited Books, 2:179
interpreting the Renaissance, 4:33
John Knox, 3:3
law, 3:11
libraries, 3:17
Lyon, 3:37
Mary I, Queen of England, 3:53
Philipp Melanchthon, 3:69, 70
Thomas More, 3:95
music, vocal, 3:110
Peasants’ War, 3:152
pilgrimage, 3:166
Pirckheimer family, 3:168
Poland, 3:188
political thought, 3:190
Portugal, 3:206
printing and publishing, 4:4
Puritanism, 4:10–11
religious thought, 4:26
revolts, 4:41
Rouen, 4:49
Saxony, 4:59
Scandinavian kingdoms, 4:60
sculpture, 4:78
sexuality and gender, 4:83
Süleyman I, 4:113
Switzerland, 4:114
universities, 4:140
vernacular Bible, 1:88–90
Protestant Schmalkaldic League. See
Schmalkaldic League
Protestantism. See also Calvin, John;
Catholic Reformation and
Counter-Reformation; Luther,
Martin
art in Britain, 1:46
censorship, 1:142–43
Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor,
1:150
Christian missions, 3:84
clergy, 1:175–76
John Donne, 2:13, 14
Desiderius Erasmus, 2:59
Francis I, 2:104
Jane Grey, 2:135
Henry IV, King of France, 2:147
humanism in France, 2:166–67
humanism in Spain, 2:167
Hungary, 2:174
Jeanne d’Albret, 2:200
Laski family, 3:5
marriage, 3:31, 32
John Milton, 3:78
monarchy, 3:85
music, 3:101
Nürnberg, 3:128
Ottoman Empire, 3:134
Palatinate, 3:137
preaching and sermons, 3:212
representative institutions, 4:39
Roman Inquisition, 2:184
THE RENAISSANCE
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Scholasticism, 3:160
Spain, 4:101
Spanish Armada, 1:35
Spanish Inquisition, 2:186
sports, 4:111
Stuart dynasty, 4:111
Switzerland, 4:114
Thirty Years’ War, 4:123
Valois dynasty, 4:146, 147
women, 4:177
Protocol, court, 1:195–96
Ptolemy, 1:72, 172, 181, 190, 191,
2:111, 113, 119, 120, 4:9–10, 63
(illus.)
Public finance. See Taxation and public finance
Public health, 3:65, 173–74, 4:91, 174
Publishing. See Printing and publishing
Puerto Rico, 3:83
Punishment. See Crime and punishment
Puritans/Puritanism, 2:51, 4:10–11
Pythagoras, 1:9, 4:69, 70
Q
Queens and Queenship, 4:11–12
(illus.)
Quercia, Jacopo della, 1:58
Querelle des Femmes, 4:12–13, 178
Quintilian, 2:37–38, 42, 3:214, 4:44,
144
Qu’ran, 4:29
R
Rabbis, 2:206, 208, 211, 212
Rabelais, François, 2:106, 107, 108,
172, 180, 3:24, 37, 4:13–15
Radewyns, Florentius, 2:9
Raleigh, Sir Walter, 1:196, 2:68, 167
Ramelli, Agostino, 4:119
Ramus, Petrus, 3:26–27, 4:15–17, 44,
74
Ramusio, Giovanni Battista, 2:120
Rape, 4:81, 159, 160
Raphael, 4:17–19 (illus.)
anatomy, 1:20
architecture, 1:26
art, 1:41
Federico Barocci, 1:80
Fra Bartolommeo della Porta, 1:82
Carracci family, 1:131
Baldassare Castiglione, 1:132
Fra Giocondo, 2:126
influence of the Renaissance, 4:34
Italy, 1:55, 58, 60
Pope Julius II, 2:219
THE RENAISSANCE
Pope Leo X, 3:13
Mannerism, 1:42
Netherlands, 1:65
Parmigianino, 3:145
patronage, 3:149
Perugino, 3:152
Renaissance images of antiquity,
1:170
Rome, 1:61
School of Athens, 1:169
Spain and Portugal, 1:68
Titian, 4:127
Virgil, 4:162
Rashid al-Din, 2:192
Realism, 1:112, 127, 4:77, 78
Reality, nature of, 3:175–76
Reason, 1:160, 4:27. See also Logic
Reconquest, 4:98, 100, 102
Recorde, Robert, 3:55
Reformation. See Catholic
Reformation and CounterReformation; Protestant
Reformation
Reformation, English, 2:151
Reformation Parliament, 2:150
Reisch, Gregorius, 4:68
Relics, 2:7, 4:151
Relief (aid), 3:210
Relief (bas-relief), 1:139, 2:124, 201,
4:19, 76
Religion. See also Bible; Mysticism;
specific religions
Africa, 1:4–5
Amsterdam, 1:19
art in Germany, 1:53, 54
Austria, 1:75–76
censorship, 1:142–43
cities and urban life, 1:164
clergy, 1:174–76
Council of Trent, 4:136–38
defining the Renaissance era, 4:30
John Donne, 2:14–15
Desiderius Erasmus, 2:58–59
exploration, 2:65
interpreting the Renaissance, 4:31,
33
libraries, 3:17–18
music, 3:91, 99, 101, 108–10,
137–38, 195
nation-state, 3:118
Netherlands, 3:121–22
paganism, 3:134
pilgrimage, 3:164–66, 4:103, 132,
134
popular culture, 3:199
preaching and sermons, 3:212–14
printing and publishing, 4:4–5
private life, 2:3
religious drama, 2:15–16
revolts, 4:41, 42
Russia, 4:53, 55
Scotland, 4:76
sculpture, 4:78
sexuality and gender, 4:80, 81, 82
Spanish America, 1:18
Spanish language and literature,
4:106
Stuart dynasty, 4:111
Thirty Years’ War, 4:123
travel and tourism, 4:134
utopias, 4:144
Venice, 4:151
Religious censorship, 1:142–43, 143
Religious drama, 2:15–16, 4:3
Religious literature, 4:19–21
Religious orders, 4:21–25 (illus.)
