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Letter from the Secretary General
Dear Participants,
As the Secretary General of EUROsimA 2015, it is a great honour and pleasure to welcome
you to our conference on its 11th year. My name is Gizem Grünberg and I am about to conclude
my bachelor’s at METU in International Relations with a minor in Sociology. As a member of METU
Foreign Policy and International Relations Club since my freshman year with an MUN career
extending even further back, and as a two-time former Under Secretary General of this very
conference, I am now grateful to have had the opportunity to transfer these experiences into this
year’s EUROsimA.
Before explaining the idea and rationale behind the committee of Berlin Conference of
1884-1885, I also want to express my sincerest gratitude to our Advisor Oğuzhan Öçbe without
whom this conference would not be possible, and to Mustafa Emre Selek, the Under Secretary
General responsible from Berlin Conference of 1884-1885, whose invaluable efforts created this
document.
Throughout its decade-long history, EUROsimA has strived to provide a platform that
enables the youth to become involved in European Union politics. In line with this goal, it has
traditionally served to acquaint its participants with the institutions, policies and the unique
procedures of the European Union. This year, as the Academic Team, we have both tried to
improve and supplement these core values of EUROsimA, in line with our theme Rights of
Humans, Peoples and States.
One of the novel aims of EUROsimA 2015 is to show the temporal and spatial connections
of the EU and Europe, thus situating it in the complex set of interactions of different forces in the
world, throughout history. We believe that an understanding of the EU without looking at the past
and the other parts of the world would be at least a very incomplete one. Berlin Conference of
1884-1885 is a committee that has been born out of this wish to bring more pieces of the puzzle
into the picture.
2
Berlin Conference was where the Great Powers of the time came together to discuss the
rules on what was soon to become the almost complete colonization of Africa. The conference
remains important today not so much for the specific rules drawn during it, but because of the
underlying implications of these discussions. Berlin Conference above all aimed to prevent a war
amongst the Great Powers themselves, which, if happened, would have devastating effects on
Europe as the following world wars proved, and significantly disrupted world trade chains, as well
as the colonization process. From this perspective, the Berlin Conference was a very successful
instance of diplomacy, as it served the assumed purpose of it—avoiding war and destruction.
The other face of the Berlin Conference, on the other hand, is an entirely different
narrative. In stark contrast to the results of the conference on the Western world, the extended
period of colonization, struggle and decolonization that ensued on Africa after the conference
brought war and destruction in perhaps its most brutal form, of whose scars still visible on the
beautiful face of the African continent. But while the effects of European colonization of Africa is
extensively discussed, the effect of Africa on Europe is much rarely a topic of discussion. What is
often forgotten is the dynamic two-way relationship between these two parts of the world that
have existed for a long time, and how much Africa has shaped what Europe is today, in addition
to vica versa.
European Union was formed with the famous aim of making another war in Europe
materially impossible—and a parallel can easily be drawn with the aims of the Berlin Conference.
To this day, the EU seems to have made this dream come true, and how they achieved this is a
frequently asked question. We, on the other hand, prefer to ask other questions. What are the
rights of humans, peoples and states? Who decides what they are and who gets them? And who are
(or were) there when these decisions are being made? And can the answers of these questions
contribute to the explanation of Europe’s current success?
Sincerely,
Gizem Grünberg
Secretary-General of EUROsimA 2015
[email protected]
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Letter From the Under Secretary General
Distinguished Participants,
On behalf of the secretariat, I kindly welcome you all to EUROSimA 2015 which the unique
simulation of European Union held in Ankara for the 11. time this year. I am Mustafa Emre Selek
from Middle East Technical University and I will be serving as Under Secretary General responsible
for the Berlin Congress of 1884-1885.
In this unique committee, for the fisrt time in Turkey, we will simulate the conference in
which the destiny of Africa has determined. Berlin Congress of 1884-1885 is a series of negotiation
which aims to solve the disputes and problems regarding Congo River basin in Central Africa,
which generally was an issue at the time, concerning almost each and every European power that
possessed territory or economic interests within the whole continent of Africa. Chronologically
and evidently the fact is, the colonization of Africa did not started with the congress however it
defined the basic ‘rules’ that states were going to follow. Many European powers were already
struggling with variety of grievances at home and throughout Europe, the common sense was
suggesting a congress, which in they tried at least to prevent a new crisis in Africa and expand
their economic influences there in a more organized way. Organized, for those powers meant,
not only physically expanding into the territory and claim the region for themselves but being
able to exploit it economically.
I hope that this conference will not only help you deepen your knowledge about European
Union, international relations and historical-current events but also equip you with various skills
such as leadership, cooperation, self-expression and public speaking. I'm looking forward to
meeting you all in the beautiful city of Ankara, and witnessing accomplishments you will make
within our committee. Last but not least, I would like to express my gratefulness to our Secretary
General Ms. Gizem GRÜNBERG, I appreciate her for her great support throughout the process.
If
you
have
further
questions,
please
via [email protected].
Sincerely,
Mustafa Emre Selek
Under Secretary General
4
do
not
hesitate
to
contact
me
“Imperialism is the highest stage of capitalism…characterized by monopoly corporations and
the compulsion to export capital abroad for higher profits. Unlike capitalism in the earlier stages, in the
imperialist stage, capitalism has no more progress to bring the world…the cause of contemporary
militarism” – Lenin
“The two main criminals are France and the United States. They owe Haiti enormous reparations
because of actions going back hundreds of years. If we could ever get to the stage where somebody
could say, 'We're sorry we did it,' that would be nice. But if that just assuages guilt, it's just another
crime. To become minimally civilized, we would have to say, 'We carried out and benefited from vicious
crimes. A large part of the wealth of France comes from the crimes we committed against Haiti, and the
United States gained as well. Therefore we are going to pay reparations to the Haitian people.' Then
you will see the beginnings of civilization.” – Noam Chomsky
5
Contents
A.
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................ 8
B.
COLONIZATION ................................................................................................................................ 9
i.
China – Great Britain: An instance of East-West Relations .................................................... 10
ii.
Africa - European Nations .......................................................................................................... 11
iii.
Colonies and World Trade ......................................................................................................... 12
C.
INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION............................................................................................................. 13
i.
Agricultural Revolution .............................................................................................................. 14
ii.
Increase in National Wealth ...................................................................................................... 14
iii.
Geography ................................................................................................................................... 14
iv.
Good Markets ............................................................................................................................. 14
v.
Technological Innovations ........................................................................................................ 14
vi.
Some Other Reasons.................................................................................................................. 15
D.
INDUSTRY IN EUROPE AND NORTH AMERICA ............................................................................ 15
E.
OUTCOMES OF INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION ................................................................................. 15
i.
Steel – Iron .................................................................................................................................. 15
ii.
Invention of Electricity ............................................................................................................... 16
iii.
Internal Combustion Engine ..................................................................................................... 16
iv.
Economic Management ............................................................................................................. 16
v.
Concept of Mass Society ............................................................................................................ 16
vi.
Outcomes on the Colonies/Africa ............................................................................................. 17
F.
SLAVERY ........................................................................................................................................... 18
i.
The Atlantic Slave Trade............................................................................................................. 19
ii.
End of the Slavery ....................................................................................................................... 20
G.
EUROPEAN SOCIETY ....................................................................................................................... 21
H.
POLITICAL ISSUES ........................................................................................................................... 22
i.
Liberalism .................................................................................................................................... 22
a.
Political Liberalism.................................................................................................................. 22
b.
Economic Liberalism .............................................................................................................. 22
c.
Racism...................................................................................................................................... 23
I.
1848 REVOLUTIONS ........................................................................................................................ 25
J.
AFRICA .............................................................................................................................................. 28
K.
Otto Von Bismarck .......................................................................................................................... 31
L.
The Congo Dispute .......................................................................................................................... 32
M.
King Leopold II of Belgium ........................................................................................................ 33
N.
Countries ..................................................................................................................................... 33
i.
Germany ...................................................................................................................................... 33
6
ii.
The United Kingdom .................................................................................................................. 34
iii.
France .......................................................................................................................................... 34
iv.
Belgium........................................................................................................................................ 35
v.
Italy............................................................................................................................................... 35
vi.
Austria-Hungary ......................................................................................................................... 36
vii.
Denmark .................................................................................................................................. 36
viii.
Sweden – Norway ................................................................................................................... 36
ix.
Spain ............................................................................................................................................ 37
x.
Ottoman Empire ......................................................................................................................... 37
xi.
Russia ........................................................................................................................................... 38
xii.
The United States of America................................................................................................ 38
xiii.
Portugal ................................................................................................................................... 39
xiv.
