Download The Antarctic Environmental Protocol and its Domestic Legal

International Environmental Law and Policy Series
The Antarctic Environmental Protocol
and its Domestic Legal Implementation
by
KEES BASTMEIJER
KLUWER LAW INTERNATIONAL
THE HAGUE / LONDON / NEW YORK
Table of contents
Series Editors' Preface
Preface and acknowledgements
List of abbreviations
vii
ix
xix
Introduction
Chapter 1
Introduction to the Antarctic Treaty System and the objective of this book.... 1
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Introduction
Characteristics of Antarctica and of the human presence in Antarctica
2.1 Facts about Antarctica
2.2 Antarctic flora and fauna
2.3 Human presence in Antarctica
International management of the Antarctic: the Antarctic Treaty System
3.1 The Antarctic Treaty: history and content
3.2 The Antarctic Treaty System
The Protocol on environmental protection
Objective of this book
Scope of the analysis
6.1 'Effectiveness'and'implementation'of an international agreement
6.2 The term 'domestic legal implementation' in this analysis
6.3 Selection of key issues
6.4 Selection of Contracting Parties
Methodology
7.1 'Adequate'implementation: formulating minimum requirements
7.2 Comparative law considerations
Structure
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3
3
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4
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9
14
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28
31
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Table of contents
PARTI
Environmental protection in Antarctica and
the domestic implementation of the Protocol
General concepts
Chapter 2
Environmental protection in Antarctica
1
2
3
4
5
Introduction
37
The roots of the Protocol: environmental protection in the ATS
38
2.1 Introduction
38
2.2 Protection of the terrestrial and marine living resources in Antarctica... 39
2.3 Protection and management of special Antarctic areas
42
2.4 The broader context of the protection of the Antarctic environment
43
2.5 Regulation of mineral resource activities
44
2.6 Involvement of environmental NGOs: action for World Park status
46
2.7 Antarctica as a common heritage of mankind
48
The Protocol: negotiations, added value and completeness
49
3.1 Negotiating the Protocol
49
3.2 Added value of the Protocol within the ATS
50
3.3 Completeness of the Protocol: overview of criticism
52
The relationship between the Protocol and other international agreements.... 58
Conclusion
61
Chapter 3
Introduction to the domestic implementation of the Protocol
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
37
63
Introduction
63
Factors influencing the domestic implementation of the Protocol
64
2.1 Factors related to a Contracting Party
64
2.2 Factors related to the Antarctic Treaty System and the Protocol
65
2.3 External factors
66
Domestic legal implementation of the Protocol: some general concepts
66
Practical implementation of the Protocol: some general concepts
68
International attention to the domestic implementation process since 1991... 70
The selected Contracting Parties
73
6.1 Introduction
73
6.2 The United Kingdom
73
6.3 New Zealand
77
6.4 The Republic of South Africa
81
6.5 The Netherlands
84
Conclusions
87
Table of contents
xiii
PART II
The domestic legal implementation of the
Protocol by the Contracting Parties
Chapter 4
Scope: geographical area, protected values and jurisdiction
91
A. Introduction
91
B. The Protocol
92
B.I Geographical area to which the Protocol applies
92
B. 1.1 General description of the geographical area of application
92
B.1.2 The area south of 60 degrees South latitude
93
B.1.3 The area north of 60 degrees South latitude
97
B. 1.4
Minimum requirements for domestic legal implementation
97
B.2 Values protected by the Protocol
98
B .2.1 Diversity of wording in the Protocol
98
B.2.2 Categories of Antarctic values
99
B.2.3 Historic values
102
B.2.4 Minimum requirements for domestic legal implementation
103
B.3 Jurisdictional scope
104
B.3.1
Introduction
104
B.3.2 Jurisdiction over Antarctic expeditions
109
B.3.3 Regulating expeditions: are activities of all participants covered?... 119
B.3.4 Addressing the specific prohibitions and obligations of the
Protocol
119
B.3.5 Article VIII of the Treaty: 'Antarctic Officials'
120
B.3.6 Overlap of jurisdiction
121
B.3.7 Minimum requirements for domestic legal implementation
122
B.4 Types of activities covered by the Protocol
122
B.4.1
'All activities'
122
B.4.2 Exceptions?