Americas, 1:18
clergy, 1:175
confraternities, 1:185
Moriscos, 3:96
popes and cardinals, 3:195
poverty and charity, 3:209
preaching and sermons, 3:212
social status, 4:96
Teresa of Ávila, 4:120
Lorenzo Valla, 4:144–56
women, 4:176
Religious poetry, 2:203, 3:178–79
Religious thought, 4:25–29 (illus.)
Rembrandt von Rijn, 1:19, 4:127
Renaissance, influence and interpretations of the, 4:29–36 (illus.)
René of Anjou, 4:129
Representative institutions, 3:85,
4:36–40 (illus.), 116
Republican government, 2:131, 195,
4:36–37, 56, 59, 94, 114, 149
Resende, Garcia de, 3:207–8
Reuchlin, Johann, 1:159, 2:152
Revolts, 4:40–42 (illus.), 100
Rheticus, Georg, 1:190, 3:57
Rhetoric, 4:42–45
Rudolf Agricola, 1:6
Council of Trent, 4:138
education, 2:38
English writing style, 2:54
interpreting the Renaissance, 4:33
Petrarch, 2:164
Pico della Mirandola, Giovanni,
3:161
Petrus Ramus, 4:16
Scotland, 4:75
translation, 4:131
universities, 4:142
Lorenzo Valla, 4:144–56
Pier Paolo Vergerio, 4:152
223
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Ricci, Matteo, 3:84, 4:45
Riccio, David, 3:54
Richard II, King of England, 4:86
Richard III, King of England, 1:91,
2:148, 153, 3:93
Richelieu, Cardinal, 1:151, 4:123
Rinuccini, Ottavio, 3:129
Riots, 4:161, 179–80
Risner, Friedrich, 4:69
Robert II, King of Scotland, 4:111
Robert of Clermont, 1:104
Robert the Wise, 3:117
Robertsbridge Fragment, 3:106
Robinson, John, 3:11
Robustim Jacopo. See Tintoretto
Roches, Madeleine and Catherine
des, 2:78
Rojas, Fernando de, 4:107
Rolin, Nicolas, 3:149
Roman Catholic Church, 1:156–58.
See also Catholic … ; popes and
papacy; specific popes
Leon Battista Alberti, 1:9–10
Americas, 1:18
Amsterdam, 1:19
astronomy, 1:73
Bavaria, 1:83
House of Borgia, 1:100
Bourbon dynasty, 2:100
Tycho Brahe, 1:107
Brandenburg, 1:110
calendars, 1:123–24
Tommaso Campanella, 1:126–27
celibacy, 3:32
censorship, 1:142–43
Christian missions, 3:81–84
Christina of Sweden, 1:161–62
clergy, 1:174–75
confraternities. See Confraternities
Nicolaus Copernicus, 1:190
councils, 1:192–94. See also specific
councils, e.g., Trent, Council of
diplomacy, 2:10
Spanish drama, 2:27
Elizabeth I, 2:45
Desiderius Erasmus, 2:59
Ferdinand of Aragon, 2:80
France, 2:97
French Church, 2:102
House of Gonzaga, 2:130
Henry VIII, King of England,
2:149, 150
humanist education, 2:40–41
Ignatius Loyola, 2:176–77
Index of Prohibited Books. See
Index of Prohibited Books
Inquisition. See Inquisition
224
Italian language and literature,
2:194
Jews and, 2:209, 210
Latin language/literature, 3:8
libraries, 3:17
London, 3:27
Mantua, 3:47
marriage, 3:32
Mary I, Queen of England, 3:52
House of Medici, 3:61
Middle Ages, 3:76
Thomas More, 3:92, 95
music, 3:108
Peasants’ War, 3:152
Pico della Mirandola, Giovanni,
3:161
Pirckheimer family, 3:167
preaching and sermons, 3:212
printing and publishing, 4:4, 5
professions, 4:6
François Rabelais, 4:14
religious censorship, 1:142–43
religious orders, 4:21–25
religious thought, 4:25, 26
representative institutions, 4:39
revolts, 4:41
Rome, 4:45
Rudolf II, 4:53
sexuality and gender, 4:81
Spain, 4:101–2
Spanish Armada, 1:35
Stuart dynasty, 4:111
Switzerland, 4:114
universities, 4:142
Valois dynasty, 4:147
Pier Paolo Vergerio, 4:152
women, 4:176–77
Roman civil law, 2:170
Roman Curia, 3:196–97
Roman Empire, 3:76, 4:30
Roman Inquisition, 1:84, 2:184, 210,
3:193, 4:23
Roman law, 1:198, 2:197, 3:8, 10, 11,
4:95, 141
Romances, 2:56–57, 193, 194, 3:24,
4:14, 56, 57, 85, 88, 106–7, 108–9,
109
Romano, Antoniazzo, 1:39
Romano, Gian Cristoforo, 1:108
Romano, Giulio, 2:172
Rome, 4:45–47 (map)
ancient, 4:36–37, 47, 83. See also
Classical antiquity
art, 1:41, 60–61
Donato Bramante, 1:108–10
Caravaggio, 1:127
Carracci family, 1:131
classical antiquity, 1:168, 169
El Greco, 2:43
festivals, 2:74–75
Italy, 2:198
Jews, 2:208
Pope Leo X, 3:12
Leonardo da Vinci, 3:15
Martin Luther, 3:33
Michelangelo, 3:74
music, 3:101