The Netherlands ..................................................................................................................... 39
O.
GLOSSARY .................................................................................................................................... 40
i.
Balance of Power ........................................................................................................................ 40
ii.
Concert of Europe....................................................................................................................... 40
iii.
Terra Nullius ................................................................................................................................ 40
iv.
Direct Rule ................................................................................................................................... 40
v.
Indirect rule ................................................................................................................................. 41
P.
Participants of the Berlin Conference ........................................................................................... 41
Q.
Agenda of the Berlin Conference of 1884-1885 ...................................................................... 42
R.
Questions to be Considered........................................................................................................... 42
S.
Further Reading .......................................................................................................................... 42
7
A. INTRODUCTION
Berlin Congress of 1884-1885 is a series of negotiation which aims to solve the disputes
and problems regarding Congo River basin in Central Africa, which generally was an issue at the
time, concerning almost each and every European power that possessed territory or economic
interests within the whole continent of Africa.1
Chronologically and evidently the fact is, the colonization of Africa did not started with the
congress however it defined the basic ‘rules’ that states were going to follow.2 Many European
powers were already struggling with variety of grievances at home and throughout Europe, the
common sense was suggesting a congress, which in they tried at least to prevent a new crisis in
Africa and expand their economic influences there in a more organized way. Organized, for those
powers meant, not only physically expanding into the territory and claim the region for
themselves but being able to exploit it economically.
Another important reason for the conference to be held is Bismarck’s initiative. German
empire was young and had hostility with France because of a recent war and still was not
considered a major colonial power. Germany wanted to change these circumstances to
strengthen its position and thus, congress was gathered, also with the invitation and support of
Portugal, who had the control of many regions of Africa for a very long period of time.3
Under these circumstances, with the attendance of 14 nations, on the 15th of November,
1884, in Berlin the conference opened. The countries represented in the meetings were, AustriaHungary Empire, Belgium, Denmark, France, German Empire, Great Britain, Italy, the
Netherlands, Portugal, Russian Empire, Spain, Sweden-Norway, Ottoman Empire and the United
States of America. Great Britain, Portugal, France and Germany were major powers in the
conference since they had possession of a large portion of the continent.4
After negotiations and many debates a certain consensus was reached and Berlin Act of
1885 was created. First of all, conventional basin of Congo was established and opened for
European free trade. It was a remarkable series of diplomatic actions. Moreover, this congress
made it clear for European powers that an armed conflict over African regions is not necessary
between them. Tensions about earlier invasions and occupations where greatly reduced, such as
but not limited to; French invasion on Tunisia (1881), British take-over of Egypt (1882) and
8
establishment of Belgian posts in Congo. In addition, in the long run, this congress has triggered
the Scramble for Africa and accepted Germany as a major power in international relations.5
As it can be observed, Berlin Congress of 1884-1885 had been dramatically effective on
Africa; culturally, diplomatically and economically. It will not be a fully grasp of the topic if the
congress’s impact even on today’s Africa is not understood. Even in this age, if the sovereign
nations of Africa are still using the languages of the European powers that once were in their
lands and their cultures are still affected, there is a reason for this congress to be investigated, to
be discussed and to be debated. Nearly every single decision taken in Berlin Act is not recognized
today. Nevertheless, it should be understood under which circumstances that Africa has been
colonized and why certain regions belonged to certain countries since it reflects the economic
interests of many of those countries today. As a conclusion, Berlin Congress of 1884-1885 was a
major influence on the colonization process as well as it is still has many effects on present Africa.
B. COLONIZATION
Imperialism can be defined as “a policy of extending a country’s power through
colonization, use of military force, or other means”. 6 Imperialism is, essentially, the process of
maintaining of the empire. This empire is ruled by one state to control political sovereignty of
another political society. Also, especially in today’s world, due to the electronic age and
globalization, imperialism may be defined as broadly as one country imposing will upon another
not only in the field of economy, but also in ideology, in military, in technology and even in trade.
Thus, maintaining the empire can be achieved by force, by political collaboration, by economic,
social and cultural dependency.
On the other hand, to understand a historical and social phenomenon, we have to look at
the issue from antipodean perspective to make an objective evaluation. Thus, it can be asked and
we have to ask whether colonization and imperialism are something bad or not.
It has been a controversial issue but at the same time an important one since imperialism,
as a word, has only recently taken on a negative context. As Frank Furedi – a sociologist and social
commentator, formerly professor of sociology at the University of Kent in Canterbury – points out
in his book ‘New Ideology of Imperialism’ “the moral claims of imperialism were seldom
questioned in the West. Imperialism and the global expansion of the western powers were
represented in unambiguously positive terms as a major contributor to human civilization".
9
Actually, it is a fact that 19th century did not invent the empire but it took it to new heights by
which we mean lows or possibly heights. To understand it very well, at the very beginning, we will
look at the historical background of imperialism. So, we will discuss 19th century imperialism by
looking at the different parts of the world.
i.
China – Great Britain: An instance of East-West Relations
When we look at the Middle Asia, we will see China which was a thriving manufacturing power
about to be overtaken by Europe but still heavily involved in world trade.7 There was silver trade
between Chinese and Europeans in the late period of 18th century, China was an important silver
importer from the Spanish Empire and actually they had to use silver due to the fact that they did
not produce anything else the Chinese wanted.8 In the last decade of 18th century, British Empire
did appoint Lord McCartney as ambassador extraordinary and plenipotentiary from the King of
Great Britain to the Emperor of China and his mission was called ‘McCartney Mission’ to try to get
better the conditions of trade between the British Empire and China, this mission was a total
failure.9 Qianlong emperor Ch’ien has a good response to British Empire due to this incident and
said “Hitherto, all European nations, including your own country's barbarian merchants have
carried on their trade with our Celestial Empire at Canton. Such has been the procedure for many
years, although our Celestial Empire possesses all things in prolific abundance and lacks no
product within its own borders.”10 However, Europeans especially the British did find a production
to sell to Chinese, it was ‘opium’. Until 1830s, British free trade policy was going well towards
Chinese and was selling opium to them and it created so many drug addicts in China. Therefore,
Commissioner Lin Zexu wrote a stern letter which contained expostulation for what they saw as
unfair trade practices and memorable threat to cut off trade relations between Britain and China.
Although, the British had received this threatening letter, they had not responded to the letter
since selling narcotics was so profitable. Hence, the Chinese seized the trade ships of the Great
Britain and did pour all goods into the sea. And then, the British responded to this by demanding
compensation and access to Chinese territory in which they 1can go on to their trade. China did
not accept it and then the British did send warships and opened war towards China. Chinese
general Yijing responded and made counterattack but failed and the treaty of Nanjing was signed.
This treaty contained important clauses like that Britain had five ports and Hong-Kong as well, 2$
billion cash money. It does basically mean that China gave up all sovereignty to European spheres
of influence in trade. 11 On this occasion, it can be thought that the result of this war would be a
shift in the balance of trade in Britain’s favor, but that wasn’t immediately the case since the British
was importing so much tea from China to be priced at 30$ billion.12 Finally, after a civil rebellion
10
in China the situation was reversed and Europeans, especially the British became the dominant
economic power in China.
ii.
Africa - European Nations
When the 19th century imperialism is thought, generally everyone considers the way that Europe
turned Africa from this to this the so-called Scramble for Africa. Africa, today, is the world's poorest
and most underdeveloped continent.13 The roots of its poverty and underdevelopment are based
on European imperialism. Africa was heavily impacted upon by European imperialism in the late
19th and early 20th century. However, when we look at its historical ties, we need to go back to
16th century. Europeans had been involved in Africa since the 16th century when the Portuguese
used their cannons to take control of cities on coasts to set up their trading posts for the empire.14
When the time had has come to after 1850s, Europe suddenly became successful in colonize all of
Africa due to industrialization. It was not only the reason to that enabled colonization, nationalism
played important role. Furthermore, the most important thing was not to keep in reserve colonies,
having control over the means of production was more important. European nations wanted
colonies in Africa to secure sources like cotton, copper, iron, rubber and sources of raw
materials.15 On the other hand, there is also the fact that Europeans did fail to take over the
territory of Africa until the late 19th century since they could not. There were some reasons but
the most important reason was diseases. There were certain diseases in Africa and Europeans
were not accustomed to these diseases like malaria. Actually, up until 19th century, conditions
were the same for Africans and Europeans to fight in order to obtain lands and sources since their
technology was similar to fight. However, after 19th century, especially after industrial revolution,
Europe surpassed and became successful.