123
B.4.3 Minimum requirements for domestic legal implementation
125
C Discussion of the domestic legal implementation
125
C.I Geographical area of application
125
C.2 Protected values
128
C.3 Jurisdictional scope of application of domestic legislation
132
C.3.1
Jurisdiction with regard to Antarctic expeditions
132
C.3.2
Regulating expeditions: are activities of all participants covered?... 139
C.3.3
Addressing the specific prohibitions and obligations of the
Protocol
144
C.3.4 Article VEI of the Treaty: 'Antarctic Officials'
145
C.3.5
Overlap of jurisdiction
147
C.3.6 Conclusions
152
C.4 Types of activities covered by domestic implementing legislation
154
D
Conclusions
157
xiv
Table of contents
Chapter 5
Environmental Impact Assessment
A. Introduction
B. The Protocol
B.I Introduction: Environmental Impact Assessment within the Antarctic
Treaty System
B.I.I Introduction
B. 1.2 Development of Environmental Impact Assessment within the
Antarctic Treaty System before the Protocol was adopted
B.I.3 Environmental Impact Assessment in the Protocol
B.1.4 Developments since 1991
B.2 Activities subjected to Environmental Impact Assessment
B.2.1 Types of activities
B.2.2 Changes in Antarctic activities
B.2.3 Assessment of individual activities or categories of activities?
B.2.4 Plans and programs related to Antarctic activities
B.2.5 Minimum requirements for domestic implementing legislation
B.3 Content of the Environmental Impact Assessment
B.3.1 The Preliminary Assessment
B.3.2 The Initial Environmental Evaluation
B.3.3 The Comprehensive Environmental Evaluation
B.3.4 Elements of the Environmental Impact Assessment that need
special attention
B.3.5 Minimum requirements for domestic implementing legislation
B.4 Consultation
B.4.1 Introduction
B.4.2 Consultation requirements in the Protocol
B.4.3 Minimum requirements for domestic implementing legislation
B .5 Level of Environmental Impact Assessment
B.5.1 Introduction
B.5.2 Development of the levels of Environmental Impact Assessment
and terminology since 1983
B.5.3 Minimum requirements for domestic implementing legislation
B.6 Monitoring
B.6.1 Introduction
B.6.2 Monitoring obligations in the Protocol
B.6.3 Minimum requirements for domestic implementing legislation
C. Discussion of the domestic legal implementation
C. 1 Place of Environmental Impact Assessment in the domestic implementing
legislation
C.I.I
General concepts
C. 1.2 The selected Contracting Parties: a closer look
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Table of contents
xv
C.2 Activities subjected to Environmental Impact Assessment procedures
C.2.1
Types of activities
C.2.2 Changes in Antarctic activities
C.2.3 Assessment of individual activities or categories of activities?
C.2.4
Plans and programs related to Antarctic activities
C.2.5
Conclusions
C.3 Content of the Environmental Impact Assessment
C.3.1
The use of the terms PA, IEE and CEE in the implementing
legislation
C.3.2 The Preliminary Assessment
C.3.3 The Initial Environmental Evaluation
C.3.4 The Comprehensive Environmental Evaluation
C.3.5
Elements of the Environmental Impact Assessment that need
special atten ti on
C.3.6 Conclusions
C.4 Consultation
C.5 Determining the level of Environmental Impact Assessment
C.5.1
The levels of Environmental Impact Assessment in domestic
implementing legislation
C.5.2
In search of more clarity: the international discussions
C.5.3 The practice of conducting Comprehensive Environmental
Evaluations
C.5.4
Conclusions
C.6 Monitoring
D. Conclusions
248
250
251
254
Chapter 6
Authorizing activities in Antarctica
259
A.
B.
B.I
B.2
B.3
Introduction
The Protocol
Introduction: development of human activities in Antarctica since 1991....
The decision whether an activity may proceed
Legitimacy of human activities in Antarctica
B.3.1 Mineral resource activities
B.3.2 Scientific research
B.3.3 Antarctic tourism
B.3.4 Is there a hierarchy of activities?
B.3.5 Minimum requirements for domestic implementing legislation....
B.4 Domestic legal implementation of Article 3
B.4.1 Content of Article 3
B .4.2 Legal status of the environmental principles
B.4.3 To whom should Article 3 be addressed?