Pope Nicholas V, 3:124
palaces and townhouses, 3:135
Parmigianino, 3:145
Baldassare Peruzzi, 3:153
popes and papacy, 3:193
printing and publishing, 4:4
Raphael, 4:18
sack of, 1:148, 150, 3:145, 4:47,
168
Spain, 4:104
travel and tourism, 4:135
Ronsard, Pierre de, 1:52, 2:106, 107,
108, 3:116, 4:48–49
Roper, William, 1:91–92
Rose Theater, 4:122
Rossetti, Biagio, 2:81
Rossi, Properzia de’, 1:41, 97
Rossi, Salamone, 2:213
Rouen, 4:49
Royal Society of London, 1:1
Rubens, Peter Paul, 1:30, 46, 81, 112,
113, 119, 146, 3:49, 146, 4:49–52
(illus.), 127
Rublev, Andrei, 4:53
Rucellai, Giovanni, 1:11
Rudolf I, King of Germany, 1:75, 76,
2:142
Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor (King
of Hungary and Bohemia), 1:47,
49, 96, 112, 2:145–46, 3:1, 211,
4:52–53, 156
Rugerius, Ludovicus, 3:26
Rupert I, Elector of Palatinate, 3:137
Rural life, 3:146, 4:95, 97, 102
Ruskin, John, 4:33
Russia, 4:53–55 (map)
Russian Orthodox Church, 1:159
Ruzzante, 2:194
S
Sachs, Hans, 2:122, 123
Sackville, Thomas, Earl of Dorset,
3:183
Sacred music, 3:91, 99, 101, 108–10,
137–38, 195
St. Albans. See Bacon, Francis
St. Augustine. See Augustine of Hippo
THE RENAISSANCE
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St. Bartholomew’s Day massacre,
1:104, 134, 2:98, 108, 4:16, 41, 93,
165, 169
St. Sulpice seminary, 4:24
Saint-André family, 2:98
Salcedo, Felipe de, 2:68
Sale, Francis de, 1:137
Salons, 4:55, 178–79
Salutati, Coluccio, 1:116, 2:88,
164–65, 177, 181, 3:188–89, 4:37,
56, 180
Salvation, 1:136, 186, 3:45, 4:137
Sannazaro, Jacopo, 2:165, 193,
4:56–57, 106
Sansovino, Jacopo, 3:139, 4:78
Santa Cruz, Marquis of, 1:35, 36
Santi, Giovanni, 4:17
Santillana, Marquis de, 4:105
Santo Domingo, 1:192
Santorio Santorio, 4:73 (illus.)
Sanzio, Raphael. See Raphael
Saraca, Elias de, 2:28
Sarto, Andrea del, 1:57
Sassetta (Stefano di Giovanni),
1:57–58
Satire, 2:13, 25, 57, 171, 3:24, 4:147
Savery, Roelant, 1:96
Savonarola, Girolamo, 1:179, 2:85,
3:161, 4:37, 57–59 (illus.)
Saxo (historian), 4:60
Saxony, 1:196, 4:59–60
Scamozzi, Vincenzo, 4:121
Scandinavian kingdoms, 3:85, 4:39,
60–62 (map)
Scappi, Bartolomeo, 2:91
Scève, Maurice, 2:107
Schedel, Hartmann, 3:129
Schmalkaldic League, 1:149, 2:160,
4:59
Scholarship
academies, 1:1, 45, 130, 141
Bible, 1:87
books and manuscripts, 1:97–99
Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, 1:118
classical antiquity. See Classical
antiquity
classical scholarship. See Classical
scholarship
defining the Renaissance era, 4:30
Devotio Moderna, 2:9
English language, 2:53
exploration, 2:69
Francis I, 2:105
Hebrew language and literature,
2:202, 204
historians. See Historians
humanism. See Humanism
Hungary, 2:173
THE RENAISSANCE
influence of the Renaissance,
4:33–34
interpreting the Renaissance, 4:33
Islam, 2:191
Jews, 2:214–15
Ben Jonson, 2:216
Leiden, 3:11–12
libraries. See Libraries
mathematics. See Mathematics
Cosimo de’ Medici, 3:63
Lorenzo de’ Medici, 3:64
Middle Ages, 3:76
John Milton, 3:77–78
paganism, 3:134
philosophy. See Philosophy
Poland, 3:187
Petrus Ramus, 4:15–17
religious thought, 4:25, 26, 27
rhetoric, 4:42–43, 43, 44
Coluccio Salutati, 4:56
Scandinavian kingdoms, 4:60
science. See Science
Spain, 4:104
translation, 4:130–32
universities. See Universities
Vienna, 4:157
witchcraft, 4:172
women, 4:177–78
Scholasticism, 1:160, 2:58, 3:160,
4:25, 28, 59, 142
Schütz, Heinrich, 4:62
Science, 4:62–72 (illus.), 65. See also
specific branches of science; specific
scientists
Aristotle, 1:33, 34
Bohemia, 1:96
chemistry, 4:70–72
influence of the Renaissance,
4:34–35
interpreting the Renaissance, 4:32
Islam, 2:191
Italian language and literature,
2:194
Leonardo da Vinci, 3:16
libraries, 3:18
the meaning of science, 4:63–64
mining and metallurgy, 3:81
natural sciences, 4:64–67 (illus.)
physics, 4:67–70
Ptolemy, 4:9–10
rhetoric, 4:43
technology, 4:119
utopias, 4:144
Scientific instruments, 1:176, 4:69,
72–73 (illus.)