In the further parts of this study guide, technological
16
developments and their effects on the invasion of Africa will be examined in detail. When we examine
the situation of Africa after colonization, it can be said that political, cultural, social and economic
system that had been in operation for hundred years in Africa were not suited to the tribal
foundations of many African nations. The economic impact of imperialism is still being exhibited
in Africa even today. The plight of contemporary Africa is largely due to the exploitation the
continent. Many of the economic systems were set up by imperial palace in the African colonies.
Reinvestment into African colonies was not committed. Consequently, when the imperial palace
left Africa, infrastructure was not present in the newly independent states to prosper. In addition,
years of exploitation and draining the resources has developed a culture of dependence. Africa's
11
poor economic situation has been shaped by unstable political history, result of imperialism
today.
iii.
Colonies and World Trade
Actually, up until now we have looked at the colonization from the perspective of ‘great man’.
However, we have to keep in mind that history cannot be understood by only great powers and
their activities. Therefore, from now on we will be arguing the other powers and their roles in
colonialism and in 18.th and 19.th century. Firstly, we need to look at the Ottoman Empire. The
Arabs, administrated by Turks came to accept the Ottoman regions now called Syria, Iraq,
Lebanon, Palestine, Saudi Arabia and Yemen as an inconvenience to an all-inclusive Muslim
Empire (the Caliphate – Khilafah) that they may have seen it as earlier. On the other hand, there
have been European provinces in quite a bit of Asia. The main Europeans to apply control in Asia
were the Portuguese who cruised round southern Africa looking for the exchange merchandise
of the east: pepper, cloves, silk. They started to occupy ports, for example, Goa in India and towns
in Indonesia. The Portuguese were imitated by the Dutch, the French and the British. From the
seventeenth century onwards all these started to possess arrive far from the coasts. The Dutch
controlled the entire of Sri Lanka, however with a safe distance organization, and removed the
Portuguese in Indonesia. On the other hand, when we look at the other part of the world, we can
see Russia. Ashore, the Russians expanded their energy crosswise over northern and Central Asia
from the sixteenth century. Before the end of the nineteenth century, they possessed the notable
focuses of Islamic culture, for example, Bokhara, Tashkent and Samarqand and arrived at the
Pacific, involving land some of which has in the past been asserted by China. When we look at the
farther Asia, the following points can be said that from the seventeenth century the British started
a slow control of India from bridgeheads in Bombay, Madras and Calcutta. They battled off the
French who were attempting the same approach however who were inevitably restricted to a little
settlement at Pondicherry. In the nineteenth century, the French involved Indochina. Before the
end of the nineteenth century just Japan, Iran, Thailand and Afghanistan had no European
occupier. Japan was significantly influenced by an American undertaking which did not possess
the nation yet incited the Japanese into quickly mimicking the European investigative and
mechanical society. Japan went ahead to colonize Taiwan and Korea and Manchuria. The eastern
part of the Second World War was mostly the consequence of Japan’s endeavoured control of
Manchuria, China and South East Asia to form an empire they called the “Greater East Asia CoProsperity Sphere”. In Persian land, situation was totally different. Iran was not involved by
Europeans however by the late nineteenth century was weakened to the point that its legislature
12
was affected by the Russians and the British who concurred on “Spheres of Influence” which
almost partitioned the country. In the period between the Industrial Revolution and the First
World War, three forces were focal in deciding the rate of monetary development in Europe and
Europe’s relative vitality in world occasions: Great Britain, Germany and France. In 1813, the last
year in the first half of the nineteenth century which can be depicted as a ‘normal year’, these
three countries commanded extensive segments of the worldwide economy. In this context, it is
conceivable to discuss an “oligopolization” of the worldwide economy, on which – alongside the
USA – these three states applied the best impact. While these three countries contained short of
what a large portion of the number of inhabitants in Europe, they represented roughly seventy
five percent of Europe’s mechanical generation and 75% of all exchange in the middle of Europe
and whatever remains of the world. The high profit levels of their economies were obviously
reflected in the structure of their exchange; i.e., in the exportation of mechanical items and the
importation of crude materials. Without supranational monetary establishments, Great Britain,
which in London gave the focal capital market of the world, as a result guaranteed that the
worldwide economy proceeded to function.17 On the other hand, from the mid-eighteenth
century, transcontinental and sea-borne exchange experienced strong development. The focused
on development of European transportation and exchange foundation, and the continuous
acknowledgement of liberal financial thought, which supplanted protectionist mercantilism,
brought about the beginning of another time of monetary improvement in Europe, as well as
likewise abroad. The incorporation of the pilgrim inner part, which was started by Great Britain
amid the eighteenth century, accepted impressive criticalness in the early nineteenth century with
the rise of the thought of the boondocks. England's "new colonial system" bit by bit changed into
a North American cotton-delivering industry which went hand in hand with and backed the rise of
ahead of schedule modern motorization in Europe. 18
C. INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
The Industrial Revolution was a period from the 18th to the 19th century where major
changes in agriculture, manufacturing, mining, transport, and technology had a profound effect
on the socioeconomic and cultural conditions starting in the United Kingdom, then subsequently
spreading throughout Europe, North America, and eventually the world.19 Britain is the birthplace
of industrial revolution due to five major and some minor reasons.
13
i.
Agricultural Revolution
Britain has already accomplished agricultural revolution before the industrial revolution in the
17.th century. Thence, they were able to produce more agricultural products, basically food. When
they produced more food, automatically prices decreased. Thus, people did not have to allocate
the large part of their money to buy food and agricultural products. By this way, they had chance
to allot money from their budget for manufacturing and investment.
ii.
Increase in National Wealth
Since people did have chance to allocate their money, they started to make investment and
organize commercial activities. In Britain, first factories have been established by entrepreneurs
and merchants. Also, they have improved bank, credit and joint stock company systems.
Moreover, cottage industry system, a system for making products to sell in which people work in
their own homes and use their own equipment20, has been improved. All these activities created
its own group, they were called ‘Modernization Elites’. It was the group that tried to improve their
own benefits, also supported by government.
iii.
Geography
Geography had also great impact on the industrial revolution. There were canals and rivers in
which ships could pass, bridges in which trains could pass, harbours. Thanks to all these
geographical advantages, manufactured goods could be moved to every point in Britain easily
and quickly.
iv.
Good Markets
It was one of the most important factor to be rich and to be able to go on to produce more
products. Britain had huge markets where they can sell their all products. Sales capacity was
increased four times in the 18.th century.
v.
Technological Innovations
As they are involved in many points throughout the process of humanity development,
technological developments are also key points during the industrial revolution. There were many
technological developments, but the following ones could be taken into consideration as the most
valuable ones during this era. The flying shuttle is one of them and allowed a single weaver to
weave much wider fabrics also allowing for automatic machine looms.21 Moreover, spinning jenny
is a multi-spindle spinning frame and reduced the amount of work that needed to produce yarn.22
Furthermore, Power loom is a tool used for weaving yarn into textiles and permits the weaving of
14
larger widths of cloth and significantly increased weaving speed.23 Also, steam machine has
improved coal industry and coal industry has affected to iron industry in such a good way.
vi.
Some Other Reasons
Population has increased in Britain and it caused increased labour force. Also, there was a
belief called ‘Protestant Work Ethic’ which means that if you work so much in this mortal world,
you will be awarded after death. Therefore, people were working overmuch. Moreover, Britain
was so rich for cool and iron. Until the industrial revolution, there were some revolutions in Britain
but contrary to other states, Britain had been successful in all revolutions. Hence, Britain has
developed its own political structure constantly throughout the history. As the last reason, the
following can be said easily that liberal economy model in Britain supported at all-time
manufacturers and entrepreneurs and there was no pressure of state over entrepreneurs.
All in all, due to all reasons mentioned above the Industrial Revolution has emerged in Britain.
D. INDUSTRY IN EUROPE AND NORTH AMERICA
Industrial revolution expanded through the Continental Europe in 19.th century. However, it
could not be successful as it was in Britain since kings kept control of power in the Continental
Europe. Contrary to Britain, economy, commercial activities, transportation and basically all things
that are needed to improve industry was totally belonged to kings. On the other hand, when we
look at the North America, it can be said that America was agricultural society in the early 19.th
century. However, right after sixty years, only half of the society was engaged in agriculture and
population was increasing constantly. They have improved and adapted technology from Britain
and achieved mass production that Britain could not have. Through mass production, they did
produce so much and thanks to this way, prices decreased automatically. However, America was
more disadvantaged when we compare it to Britain in terms of geography since America is
continental country. Hence, transportation was so expensive. Shortly after, America made a leap
and improved transportation excessively and built up canals, bridges, railways. Thanks to these
innovations, they connected the east and west.