B.4.4 Minimum requirements for domestic implementing legislation
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xvi
Table of contents
B.5 The consequences of Article 3(2)(b)
B.6 The precautionary principle
B.7 Authorizing activities in specially protected or managed areas
B.7.1. Introduction
B.7.2 Antarctic Specially Protected Areas
B.7.3 Antarctic Specially Managed Areas
B.7.4 The value of the AS MA and ASPA in view of the increased
human activities in Antarctica
B.7.5
Minimum requirements for domestic implementing legislation....
B.8 The decision whether an activity may proceed: consultation and access to
justice
C. Discussion of the domestic legal implementation
C.I Introduction
C.2 The decision whether an activity may proceed: general characteristics
C.3 Legitimacy of human activities in Antarctica
C.3.1
Mineral resource activities
C.3.2
Scientific research
C.3.3 Tourism and other types of human activities
C.3.4
Is there a hierarchy between types of Antarctic activities?
C.3.5
Conclusions
C.4 The domestic legal implementation of Article 3
C.5 The consequences of Article 3(2)(b)
C.5.1
The consequences of Article 3(2)(b) for activities subjected to
a CEE
C.5.2 The consequences of Article 3(2)(b) for activities subjected to
a PA or IEE
C.5.3 An example: exploitation of Antarctic meteorites
C.5.4 Conclusions
C.6 The precautionary principle in Antarctica
C.6.1
The implementing legislation and the precautionary principle
C.6.2
An example: the Lake Vostok drilling project
C.6.3
Conclusions
C.7 Authorizing activities in specially protected or managed areas
C.8 The decision whether an activity may proceed: consultation and access to
justice
D. Conclusions
291
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Table of contents
Chapter 7
Supervision and enforcement
A.
B.
B. 1
B.2
B.3
B.4
C.
C.I
C.2
C.3
C.4
D.
xvii
363
Introduction
363
The Protocol
365
Introduction: supervision and enforcement in the Protocol
365
Encouraging compliance: education, self-regulation and other instruments.. 367
B.2.1
Education
367
B.2.2 Encouraging compliance through self-regulation mechanisms
369
B.2.3 Other instruments
371
Supervision
373
B.3.1 Supervision 'from behind the desk' and the 'watch-dog role' of
NGOs at the domestic level
373
B.3.2 The 'gateway check'
374
B.3.3 Inspections in the Antarctic Treaty area
375
B.3.4 Reports of Antarctic activities
380
Sanctions
381
Discussion of the domestic legal implementation
382
Introduction
382
Encouraging compliance: education, self-regulation and other instruments.. 383
C.2.1
Education
383
C.2.2 Encouraging compliance through self-regulation mechanisms:
the relationship with the domestic implementing legislation
388
C.2.3 Other instruments
393
Supervision
395
C.3.1
Supervision 'from behind the desk' and the 'watch-dog role' of
NGOs at the domestic level
396
C.3.2 The'gateway check1
398
C.3.3 Inspections in the Antarctic Treaty area
401
C.3.4 Reports of Antarctic activities
408
Sanctions
410
Conclusions
413
PART ffl
Conclusions and recommendations
Chapter 8
Conclusions
The Protocol and its domestic legal implementation:
joint protection of a natural reserve?
1
2
Legal protection of the Antarctic environment: two key questions
The domestic legal implementation of the Protocol by the selected
Contracting Parties: an overview
421
421
423
xviii
3
4
5
Table of contents
2.1 Differences between the implementing legislation: some general
concepts
2.2 Did the Contracting Parties adequately incorporate the key
provisions of the Protocol into their domestic legal systems?
2.3 Is the domestic legislation stricter?
'Comprehensive protection' of Antarctica through the complex of
domestic legal systems
3.1 Introduction
3.2 The scope of application of the Protocol's regime: 'joint
jurisdiction' ?
3.3 Environmental Impact Assessment
3.4 Authorizing activities in Antarctica
3.5 Supervision and enforcement
3.6 Will the complex of the domestic legal systems of the Contracting
Parties adequately ensure a 'comprehensive protection' of the 'natural
reserve' of Antarctica, as specified by Article 2 of the Protocol?
Strengthening joint management in Antarctica
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Searching for a solution: institutionalisation of the Antarctic Treaty
System?
4.3 Strengthening 'joint management' by improving the existing
management system
4.4 Recommendations
Final remarks
423
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Annex, Bibliography and Index
Annex: Domestic Antarctic legislation and selection of documents
477
Bibliography
491
Index
513