Scientific method, 2:110, 111, 147,
4:64, 73–74
Scotland, 2:41, 51, 169, 218, 4:6, 8,
74–76. See also Stuart dynasty
Scribes, 1:98, 172, 2:177, 210, 4:180
Scripture. See Bible
Sculpture, 1:56, 66, 67, 4:76–78
(illus.), 94, 128. See also specific
sculptors
Sebastião, King of Portugal, 1:125,
3:206
Second Bishops’ War, 1:147
Second Reformation, 1:110
Second Vatican Council, 1:161
Selim I, Ottoman Sultan, 4:113
Seneca, 2:26, 167, 3:7
Sennert, Daniel, 4:72
Serfs, 2:33, 161, 3:151, 4:97
Serlio, Sebastiano, 1:28, 4:121
Sermons. See Preaching and sermons
Servants, 1:153, 4:79, 95–96, 98
Seville, 4:79–80, 96, 102 (illus.), 104,
121
Sex, 3:29–31
Sexuality and gender, 4:80–83 (illus.),
136
Seymour, Edward, Duke of Somerset,
2:43, 49
Seymour, Jane, 2:49, 151
Seyssel, Claude de, 3:190
Sforza, Ascanio, Cardinal, 1:108
Sforza, Bianca Maria, 2:143
Sforza, Francesco, 2:197, 3:15, 77
Sforza, Gian Galeazzo, Duke of Milan,
1:108
Sforza, Ludovico, Duke of Milan,
1:31, 108, 3:14–15
Sforza, Maximilian, 2:104
Sforza family, 3:117, 215
Shakespeare, John, 4:83
Shakespeare, William, 4:83–89 (illus.)
Giovanni Boccaccio, 1:93, 94
classical poetry, 3:178
Elizabethan literature, 2:20, 57,
3:184, 185
English poetic styles, 2:55
golden age, 2:51
heraldry, 2:152
history play, 2:22
humanism in Britain, 2:169
humor, 2:171
influence of the Renaissance, 4:35
Italian language and literature,
2:193
Ben Jonson, 2:216
Latin language/literature, 3:7
London, 3:27
myth, 3:117
nation-state, 3:118
pastoral, 3:146
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Petrarch, 3:155
popular culture, 3:201
problem plays, 2:22–23
Sicily, 4:90
sonnets, 3:180–81
Edmund Spenser, 4:107
theaters, 4:122
translation, 4:131
Shaw, George Bernard, 4:89
Ships and shipbuilding, 4:89–90
(illus.), 133, 151
Shute, John, 2:43
Sicily, 2:198, 208, 4:23, 90, 99
Sickness and disease, 2:5, 4:91–92
(illus.), 135. See also Plague
Siculo, Marineo, 4:90
Sidney, Mary, 4:94
Sidney, Philip, 1:155, 2:47, 51, 57,
3:23, 24, 146, 178, 180, 183, 184,
4:92–94, 108, 134–35
Sidonia, Medina, 1:36
Siena, 1:57–58, 2:13, 87, 103, 125,
131, 3:153, 4:94, 168
Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor,
1:110, 3:128, 4:59, 152
Sigismund, John, 1:110
Sigismund I, King of Poland, 1:47, 49
Sigismund III, King of Poland, 3:187
Signorelli, Luca, 1:60
Silk industry, 1:97, 177, 2:87, 182,
3:36, 68
Siloé, Gil de, 1:67
Silver, 2:201, 3:89
Singing. See Music
Sisters and Brethren of the Common
Life, 4:24
Sisters of the Common Life, 2:9
Sistine Chapel, 1:102, 2:219, 3:73–75,
153, 4:4, 18
Sixtus IV, Pope, 2:179, 185, 219, 3:64,
119, 153, 193, 4:77
Sixtus V, Pope, 1:136, 3:195
Sizgoric, Juraj, 1:200
Skelton, John, 3:182
Slavery, 1:5, 183, 2:65, 69, 3:4, 81, 83,
133, 194, 4:95–96 (illus.), 98
Sluter, Claus, 4:78
Smith, Thomas, 3:190
Smiths, 4:118–19
Social classes
aristocracy. See Aristocracy
bourgeoisie, 1:105–6
celibacy and virginity, 3:32
chivalry, 1:154
commoners, 4:96–98
daily life, 2:1–3
dance, 2:3, 4
festivals, 2:74
226
Florence, 2:87–88
honor, 2:161–62
Jews, 2:207–9
literacy, 3:20
marriage, 3:30–31
mothers, 3:98
orphans and foundlings, 1:152,
3:130–32 (illus.)