E. OUTCOMES OF INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
i.
Steel – Iron
After the late 19.th century, instead of iron, steel was started to be used since it was more
resistant and easily shaped. Thanks to steel, they began to produce more resistant ships,
15
machines and guns. Pioneer countries were Belgium, France, Germany and Britain for steel-iron
industry.
ii.
Invention of Electricity
There is no doubt that electricity ushered in a new epoch. Due to the fact that electricity can
be converted into other forms of energy and can be moved easily. Thanks to electricity, hydroelectric power station, coal fired steam generating plants, lamp, telephone, radio waves and
subway have been invented.
iii.
Internal Combustion Engine
It needed to have petrol to turn it on. With this engine, cars and planes started to be used. It
was such a new power supply.
iv.
Economic Management
Industrial revolution contributed to people’s budgets. Prices of transportation and food
decreased and so that purchasing power increased. Department’s stores have been established
and consumer ethic improved. Moreover, cartels have been established and it is an agreement
between competing firms to control prices or exclude entry of a new competitor in a market and
it is a formal organization of sellers or buyers that agree to fix selling prices, or reduce production
using a variety of tactics.24 With cartelization, heavy industry and chemicals could be produced.
Furthermore, assembly line of production technique started to be used. It is that each worker is
assigned one very specific task, which he or she simply repeats, and then the process moves to
the next worker who does his or her task until the task is completed and the product is made and
also it is a way to mass produce goods quickly and efficiently. All workers do not have to be human,
robotic workers can make up an assembly line as well.25
v.
Concept of Mass Society
Some changes occurred in society and it was the period that society turned into modern
society. At the very beginning, it can be said that life standards, urbanization and population
increased. Also, people that belonged to subclass began to gain some new rights such as
education and vote. Moreover, transitions between classes began to be seen. Also, as one of the
result of technology, mass media also improved. It means that communication became faster and
easier.
16
vi.
Outcomes on the Colonies/Africa
Numerous European nations like Britain, France, Germany and numerous more, devoted
their time and push to colonize the valuable place where there is Africa. At the point when the
Industrial Revolution was blasting in Europe, they discovered Africa to be the home of numerous
essential crude materials and the scramble for Africa started. The crest of this race was arrived at
around the late eighteenth century, and the opposition got to be a great deal more exceptional.
By now, numerous nations in Africa were punctured by the sharp-infiltrating projectiles of
European Imperialism. These shots left profound effects in the African society right up 'til the
present time. The political effects of the imperialism on Africa were complex. In the first place, the
provincial forces presented effective arrangement of organization in the nation. It gave Africa a
more organized political framework and sorted out government.26 A considerable lot of the
African nations still hold the same political framework that was acquainted with them amid the
times of government. Westerners likewise presented political ideas like constitution and majority
rule government. On the other hand, organized political framework wasn't the main thing that
the Western forces had acquainted with the African culture. They additionally got the thought of
patriotism, which is the reason for some wars and upsets in Africa. Some of them being sure, and
some of them being negative. Inevitably, this presentation of patriotism had constructive
outcomes on the African side while it had negative impact on the colonialist's side. The financial
impacts that the pioneers had on Africa were exceptionally pivotal in melding the current day
Africa. At the point when the colonialists came to African settlements, they brought their modern
innovation with them. They created beneficial commercial enterprises which made ready for
industrialization of a considerable lot of the African nations all through the mainland.27 A
considerable lot of the African showcases in the current day are focused around the modern
markets of the government time. This may appear like a positive effect, yet these settlements
were exploited by sending out crude materials as modest as would be prudent and offering is
with high cost. These impacts may not appear to be so exceptional or negative, yet they all had
tremendous part in moulding the African society. The wars, combined with imperialism left
profound scars in the country, bringing on racial hindrances and social rearrangements. The
severity of the imperialist westerners towards the Africans were at extreme levels, and the
thoughts and ideas that the westerners had brought to Africa amid the Imperialist time cannot
possibly exceed the expense of African lives that were relinquished for European businesses.28
17
F. SLAVERY
Slavery in Africa, the institution of slavery as it existed in Africa, and the effects of world
slave-trade systems on African people and societies. As in most of the world, slavery, or
involuntary human servitude, was practiced across Africa from prehistoric times to the modern
era. When people today think of slavery, many envision the form in which it existed in the United
States before the American Civil War (1861-1865): one racially identifiable group owning and
exploiting another. However, in other parts of the world, slavery has taken many different forms.
In Africa, many societies recognized slaves merely as property, but others saw them as
dependents who eventually might be integrated into the families of slave owners. Still other
societies allowed slaves to attain positions of military or administrative power. Most often, both
slave owners and slaves were black Africans, although they were frequently of different ethnic
groups. Traditionally, African slaves were bought to perform menial or domestic labour, to serve
as wives or concubines, or to enhance the status of the slave owner. Traditional African practices
of slavery were altered to some extent beginning in the 7th century by two non-African groups of
slave traders: Arab Muslims and Europeans. From the 7th to the 20th century, Arab Muslims
18
raided and traded for black African slaves in West, Central, and East Africa, sending thousands of
slaves each year to North Africa and parts of Asia. From the 15th to the 19th century, Europeans
bought millions of slaves in West, Central, and East Africa and sent them to Europe; the Caribbean;
and North, Central, and South America. These two overlapping waves of transcontinental slave
trading made the slave trade central to the economies of many African states and threatened
many more Africans with enslavement.
i.
The Atlantic Slave Trade
The Atlantic slave trade developed after Europeans began exploring and establishing trading
posts on the Atlantic (west) coast of Africa in the mid-15th century. The first major group of
European traders in West Africa was the Portuguese, followed by the British and the French. In
the 16th and 17th centuries, these European colonial powers began to pursue plantation
agriculture in their expanding possessions in the New World (North, Central, and South America,
and the Caribbean islands), across the Atlantic Ocean. As European demand grew for products
such as sugar, tobacco, rice, indigo, and cotton, and as more New World lands became available
for European use, the need for plantation labour increased. West and west central African states,
already involved in slave trading, supplied the Europeans with African slaves for export across the
Atlantic. Africans tended to live longer on the tropical plantations of the New World than did
European labourers (who were susceptible to tropical diseases) and Native Americans (who were
extremely susceptible to "Old World" diseases brought by the Europeans from Europe, Asia, and
Africa). Also, enslaved men and women from Africa were inexpensive by European standards.
Therefore, Africans became the major source, and eventually the only source, of New World
plantation labour. The Africans who facilitated and benefited from the Atlantic slave trade were
political or commercial elites–generally members of the ruling apparatus of African states or
members of large trading families or institutions. African sellers captured slaves and brought
them to markets on the coast. At these markets European and American buyers paid for the slaves
with commodities–including cloth, iron, firearms, liquor, and decorative items–that were useful to
the sellers. Slave sellers were mostly male, and they used their increased wealth to enhance their
prestige and connect themselves, through marriage, to other wealthy families in their realms. The
Africans who were enslaved were mostly prisoners of war or captives resulting from slave raids.
As the demand for slaves grew, so did the practice of systematic slave raiding, which increased in
scope and efficiency with the introduction of firearms to Africa in the 17th century. By the 18th
century, most African slaves were acquired through slave raids, which penetrated farther and
farther inland. Africans captured in raids were marched down well-worn paths, sometimes for
19
several hundred miles, to markets on the coast. From the mid-15th to the late-19th century,
European and American slave traders purchased approximately 12 million slaves from West and
west central Africa. A small percentage of these slaves, particularly in the early years of the trade,
were sent to Europe, especially to Spain and Portugal. Most, however, were shipped across the
Atlantic for sale in Portuguese-administered Brazil; the British, French, Dutch, and Danish islands
of the Caribbean; Spanish-controlled South and Central America; and the British North American
mainland (later the United States and Canada). The Atlantic crossing, known as the Middle
Passage, was nightmarish for slaves, who were poorly fed, subject to abuses at the hands of the
crew, and confined to cramped storage holds in which diseases spread easily. Historians estimate
that between 1.5 and 2 million slaves died during the journey to the New World. The Atlantic slave
trade differed from previous practices of slavery and slave trading in Africa in its huge scope and
its importance to the economies of world powers. While traditional African slavery was practiced
largely to help African communities produce food and goods or for prestige, slave labour on
European plantations in the New World was crucial to the economies of the colonies and therefore
to the economies of the colonial powers. This global economic demand for African slaves altered
African practices of slavery. In much of Africa, slavery became a more central, structural element
of African life, as rulers and wealthy elites sought to accumulate more and more slaves, for sale
as well as for their own use. In addition to the systematic and institutional practice of slave raiding,
other practices were introduced in African states to bring in even more slaves, including
enslavement as punishment for crimes and religious wrongdoing. As a result, by the 19th century
vast numbers of black Africans in West and Central Africa faced the threat of being enslaved.
ii.
End of the Slavery
As humanitarian sentiments grew in Western Europe with the 18th-century Age of Enlighten and
as European economic interests shifted slowly from agriculture to industry, a movement to
abolish the slave trade and the practice of slavery came into being in the Western world. In 1807
the slave trade was outlawed in Britain and the United States. Britain outlawed the practice of
slavery in all British territory in 1833; France did the same in its colonies in 1848. In 1865, following
the American Civil War, the U.S. government adopted the 13th Amendment to the Constitution,
ending slavery in the United States. The Atlantic slave trade continued, however, until 1888, when
Brazil abolished slavery (the last New World country to do so). While the Atlantic slave trade was
dying down around 1850, the trans-Saharan and East African slave trades were at their peaks. In
the 1850s the Ottoman Empire nominally outlawed slavery in much of the Islamic world, but this
had only a minor effect on the slave trade. One of the main justifications European powers gave
20
for colonizing nearly the entire African continent during the 1880s and 1890s was the desire to
end slave trading and slavery in Africa. By the dawn of the 20th century, European forces had
defeated most African slave trading states, and the trans-Saharan and East African slave trades
came to an end. Although colonial authorities began outlawing slavery in some African territories
as early as the 1830s, the complete legal abolition of slavery in Africa did not take place until the
first quarter of the 20th century. By that time, however, slavery was deeply ingrained in most
African societies, and thus the practice continued illegally. Slaves who became liberated often did
so by escaping and going to the colonial authorities or by simply leaving the areas in which they
had been held to take up residence elsewhere. In some places, enslaved persons held that status
throughout their lives, despite the legal prohibition. It was not until the 1930s that slavery in Africa
was almost totally eliminated. The ending of the slave trade and slavery in Africa had wide-ranging
effects on the African continent. Many societies that for centuries had participated in an economy
based on slave labour and the trading of slaves had difficulty finding new ways to organize labour
and gain wealth. Meanwhile, colonial governments in Africa that outwardly disapproved of slavery
still needed inexpensive labourers for agriculture, industry, and other work projects. As a result,
African leaders and former slave owners, as well as colonial officials, often developed methods of
coercing Africans to work without pay or for minimal compensation. Moreover, the outlawing of
slavery did not erase the pain and stigma of having been a slave. Many descendants of slaves
were affected by this stigma for generations after slavery was abolished.
G. EUROPEAN SOCIETY
Actually, European society could be divided into three different groups. At the topmost
point of the society, there were rich wealthy elites. They were composed of land owner aristocrats
and bourgeois. Although this group was very small part of the society, they were holding most of
the wealth of the society. After the second half of the 19.th century, some new occupational
groups emerged like chemist in this group. Land owners aristocrats and bourgeois merged
through marriage. On the other hand, when we look at the middle class, the following points can
be said that science and progress were accepted by this group during this era. People started to
work so much since they believed that if they work so much God will mercy them. Furthermore,
competition began to be seen among people and people tried to have so many things. On the
other side, there was working class which composed of 80% percent of the society and they were
generally working in rural areas and divided as share croppers, land owning peasants, agricultural
workers. Working class members working in urban area were not homogeneous like the ones
working in rural area. With the industrial revolution, specialization started to be seen in working
21
class and they started to improve themselves and also cared about their children’s education.
Moreover, their life standards increased, they had more food and housing, real wage increased,
consumption costs decreased. Furthermore, they had chance to allocate money for
entertainment. When we look at this issue from the opposite perspective, following points could
be the negative outcomes of the industrial revolution and directly affected to society; child labour
and poor working conditions for women. Children and women were working under very bad
conditions in return for very limited money. However, women started to become more educated.
There was transformation of the role of women in life. Before the World War 1, women that
belonged to upper middle class gained right of vote.
H. POLITICAL ISSUES
i.
Liberalism
Liberalism has emerged in two different concepts as political and economic. It emerged
as the natural outcome of Enlightenment era, French and American revolutions. It could be
considered as autonomy of individual.
a. Political Liberalism
Political liberalism is political doctrine that takes protecting and enhancing the freedom of the
individual to be the central problem of politics. Liberals typically believe that government is
necessary to protect individuals from being harmed by others; but they also recognize that
government itself can pose a threat to liberty.29 As expressed in ‘Common Sense’ (1776), the
revolutionary American pamphleteer Thomas Paine said ‘government is at best a necessary evil.
Moreover, in political liberalism, there is only need to have constitutional monarchy or state.
According to political liberalism, the king’s powers should be limited and there must be written
rules that protect the rights of people.
b. Economic Liberalism
It is an economic philosophy that supports and promotes laissez-faire which means ‘let
them do, let them pass’ economics and private property in the means of production. Proponents
of economic liberalism believe political freedom and social freedom are inseparable with
economic freedom, and use philosophical arguments promoting liberty to justify economic
liberalism and free market.30
b. Nationalism
22
It was the awareness that being part of a community and people that belong to a nation
became aware of the fact that they have been sharing the same tradition, culture, language,
religion. Also, nationalism was more effective than the liberalism in Europe during this era. After
nationalism movements in Europe, multinational states broke up. They wanted to get their own
autonomy from multinational states. On the other hand, according to Encyclopaedia Britannica
the American and French revolutions may be regarded as its first powerful manifestations. After
penetrating the new countries of Latin America it spread in the early 19th century to central
Europe and from there, toward the middle of the century, to eastern and south Eastern Europe.
At the beginning of the 20th century nationalism flowered in the ancient lands of Asia and Africa.
Thus the 19th century has been called the age of nationalism in Europe, while the 20th century
has witnessed the rise and struggle of powerful national movements throughout Asia and Africa.31
c. Racism
Racism exists when one ethnic gathering or authentic collectively rules, avoids, or tries to take
out an alternate on the premise of contrasts that it accepts are genetic and unalterable. An
ideological premise for unequivocal racism happened as expected in the West during the modern
period. No reasonable and unequivocal confirmation of bigotry has been found in different
societies or in Europe before the Middle Ages. The association of the Jews with the demon and
witchcraft in the famous personality of the thirteenth and fourteenth hundreds was maybe the
first indication of a supremacist perspective of the world. Authority authorize for such demeanour
came in sixteenth century Spain when Jews who had changed over to Christianity and their
descendants turned into the casualties of an example of separation and avoidance. 32The time of
the Renaissance and Reformation was additionally the time when Europeans were coming into
expanding contact with individuals of darker pigmentation in Africa, Asia, and the Americas and
were making judgments about them. The authority justification for subjugating Africans was that
they were pagans, however slave merchants and slave holders now and again deciphered a
section in the book of Genesis as their support. Ham, they kept up, dedicated a transgression
against his dad Noah that sentenced his as far as anyone knows dark relatives to be "servants
unto servants." Virginia laws, proclaimed in 1667, changed over what reasons the slaves could be
kept in servitude. It was no longer on account of them being rapscallions but since they had
barbarian family, the definition for dark servitude was accordingly changed from religious status
to something approaching race. 33Starting in the late seventeenth century laws were additionally
passed in English North America precluding marriage in the middle of whites and blacks and
oppressing the blended posterity of casual contacts. Without unmistakably saying as much, such
laws suggested that blacks were unalterably outsider and second rate. Amid the Enlightenment,
23
a mainstream or investigative hypothesis of race moved the subject far from the Bible, with its
emphasis on the crucial solidarity of humankind. Eighteenth century ethnologists started to
consider people as a feature of the characteristic world and subdivided them into three to five
races, generally considered as assortments of a solitary human animal types. In the late
eighteenth and early nineteenth hundreds of years, notwithstanding, an expanding number of
authors, particularly those focused on the resistance of bondage, kept up that the races
constituted separate species. The Nineteenth century was a period of liberation, patriotism, and
colonialism -all of which added to the development and strengthening of ideological prejudice in
Europe and the United States. In spite of the fact that the liberation of blacks from servitude and
Jews from the ghettoes got the majority of its backing from religious or common professors in a
crucial human equity, the result of these changes was to strengthen as opposed to lessen
prejudice. Race relations got to be less paternalistic and more aggressive. The insecurities of a
blossoming mechanical private enterprise made a requirement for substitutes. The Darwinian
accentuation on "the battle for presence" and sympathy toward "the survival of the fittest" was
helpful for the advancement of another and more dependable investigative bigotry in a time that
inexorably saw race relations as a coliseum for clash as opposed to as a stable chain of command.