peasantry. See Peasantry
poverty and charity. See Poverty
and charity
representative institutions, 4:36,
37
sickness and disease, 4:91–92
social status, 4:96
Spain, 4:102
sports, 4:109, 110
sumptuary laws, 3:35–36
travel and tourism, 4:134
Venice, 4:150, 151
witchcraft, 4:173
women, 4:174, 175, 176
Social status, 2:75–76, 4:32, 79, 81,
91, 95, 96–98, 128
Society of Jesus. See Jesuits
Soderini, Piero, 2:85, 3:38
Solar system, 1:107, 142, 189–91,
2:62, 111–13, 112, 113, 3:1, 3, 57,
4:9–10
Somer, Paul van, 4:111
Somerset, Duke of. See Seymour,
Edward, Duke of Somerset
Sommo, Judah, 2:204
Sonnets, 3:179–81
John Donne, 2:14
Luis de Góngora y Argote, 2:130
Hebrew verse, 2:203
myth, 3:116
Netherlands language/literature,
3:123
Petrarch, 3:155
Ronsard, Pierre de, 4:48
William Shakespeare, 4:88
Philip Sidney, 4:94
Spanish language and literature,
4:105, 106
Edmund Spenser, 4:109
Lope Félix de Vega Carpio, 4:148
Sorel, Charles, 2:109
Soto, Domingo de, 3:26, 4:68
soul, human, 3:160, 176, 4:27
South America, 3:41
Southampton, Earl of, 4:85
Spain, 4:98–104 (map) (illus.)
anti-Semitism, 1:24
art, 1:67–69 (illus.), 3:40, 157,
4:104. See also El Greco
East Asia, 1:71
Bourbon dynasty, 2:100
Christian missions in the
Americas, 3:82, 83
clothing styles, 1:178
colonization of America, 1:17–18
Christopher Columbus, 1:181
conversos, 1:189
dance, 2:5
diplomacy, 2:9–10
Francis Drake, 2:15
drama, 2:27–28, 4:104, 107
dynastic rivalry, 2:33
economy and trade, 2:35
Elizabeth I, 2:46
England, 2:52
espionage, 2:60
exploration, 2:67–68
House of Farnese, 2:78
Francis I, 2:104
Genoa, 2:117
golden age, 2:51
Hebrew literature, 2:202
heraldry, 2:153
historians, 2:167
humanism in, 2:167
humanist education, 2:41
illumination, 2:179
Islam, 2:191
Italy, 2:195
James I, 2:199
Jews, 2:208, 209
Ladino literature, 2:204
language and literature, 4:104–7
(illus.)
law, 3:10–11
Pope Leo X, 3:12
Lisbon, 3:19
literacy, 3:20
Ferdinand Magellan, 3:41
Margaret of Austria, 3:48
Maximilian I, 3:59
mercantilism, 3:71
monarchy, 3:85
music, 3:105, 112, 113
Naples, 3:117
Netherlands, 3:121, 122
Netherlands language/literature,
3:122
piracy, 3:167
popes and papacy, 3:193
Portugal, 3:206
printing and publishing, 4:2
queens and queenship, 4:12
religious thought, 4:28
representative institutions, 4:38
revolts, 4:41–42
Peter Paul Rubens, 4:50–52
sculpture, 4:78
THE RENAISSANCE
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INDEX
sexuality and gender, 4:82
Sicily, 4:90
slavery, 4:95, 96
social status, 4:97
theaters, 4:121
trade goods, 2:37
transportation and communication, 4:133
Spanish America, 4:23
Spanish Armada. See Armada, Spanish
Spanish Inquisition, 2:185–86
anti-Semitism, 1:24
Tommaso Campanella, 1:126
conversos, 1:189
Desiderius Erasmus, 2:59
Ferdinand of Aragon, 2:80
Index of Prohibited Books, 2:180
Isabella of Castile, 2:190
monarchy, 3:85
Philip II, King of Spain, 3:156
popes and papacy, 3:193
Seville, 4:80
Spain, 4:99, 101
Spanish language and literature,
4:106
Torquato Tasso, 4:114
Spanish language and literature,
4:104–7 (illus.). See also specific
authors
Spanish Netherlands, 3:122
Speaking/speeches. See Orators
Spenser, Edmund, 4:107–9
allegory, 3:24
Giovanni Boccaccio, 1:93
chivalry, 1:155
Elizabeth I, 2:47
Elizabethan literature, 2:57,
3:183–84
English literary patronage, 3:150
English poetic styles, 2:54, 55
Latin language/literature, 3:7
myth, 3:117
numerology, 3:127–28
pastoral, 3:146
Petrarch, 3:155
religious poetry, 3:178
romances, 3:24
sonnets, 3:180
Spenserian poets, 3:186
women, 4:177
Spice Islands, 1:71, 2:67, 3:41
Spices/spice trade, 2:36, 90, 3:68
Spiegel, Hendrick Laurensz, 3:123
Spies. See Espionage
Sports, 4:109–11 (illus.), 129, 161
Spurs, Battle of the, 2:49
Staff weapons, 1:37–38
Stampa, Gaspara, 2:194, 3:155, 4:152
THE RENAISSANCE
Starkey, Thomas, 3:190
States General, 1:188
Stewart, Henry, Lord Darnley, 3:54
Sthen, Hans Christensen, 4:61
Stiernhielm, Georg, 4:62
Stoics
funerals, 2:6
ghetto, 2:124
Guise-Lorraine family, 2:140
Henry IV, King of France, 2:148
Ignatius Loyola, 2:176
Ireland, 2:188, 189
Ben Jonson, 2:216, 217
Laski family, 3:5
libraries, 3:17
Martin Luther, 3:32–33
marriage, 3:31
Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots, 3:54
music, 3:101
Poland, 3:188
Pietro Pomponazzi, 3:192
Scholasticism, 3:160
Stonehenge, 2:215
Strabo, 2:63
Strickland, Walter, 4:10
Strozzi, Alessandra Macinghi, 4:111
Stuart dynasty, 2:51, 198, 199, 215,
3:28, 4:74–75, 75, 111–13 (illus.)