The development of patriotism, particularly sentimental social patriotism, empowered the
development of a society coded variation of supremacist thought, particularly in Germany.
Starting in the late 1870s and early 1880s, the coiners of the expression "discrimination against
Jews" made express what some social patriots had beforehand inferred -that to be Jewish in
Germany was not just to stick to a set of religious convictions or social practices however implied
fitting in with a race that was the direct opposite of the race to which genuine Germans had a
place. The peak of Western colonialism in the late nineteenth century "Scramble for Africa" and
parts of Asia and the Pacific spoke to an attestation of the aggressive ethnic patriotism that existed
among European countries (and which, as a consequence of the Spanish-American War came to
incorporate the United States). It additionally constituted a case, supposedly focused around
science, that Europeans had the privilege to govern over Africans and Asians. The peak of the
historical backdrop of racism came in the twentieth century in the ascent and fall of what may be
called plainly supremacist administrations. In the American South, the entry of racial isolation laws
and limitations on dark voting rights diminished African Americans to lower standing status.
Compelling bigot publicity, which spoke to dark guys as ravening monsters craving white ladies,
served to legitimize the act of lynching. A key gimmick of the supremacist administration kept up
by state law in the South was a dread of sexual tainting through assault or intermarriage, which
24
prompted endeavors to keep the marital union of whites with those with any known or discernible
African set of relatives.34
I. 1848 REVOLUTIONS
1848 Revolutions are the movements of freedom in various countries in Europe. Especially
in Italy, Germany, France, Austria, Poland, Romania and Hungary have had a great upheaval
during this period. The other great powers of the period – Russia, the Ottoman Empire, the United
Kingdom and the Netherlands are relatively unaffected by these events.
When the Industrial Revolution in Europe was largely completed in 19th century, industrial
workers and poor people living in big cities and in villages existed at a time with an increase in the
income of the companies. Workers were working 13-15 hours in a day, they continued to live in
difficult conditions and in unhealthy and dirty places. Unemployment has led to a growing
population and insufficient lands in villages for constantly growing population, also it has led to
inadequate infrastructure. Due to reasons which were mainly the great senses of dissatisfaction
among the lower classes because of the life conditions – mostly about economic reasons revolution movements began. Revolution firstly emerged in Belgium in 1845 and it spread to
other European countries. In the same year, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels wrote the Communist
Manifesto, advocating a revolution that would lead to a classless society and the elimination of
private ownership. It was published in February 1, 1848. In various parts of the revolutionary ideas
25
of the society under these conditions has found many supporters and finally in 1848, the
revolution broke out with all the violence.
Revolutions of 1848 was the result of the most common mass unrest of the 19th century.
This mass movement had a major influence on society in France, the German Confederation,
Prussia, Habsburg Empire and Italy. Russia stayed out of them. Revolutions of 1848 was the result
of great disappointment of society and widespread unrest of members of different social classes
and professions in Europe. Workers, students, craftsmen and activists were leading the revolution
in Paris, Berlin and Vienna. Businessmen and lawyers were the community leaders at that time
and they approached at first with sympathy for the uprising of self-introduction of the activists.
However, after a while, when these uprisings became dangerous for society and especially for
their business they tried to put some limits for these demonstrations. At the very beginning of
1848’s, they have clearly stated their views on the establishment of an interim government and
had a variety of effects on that process.
As of 1848, most of them were artisans who led the mass movement of revolutionary
militants, especially weavers, were metal workers in Paris and Berlin. In the last few decades,
society was the most readily available elements of an explosion since they were faced with
challenges of economic change everywhere. Europe had witnessed increased production and
decreased emphasis on skilled labor in the major state and opened well with masters from the
manager. A strong revolutionary factor was the disappearance of the social and economic upward
mobility opportunities which could have been a result of the deterioration of conditions. In the
19th century, this situation was becoming increasingly widespread since industrialization was
more difficult to pass mastery of the managerial and skilled workers to unskilled workers. As
known, in many countries population growth caused migration from rural areas to urban areas
and because of those who migrated from rural to urban, artisans were under pressure in cities.
Also, governments were unwilling to realize artisans’ wishes. Indeed, they made laws
corresponding to their interests. For example, in France protections that were offered by the guild
on artisans was removed. As a result of all these events, 1848 was a year which was the peak of
these movements. Artisans went to the streets of Berlin, Vienna, Prague and marched against the
Parliament’s proposals.
It can be thought that 1848 Revolutions were the events that were unprecedented at first
in France and it occurred very suddenly. Actually, the first reason to have such a victory is that
26
there was no huge effect of opposition campaign on revolutions. That was all the people who
walked in Paris streets. Although troop units resisted, the people of Paris won the victory against
the bourgeois – conservative kingdom. On the other hand, this victory in Paris can be considered
as one of the keystones of the February Revolution in Russia. Second reason is that although the
production and wealth was constantly increasing, effects of the new economic crisis started to be
experienced by the society and they did want to get rid of these effects immediately.
On the other hand, most of the revolutions in 1848 were unorganized and rather
unexpected. Still, people have demanded a constitution for all the Habsburg Empire; meanwhile
in Vienna in the following weeks in March student demonstrations which would turn into a mass
uprisings started. Berlin also started to be affected by the same process and barricades were set
up in April. Such demonstrations began in Sicily, Rome, and Venice respectively.
All in all, authorities in Europe could not resist so much and collapsed one by one. The
factors involved in all of the 1848 Revolutions in Europe can be summarized as follows: There was
a sweeping dissatisfaction with the existing political leadership. Also, there was a call for increased
participation in government and the demand for democracy. Furthermore, there was a rapid
growth of nationalism and the frustrations and demands of the working class. Lastly, there was a
reactionary forces that comprised the aristocracy, the army and the peasantry. The 1848
Revolutions in Europe reflected the dissatisfaction throughout Europe of the oppressive nature of
aristocratic and monarchical rule.35
27
J. AFRICA
Unlike most of the rest of Africa, South Africa was inadequately populated when the first
Europeans arrived. The came, not to settle, but to resupply their boats on long voyages from
Europe to Southern Asia. At the point when the first European settlement was made, it confronted
little resistance, yet as it extended throughout the following a few eras, African opposition became
significant. At last, the battle to control South Africa included both foreign and indigenous
Europeans as well as Africans. Southern Africa turned into the site of the most punctual European
settlement in modern African history in 1652, when workers of the Dutch East India Company
made a supply base on the shore of Table Bay, the site of the modern city of Cape Town. Through
the following 150 years, Dutch pioneers involved the area encompassing Table Bay and to the
east along the coast, making Cape Colony.
During the Napoleonic Wars, the administration of Cape Colony changed. After the French
vanquished the Netherlands, the British seized the control of Cape Colony in 1795, returned it to
the Dutch in 1803 and seized it again in 1806. After 1806, they step by step augmented their
control along the coast to the east. The Boers - who are South Africans of Dutch, German or
Huguenot descent, especially one of the early settlers of the Transvaal and the Orange Free State
and today the descendant of the Boers are commonly referred to as Afrikaners disdained British
tenet, despite the fact that British control brought monetary profits to the Boers. British control
28
expanded the opportunities for Boer ranchers to export sheep and fleece and hunters to export
ivory taken from the interior. Then again, the British angered Boers by abrogating servitude in
1807, despite the fact that they reduced the effect in 1809 with the “Hottentot Law”. This was the
first of a series of pass laws initiated by the British authorities, and it aimed helping the Afrikaner
farmers by way of controlling the mobility of the labour force. It “decreed that every Hottentot
was to have a fixed ‘place of abode’ and that if he wished to move he had to obtain a pass from
his master or from a local official. (Lapping 1986: 36)
36
Under this law, all blacks were obliged to
carry passes with the name of their boss and residence when they were in public, and any black
found without a pass could be taken by any white for labor. At the point when news of the
Hottentot Law produced a clamor in Britain, the Cape Colony administration added provisions
that required whites to give a written contract to their black laborers and gave blacks the privilege
to sue their employer in court for rupture of agreement. This angered Boers, especially after a
British judge visited rustic territories to hear lawsuits brought by African workers. Boers were
further angered when Christian missionaries, who started to touch base from Britain after 1815,
championed African rights and got the administration to pass ordinance 50, which removed the
most prohibitive provisions of the Hottentot Law in 1828. The final straw for some Boers came in
1833 when the British parliement prohibited the ownership of slaves throughout the empire.