Süleyman I, Ottoman Emperor, 2:79,
98, 3:132, 4:113
Sumptuary laws, 1:106, 177, 178,
3:35–36
Supreme Magistrate, 2:86–87
Surgeons/surgery, 3:65, 4:92
Surgères, Hélène de, 4:48
Sweden, 2:74, 3:187, 4:7, 39, 41,
60–61
Swiss Confederation, 3:118, 4:113
Swiss War of 1499, 4:113
Switzerland, 1:172, 4:3, 4, 5, 7–8, 42,
113–14
Symbolism, 3:127. See also Allegory
Syphilis, 3:67, 4:82, 91
T
Tacitus, 1:172, 2:155, 167
Talmud, 2:213
Tamerlane, 1:186, 2:191
Tapestry, 1:65, 119, 2:7, 4:51–52
Tarabotti, Arcangela, 2:79
Tarello, Camillo, 1:7
Tassi, Agostino, 2:118
Tasso, Bernardo, 4:106, 114
Tasso, Torquato, 1:155, 2:194, 3:24,
4:114–15, 132, 148
Taxation and public finance, 2:62,
104, 148, 189, 209, 3:19, 85–86,
86, 201, 202, 204, 4:38, 39, 40, 41,
116–17, 174
Teachers, 4:5, 6, 15–16. See also
Education
Teatro Olimpico, 4:121 (illus.)
Technology, 4:1, 35, 117–20 (illus.),
166
Telescope, 1:73, 2:112, 4:69, 72, 119
Tennyson, Alfred, Lord, 4:109
Terence, 2:18, 26, 193, 4:148
Teresa of Ávila, 1:137, 4:21, 106, 120
Teutonic Knights, 1:79
Textbooks, 2:39–40, 4:2, 44, 65, 71,
105
Textiles/textile industry, 1:177, 2:7–8,
87, 181–82, 4:118
Theater. See Drama
Theaters, 4:120–22 (illus.)
Theology. See also Religious thought;
specific theologians
anatomy, 1:20
astronomy, 1:73
Christian, 1:160–61
classical scholarship, 1:174
magical practices, 3:42
Pope Nicholas V, 3:125
Paracelsus, 3:140
philosophy, 3:157
Pico della Mirandola, Giovanni,
3:162
professions, 4:6
Protestant Reformation, 4:6–9
Puritanism, 4:10–11
religious thought, 4:25–29
sexuality and gender, 4:80
Spanish language and literature,
4:106
universities, 4:138, 140, 141
Thirty Years’ War, 4:123
Bohemia, 1:96
Brandenburg, 1:111
Christina of Sweden, 1:161
dynastic rivalry, 2:33
England, 2:52
Habsburg dynasty, 2:146
humanism in Germany and the
Netherlands, 2:168
Ireland, 2:189
James I, 2:199
Jews, 2:209
Palatinate, 3:137
Prague, 3:211–12
Rudolf II, 4:53
Saxony, 4:60
Scandinavian kingdoms, 4:62
warfare, 4:165
Thomas á Kempis, 2:8, 4:20, 27 (illus.)
Thomas Christians, 3:83
227
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INDEX
Thomessøn, Hans, 4:61
Tintoretto, 1:62, 4:124, 152, 153
Titian, 4:125–27 (illus.)
Federico Barocci, 1:80
Giovanni Bellini, 1:86
Carracci family, 1:130
Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor,
1:150
Francis I, 2:105
Habsburg dynasty, 2:144, 145
myth, 3:116
Renaissance images of antiquity,
1:171
Spain and Portugal, 1:68
Tintoretto, 4:124
Venice, 1:62–63, 4:152
Paolo Veronese, 4:153
Andreas Vesalius, 4:155
women’s images, 4:179
Toledo, 1:67, 189, 2:43, 44, 4:127–28
Toletus, Franciscus, 3:26
Tombs, 4:128–29
Torah, 1:90, 2:212, 4:27, 28
Tordesillas, Treaty of, 3:206
Torelli, Ludovica, 4:24
Torquemada, Tomás de, 2:185
Torres Naharro, Bartolomé de, 2:27
Torture, 2:184, 4:59
Tottel, Richard, 3:180, 182–83
Tournaments, 1:37, 4:109, 129–30
(illus.)
Townhouses. See Palaces and townhouses
Trade. See also Economy and trade
Africa, 1:5
Antwerp, 1:25
East Asia, 1:70–72
banking, 2:36
clothing, 1:177
Christopher Columbus, 1:181
Dubrovnik, 2:28
fairs, 2:73–74
Jews, 2:209
Lisbon, 3:19
Ottoman Empire, 3:134
Portugal, 3:206
Scotland, 4:74
Seville, 4:79
ships and shipbuilding, 4:89
slavery, 4:96
Switzerland, 4:114
in tapestries, 1:65
travel and tourism, 4:134
urban economy, 1:165
Venice, 4:148
Vienna, 4:156
woodwork in the Netherlands,
1:66
228
Tragedy, 2:16–18, 26, 4:87
Tragicomedy, 2:24, 26–27, 4:147
Translation, 4:130–32
Transportation and communication,
4:132–34 (illus.). See also Ships
and shipbuilding
Travel and tourism, 4:66–67, 132–33,
134–36 (illus.)
Trent, Council of, 1:135, 136, 149,
193, 2:29, 79, 3:119, 157, 170,
171, 196, 198, 212, 4:24, 25,
136–38
Tripoli, 3:69
Trissino, Giorgio, 3:138, 139, 148
Tudor, Margaret, 3:53, 4:75
Tudor family and dynasty, 1:156, 195,
2:47, 48, 148
Turkey, 2:191. See also Ottoman
Empire; Ottoman Turks
Tuscany, 2:127, 162, 194, 3:64, 168
Twelve Years’ Truce, 3:122
Tyndale, William, 1:89
Tyrone, Earl of, 2:189
U
Udall, Nicolas, 2:171
Umbria, 1:60, 2:219
Universities, 1:98, 2:197, 4:138–43
(map) (illus.)