Poorer Boers who possessed just a couple of slaves were particularly agrieved in light of the fact
that they could not stand to pay enough wages to attract replacement workers. In the meantime,
wealthier Boers dissented the loss of what they thought to be a huge capital investment. The new
law incited a mass relocation of Boer ranchers – also known as Trekboer -, first towards Natal,
which the British annexed in 1845, then towards the interior in Orange Free State and in the end
more remote to the upper east into the district of Transvaal. The British did not attempt to stop
Boers, since their departure decreased the strain in their own territory, and rather approved the
outcomes with a couple of bargains: the Sand River Convention of 1852 which recognized the
independence of Boer Republic of the Transvaal, and the Bloemfontein Convention of 1854 which
recognized the freedom of a second Boer republic, the Orange Free State. Tensions remained,
however, between the Boers who stayed behind in Cape Colony and The British administration.
Those tensions were raise by the Trekboer disposition towards the remaning free African
kindgdoms, which the British government saw as such a provacative. However, some of those
living in Cape Colony symphized with the Boer hatred of the ‘royal factor’. At the point when
Disraeli’s Colonial Secretary Lord Carnarvon attempted to organize a federation of British and
Boer territories in 1875, the Boer pioneers turned him down. Actually, it is easy to understand
how the situation was hard for natives and occupying powers in South Africa. However, important
29
point is here knowing the situation from different aspects. In order to understand why all these
challenges, migrations, deaths, wars, diseases and all diffculties happened at this region, purpose
of the occupying powers must be understood.
The nineteenth century in Europe was a period of industrialization. Factories in Europe needed to
have raw materials to be manufactured into marketable products. As a result, Europeans looked
for both a sourve of raw materials and in addition a business opportunity for fabricated products
in Africa. This financial inspiration assumed an extensive part in the colonization of Africa.
Moreover, on this points, we have to turn back to nationalism. Nationalism – a strong of
identification with and pride in one’s nation-resulted in competition between European nations.
This rival frequently brought about wars between countries. Rivalry over colonial expansion in
Africa was an alternate way that national rivalry between European countries was showed in the
late nineteenth century. One of the main reasons for the Scramble for Africa was the competition
and opposition between European nations and none of them wanted to be without colonies in
Africa. The competition was especially strong between Britain, France, and Germany. On the other
hand, philosophies of racial hierarchy were predominant in Europe in the nineteenth century.
Numerous Europeans saw themselves as the most progressive civilization on the planet. Some of
them sat it as their mission to enlighten and civilize people in whatever is left of the world.
Numerous inaccurate and racialized stereotypes of African people groups, which existed at the
time, were utilized to justify colonialism in Africa. The colonization of Africa coincided with the
expansion of Christian missionary activity in Africa. Christianity was acquainted with whatever
remains of Africa in the modern era. Christian missionary activity started decisively in the
nineteenth century during the same time with European nations were getting to be more
occupied with Africa. Historians do not concede to what the relationship was between Christian
missionary activity and colonialism. Nonetheless, evidences suggest that numerous historians
contradicted the harsher parts of colonialism, they were supportive the colonization of African
countries. Missionaries believe that if the colonial states become successful in Africa, it would give
great opportunity for the missionaries to facilitate missionary activities in Africa. Such a support
did play a crucial role to legitimate the colonial endeavour among the residents of the imperial
power in Europe. European Ccountries had the capacity to make certain areas of Africa into their
settlement in two fundamental ways. Some African pioneers were ready to sign treaties with
Europeans for different reasons. In some cases, they saw it to their profit to gain European
partners. In different cases, there was not a reasonable comprehension of what the settlements
were about or what the results of them would be. Besides, military power was utilized as a part of
a few situations when there was a lot of resistance to colonial rule.
30
K. Otto Von Bismarck
Germany’s Bismarck took advantage of the diplomatic outcry over the Anglo-Portuguese
Treaty to call an international meeting that met in Berlin from November 15, 1884 to February 26,
1885. Bismarck’s initiative came as something of a shock in light of the fact that Germany was not
a noteworthy colonial power, having just a couple of cases in view of a Lutheran mission in
Southwest Africa and a heap of arrangements gathered by private traveler Karl Peters. Yet,
Bismarck was continually searching for approaches to reinforce his new country, so he had
various motivations to hold the conference. France was antagonistic to Germany after its 1871
defeat and loss of the regions of Alcase and Lorraine in the Franco-Prussian War.
The following year, Prussia turned into the core of the German Empire, with Bismarck as
prime minister. Bismarck wanted to enhance Franco-German relations and specifically, support
French enthusiasm for colonialism, so they would overlook their desire for revenge. By hosting a
worldwide conference, it presented eminence on the German government which was just thirteen
years of age at the time. The German missionaries in Southwest Africa, Karl Peters in East Africa
and German dealers in Togo and Cameroon had started to look for the German government’s
support for their cases and claims in Africa. Despite the fact that Bismarck by and by considered
settlements, colonies to be expensive and useless, he planned to utilize the meeting as a cheap
approach to ratify the current German position in Africa. Bismarck believed that the dialogs about
31
free trade and free route would raise the tension between France and England who had as of now
gotten to be threatening after England’s 1882 takeover of the Suez Canal in Egypt.
L. The Congo Dispute
The principle question among Europeans was over route and business rights in the Congo
River Basin. The first Europeans to claim the territory were the Portuguese who investigated the
mouth of the waterway in the fifteenth century. In spite of the fact that maritime boats could
cruise inland for roughly 120 miles along the lower Congo River, a series of chasms and waterfalls
hindered the path to the Upper Congo River, which was navigable for hundreds of miles. The
Portuguese claims went unchallenged for a few centuries until French maritime officer PierrePaul-François de Brazza-Savorgnan referred to just as Savorgnan de Brazza started to investigate
the area. From 1875 to 1878, he followed the Ogoue River located the north part of the Congo
upstream looking for a backup way to go to the Upper Congo River that evaded Portuguese
region. In spite of the fact that he failed on his first attempt, he attempted once again in 18791882 and succeeded in arriving at the Congo River by taking after the Ogoue River and
progressing overland to the Lefini River, a tributary of the Congo. Amid this expedition, he signed
a treaty on September 10,1880 with the head of the Bateke people who lived on the north side of
the Upper Congo River. The treaty conceded France a protectorate over the Bateke land which
incorporated a stretch of the norht bank of the Upper Congo River at Ntambo. This case was vital
because from there, The Congo River was traversable for more than one thousand miles. If
someone can establish a port, they can easily have access to much of Central Africa. Before
Savorgnan de Brazza left, he put the new post under the summon of an African sergeant from
Senegal named Malamine and two other Senegalese officers, then came back to the coast by
taking after the Congo itself. Along the way, Savorgnan de Brazza met Henry M. Stanley, an
American voyager who had been utilized by King Leopold of Belgium to lead a campaign from the
Atlantic Coast to Ntambo. Stanley was enraged to learn that the French campaign had beaten him
to the Upper Congo, and when he landed at Ntambo he attempted to threaten Malamine and his
soldiers into taking off. The Senegalese declined and stayed at their posts until 1883 when
Savorgnan de Brazza came back with a bigger power to compose the province that turned into
the French Congo. The British had no immediate claim on the Congo basin, nor did they have any
specific requirement for one. Their empire was situated in Asia and their fundamental enthusiasm
for Africa was to protect their communication with India. On the other hand, the British had close
relations with the Portuguese, so they procured business rights in Portugal’s colonies in return
for securing their claims against infringement by different Europeans. On February 26, 1884
32
Britain and Portugal signed a treaty that saved route rights on the Congo River to Britain alone,
in return for Britain’s support for Portuguese control of the mouth of the river. The treaty
maddened the majority of the European powers, and specifically, kept the French from exploiting
Savorgnan de Brazza’s treaties. Despite the fact that international protest forced the Portuguese
and British to abandon their treaty on June 26, the issue stayed uncertain. It turned into one of
the motivations to call the Berlin Congress of 1884-1885.
M.
King Leopold II of Belgium
He was the king of Belgians from 1865 to 1909 and he was enthusiastic about making
Belgium as a magnificent force, he led the first European endeavours to build up and to develop
the Congo River basin, making conceivable the arrangement in 1885 of tho Congo Free State,
annexed in 1908 as the Belgian Congo and now the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Despite
the fact that he assumed a critical part in the improvement of the advanced Belgian state, he also
was responsible for widespread barbarities conferred under his rule against his colonial subjects.
So, it means that he bought the region and enslaved its people, he did make the whole region his
own, personal slave plantation. He masked his business transactions as ‘charitable’ and ‘scientific’
under the banner of International African Society. He utilized their subjugated work to
concentrate Congoloses assets and administration. His rule was implemented through work
camps, body mutilations, torment, executions and his own private armed force.
N. Countries
i.