Aberdeen, 4:75
Cambridge, 4:121
Cracow, 3:186, 187
defining the Renaissance era, 4:30
Heidelberg, 3:69, 137
influence of the Renaissance, 4:34
Leiden, 4:5
Marburg, 4:71
Oxford, 4:68, 93, 121, 141–42
Padua, 4:68, 142–43
Paris, 2:179, 4:14, 16, 23, 140–42
Parma, 2:78
printing and publishing, 4:1
professions, 4:56
Salamanca, 4:104, 106
Saxony, 4:59
science, 4:66
Scotland, 4:75
Sicily, 4:90
Siena, 4:94
Switzerland, 4:114
Toledo, 4:128
Turin, 3:163
Vienna, 4:157
Wittenburg, 3:32, 33, 70, 4:59
Urban VIII, Pope, 1:127, 2:113
Urban life. See Cities and urban life
Urban planning, 1:28, 165, 2:81, 4:47
Urbino, 1:80, 131, 195, 4:143
Urbino, Duke of, 2:103
Urdaneta, Andrés de, 2:68
Utopia (Thomas More), 3:93–95, 190
Utopias, 4:143–44
V
Valignano, Alessandro, 3:84
Valla, Lorenzo, 1:74, 87, 173, 174,
2:92–93, 155, 165, 170, 3:6, 26,
4:16, 25–26, 131, 144–45
Valois dynasty, 2:32–33, 97, 103, 117,
144, 3:47, 4:145–47 (illus.)
Van Dyck, Anthony, 1:46, 146
Van Schurman, Anna Maria, 4:13
Vannucci, Pietro. See Perugino
Vasa dynasty, 3:187
Vasari, Giorgio, 4:31 (illus.)
biography, 1:91
Giotto di Bondone, 2:129
Donato Bramante, 1:108
Carracci family, 1:130
defining the Renaissance era, 4:30
Donatello, 2:12
Jan van Eyck, 2:71
Giorgione da Castelfranco, 2:126,
127
Hugo van der Goes, 2:129
illumination, 2:179
Italy, 1:55, 60
Leonardo da Vinci, 3:15
Parmigianino, 3:145
Piero della Francesca, 3:164
Pisa, 3:169
Raphael, 4:17, 19
Renaissance images of antiquity,
1:170
sculpture, 4:77
Titian, 4:127
Vaughan, Henry, 3:179
Vecellio, Tiziano. See Titian
Vedel, Anders Sørensen, 4:61
Veen, Otto van, 4:50
Vega, Garcilaso de la, 4:105–6
Vega Carpio, Lope Félix de, 1:81, 94,
144, 2:27, 3:40, 4:105 (illus.), 107,
147–48
Velázquez, Diego, 1:192, 4:52, 127
Veneziano, Paolo, 1:62
Venice, 4:148–52 (map) (illus.)
anti-Semitism in, 1:24
art, 1:62–63
Vittore Carpaccio, 1:129
census, 3:202
city-states, 1:166, 167, 168
coins, 1:180
contract fighters, 3:73
THE RENAISSANCE
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Croatia and Dalmatia, 1:199–200
Dubrovnik, 2:28
Albrecht Dürer, 2:31
espionage, 2:60
Galileo Galilei, 2:111
Genoa, 2:116
ghetto, 2:124
Fra Giocondo, 2:126
illumination, 2:178
Italy, 2:195, 198
literacy, 3:20
manufacturing, 2:36
Mediterranean Sea, 3:68–69
music, 3:100
oligarchy, 2:131
palaces and townhouses, 3:135,
136
piracy, 3:167
Pisanello, 3:169
printing and publishing, 4:2–4
representative institutions, 4:37
Girolamo Savonarola, 4:58
technology, 4:119
Titian, 4:125
trade routes, 2:36
transportation and communication, 4:133
University of Padua, 4:142
Paolo Veronese, 4:153
violence, 4:161
Venne, Adriaen van de, 1:136
Verantius, Antonius and Faustus,
2:174
Vere, Edward de, 4:88
Vergerio, Pier Paolo, 2:38, 168, 4:143,
152
Veronese, Paolo, 1:62, 130, 4:124,
153 (illus.)
Verrazano, Giovanni de, 2:68
Verrocchio, Andrea del, 3:13, 64,
4:154
Verulam, Baron. See Bacon, Francis
Verville, Béroalde de, 2:172
Vesalius, Andreas, 1:21, 2:111, 4:142,
154–55
Vicente, Gil, 3:207
Vienna, 1:77, 141, 196, 2:145,
3:59–60, 132, 4:155–57 (illus.)
Viète, François, 3:56
Vignola, Giacomo Barozzi da,
4:157–58
Villas. See Châteaus and villas
Villiers, George, 1:146
Villon, François, 4:158
Vincent de Paul, 4:24
Violence, 4:40–41, 47, 49, 76, 93, 94,
111, 135, 158–61 (illus.)
THE RENAISSANCE
Virgil, 1:125, 168, 2:193, 3:6, 7, 50,
70, 115, 4:48, 57, 106, 161–62
Virginity, 3:32, 4:81
Visconti, Giangaleazzo, 3:168, 215
Visconti family, 2:178, 3:77
Visscher, Anna and Maria
Tesselschade, 3:124
Vitéz, Johannes, 2:173
Vitruvius, 1:26, 28, 39–40, 41, 42,
109, 2:30, 126, 3:138
Vittorino da Feltre, 2:39, 175, 3:47,
4:162–63
Vivaldi, Antonio, 1:30
Vivarini family, 1:62
Vives, Juan Luis, 1:75, 2:167, 4:13,
16, 163
Vladislav II Jagiello, King of Hungary
and Bohemia, 1:47, 49, 95, 3:211
Vocal music, 3:107–12 (illus.). See
also Madrigals; Opera
Voigt, Georg, 4:32
Voltaire, 4:32
Vondel, Joost van den, 3:123, 124
Vossius, Gerhard Johann, 4:44
Voting rights, 2:131
Vulgate, 1:87–91, 156, 4:25, 137
W
Waldvogel, Procopius, 4:1
Walsingham, Francis, 2:45, 60
Walther, Barnard, 4:72
Walton, Izaak, 1:92
Ward, Mary, 4:24
Warfare, 4:163–67 (illus.). See also
Mercenaries
arms and armor, 1:36–38 (illus.)
fortifications, 1:162, 166, 2:93–95
(illus.)
gender and class, 2:1
industry, 2:182–83
Reformation in England, 2:49
revolts, 4:40–41
Rome, 4:47
Rouen, 4:49
Russia, 4:53
Girolamo Savonarola, 4:58
ships and shipbuilding, 4:89
Siena, 4:94
slavery, 4:95
Spain, 4:98, 101
Stuart dynasty, 4:111
Süleyman I, 4:113
Switzerland, 4:113
Thirty Years’ War, 4:123
transportation and communication, 4:133
violence, 4:161
Wars of Italy, 2:138, 155, 198, 4:94,
113, 164–65, 167–68
Wars of Religion, 1:52, 104, 133,
2:106, 108, 147–48, 3:37, 92, 145,
4:8, 16, 165, 168–70, 180
Wars of the Roses, 2:47, 148, 187,
4:165
Weapons, 1:37–38, 2:93, 94, 182–83,
4:159, 160, 166–67
Weelkes, Thomas, 3:112
Weighing chair, 4:73 (illus.)
Weights and measures, 4:170–71
Wenceslas, Holy Roman Emperor,
3:215
Westphalia, Peace of, 1:96, 3:122, 137
Weyden, Rogier van der, 1:54, 63,
112, 121, 3:70, 4:171
Whetenall, Lady, 4:136
Whitelaw, Archibald, 4:75
Whitney, Isabella, 3:183
William of Orange, 3:11, 121, 122,
4:111
Wilson, Thomas, 4:44
Wilton, Lord Grey of, 4:108
Wine, 2:89, 4:90, 91, 116
Wishart, George, 3:3
Witchcraft, 4:171–73 (illus.)
Witelo, 4:68, 69
Wittenberg, 1:196–97, 3:32, 33, 4:59,
60
Wittenberg Bible, 1:89
Wohlmut, Boniface, 1:96
Wolfenbüttel. See BrunswickWolfenbüttel
Wolgemut, Michael, 2:30
Wollstonecraft, Mary, 2:79
Wolsey, Thomas, 1:202, 2:150, 3:27,
4:173–74
Women, 4:174–80 (illus.). See also
Feminism; Motherhood
art, 1:97. See also specific artists
Florence, 2:87
gender and class, 2:1
honor, 2:162
humanist education, 2:42
Jews, 2:210–11
literature, 2:24, 3:124, 186, 4:21.
See also specific writers
medical care, 3:65
music, 3:101–2
patronage, 3:147–48
playwrights, 2:24
queens and queenship, 4:11–12
querelle des femmes, 4:12–13
Roman Catholic church, 1:137–38,
4:24–25
salons, 4:55
Scandinavian kingdoms, 4:60–61
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INDEX
sculpture, 4:77
servants, 4:79
sexuality and gender, 4:80, 81, 83
social status, 4:98
sports, 4:110
Alessandra Macinghi Strozzi, 4:111
tragedy, 2:17–18
travel and tourism, 4:136
Venice, 4:152
violence against, 4:159, 160
witchcraft, 4:172
Woodcuts, 2:30–31, 31, 126, 3:129,
4:3, 4, 65, 108
Wool, 2:52, 87
Woolf, Virginia, 4:93
Worde, Wynkyn de, 4:134
Working class. See Commoners
Worm, Ole, 4:62
230
Worms, Diet of, 3:33
Wright, Edward, 3:57
Writing, 4:180–81. See also Biography
and autobiography; Literature;
Rhetoric
Wroth, Mary, 3:186
Wyatt, Thomas, 3:178, 180, 182
Wycliffe, John, 1:89, 157, 193
X
Xavier, Francis, 3:83, 84
Xenophon, 1:91
York family, 2:47, 147, 148
Young, John, 4:108
Youth. See Childhood
Z
Zabarella, Jacopo, 1:35, 3:26, 4:73–74
Zaccaria, St. Antonio Maria, 4:23–24
Zacuto, Moses, 2:204
Zakkut, Abraham, 3:44
Zápolya, Johannes, 2:173
Zoranic, Petar, 1:200
Zuccaro, Francesco, 1:92
Zuccaro, Taddeo, 1:92, 3:30
Zwingli, Huldrych, 1:176, 4:8, 9, 26
Y
Yepes, Juan de, 4:106
Yiddish literature, 2:205
THE RENAISSANCE