Germany
As stated before, Otto von Bismarck has become the key figure for both Germany and Europe
affairs. His foreign policy was mainly focused on keeping France isolated from European politics.
That was the reason why he wanted to remain on good relations with both Austria and Russia.
Therefore, Dreikaiserbund (The League of the Three Emperors) between Germany, Austria, and
Russia emerged. It was an alliance of three conservative monarchies in order to prevent a
revolution in Europe and keep the status quo in Europe. 37
Bismarck was very cautious about the first involvement of Germany in the “Scramble for Africa”
since he did not want to disturb the balance of power in Europe. Colonial expansion of Germany
could break the relations with Britain which was a power that Bismarck wanted to be in good
terms with. Nonetheless, in 1882, the German Colonial League was formed and this created a
33
huge pressure coming from public and the press. People were attracted by vast wealth, prestige,
and a channel for German emigration. Thus, Bismarck had to pursue colonies in Africa reluctantly.
38
German foreign sea-borne trade dating back to Hanseatic League was a tradition consisting of
German emigration. The Hanseatic republics of Hamburg and Bremen had traders across the
world. Those traders involved in treaties and land purchases in Africa and Pacific with chiefs or
tribal leaders. Before the Berlin Conference, this would form the basis for annexation treaties,
diplomatic support, and military protection by the German empire. 39
ii.
The United Kingdom
Like Bismarck, the objective of British foreign policy was also to protect the balance of power in
Europe and intervene it if it was at stake. They also wanted to protect its overseas interest in the
colonies and dominions since free trade was a significant factor for the British economy. As a
result of these policies, Britain embraced a policy of ‘Splendid Isolation’ that has been
characterized by reluctance to enter into permanent European alliances or commitments to other
Great Powers. However, this policy had to change after the 1871 unification of German Empire
due to the fact that Bismarck started to look for alliances with other European powers to prevent
the rise of France. 40
Colonization has always been a policy for Britain since the Industrial Revolution because of the
necessity of raw materials. The ships from colonies came to Britain with rum, cotton, sugar, and
tobacco mainly produced by slaves. After Queen Victoria became the ruler in 1837, Britain’s desire
for colonies increased. 41
In South Africa, British settlement started in 1824 on the coast of Natal, proclaimed a British colony
in 1843. Until the scramble for Africa in 1880s, Britain showed little interest in Africa outside the
Cape. An early exception was just Sierra Leone founded in 1788 as British colony. 42
iii.
France
After the Third Republic of France in 1871, French foreign policy was mainly shaped by its relations
with Germany. Their demand was the return of Alsace and Lorraine that was lost to Germany in
1871.
43
Before the Scramble for Africa, there were French colonies in Asia, and France became
allies with Japan. To modernize the Japanese army they sent military missions between 1872 and
1880.
44
The Suez Canal became a joint British-French project in 1875 since it was important for
34
both of them to maintain their influence in Asia. In 1882, when Britain had to intervene in Egypt,
France allowed Britain to take effective control of Egypt.
The main French presence in Africa began with the colonization of Senegal starting in 1854. At the
beginning of Napoleon III’s reign, France’ activity was just limited to trading post on the island of
Goree, a narrow strip on the coast, the town of Saint-Louis. The economy of France had been
based on slave trade in colonies until France abolished slavery in 1848. In Senegal, Napoleon III
wanted to govern and expand the colony and begin a modern economy. Therefore, he made
alliances with the interior and built a new port in Dakar. Afterwards, Dakar became one of the
most important cities of Africa. 45
In the midst of Scramble for Africa, France was another superior country in the region who wanted
to expand their colonies.
iv.
Belgium
Belgium was relatively a new country in the late 19th century because they gained their
independence in 1830. Afterwards, King Leopold II came to power in 1865, and his policy was that
colonies would greatly enhance Belgium’s wealth and prestige. 46
As mentioned above, European adventurers experienced great difficulty because of the
geographical conditions in the region, such as tropical climate and diseases. In the 1870s, King
Leopold II created a sham organization called the International African Association in order to
maintain colonization in the region. Moreover, he sent the explorer Henry Morton Stanly to the
region to made treaties with native tribes, set up military posts, and forced Muslim slave traders
to out of the region. However, the problem for him was that most of Belgium’s government
leaders and citizens did not want to spend huge amount of money for these colonies. Although
there was an opposition like that, King Leopold II wanted to found Congo Free State as a freetrade zone. 47
v.
Italy
In the early 19th century, the unification of Italy was started, and this unification brought the belief
that Italy needs to have its own overseas empire, alongside the other powers of Europe. However,
Italy was a little late for this colonial race, so they needed the help of Britain, France, and Germany
to become an empire. 48
Italy wanted to colonize the Ottoman province of Tunisia where a larger community of Tunisian
Italian lived. However, this region was given to the protectorate of France as the result of the
35
Treaty of Bardo in 1880. For Italian press, this caused to Italian isolation in Europe and let Italy to
enter into Triple Alliance with Austria and Germany. 49
vi.
Austria-Hungary
Austria – Hungary was founded as a result of the Compromise of 1867 and ruled by House of
Habsburgs. They have become one of the world’s great powers in a short time. After losing the
war against Prussia in Italy in 1866, the Dual Monarchy was created. Count Friedrich Ferdinand
von Beust became foreign secretary who had negative relations with Otto von Bismarck. For an
anti-Prussian alliance, he tried to negotiate with Emperor Napoleon III and Italy. However,
decisive victory of Prussia-German against France in 1870 and the unification of Germany ended
the attempts of Beust. 50
After this unsuccessful attempt, the Dual Monarchy had to target Balkans in which nationalistic
movements were active in order to gain independence from Ottoman Empire. This was also a
Russian objective in the region in order to expand their territories. However, as a result of the
Congress of Berlin in 1878, Austria occupied Bosnia and Herzegovina dominated by Slavs. 51
When the Scramble for Africa had started, Austrian navy have made a few expeditions in Borneo,
Guadalcanal, and China, but they were beaten back by indigenous resistance. Therefore, before
the Berlin Conference, there was a lack of support by the government to have new colonies in
Africa. 52
vii.
Denmark
In the 19th century, the German – Danish war in 1864 has become a turning point for the foreign
policy of Denmark. In 1863, Denmark adopted a joint constitution for the Danish kingdom and the
duchy of Schleswig. This meant the violation of international agreements about the indivisibility
of Schleswig and Holstein. Therefore, Germany intervened in Denmark and won the battle in 1864.
As a result of this war, the government of Denmark thought that Germany was aiming to expand,
and they were in danger from the South. 53
Because of the threat of Germany, Denmark’s priority was to keep territorial maintenance rather
than getting colonies in Africa. 54 55
viii.
Sweden – Norway
It is true that Sweden – Norway Union did not face any certain threats during the early 19th
century. However, in 1864, invasion of Denmark urged the country against Germany and people
36
in Sweden wanted to help Danes, but due to the strong power of these big powers, this has never
become important.56
Before the Berlin Conference, they were not looking for a colony, but they were invited to this
conference in order to help great powers to ratify possible colonial movements. 57
ix.
Spain
The early 19th century was turmoil for Spain since this century just started with three abdications
all in the year of 1808. Under the leadership of Napoleon, Spanish, French, and Anglo-Portuguese
troops crossed the country and replaced the king Ferdinand with Joseph who is the older brother
of Napoleon. 58
Due to political turmoil, Spain was not in a position to demand big territories. However, although
they would have a minor role in the Berlin Conference, they may have had an interest in Equatorial
Guinea since they had a role in the region when Portuguese assigned their rights in the region
gained via the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1778. 59
x.
Ottoman Empire
In the 19th century, Ottoman Empire had a lot of problems with the separatist nationalistic
movements in the West by Greeks and Serbs and broken government affairs in Egypt by their own
governor in the region. Also, in 1876, a revolt started by Bulgarian in Plovdiv was suppressed with
extreme violence, and this resulted in anti-Turkish feelings in the region. As a result of this conflict,
Russia declared war against Ottoman Empire and gained a position to threaten Istanbul,
particularly the Straits. With these major changes in Balkans, Western powers convened a
congress to solve the problems in Balkans because especially Britain did not want a ‘great
Bulgaria’ that is in good relations with Russia in the region. As a result of the Congress of Berlin
in 1878, Serbia and Romania became independent and Bosnia – Herzegovina started to be ruled
by Austria - Hungary. Also, Britain granted the control of Cyprus. 60
In the midst of Berlin Conference, Ottomans had a weak position due to this political environment.
However, according to Minawi, Ottoman had a demand for parts of Sub-Saharan Africa as the
‘hinterland’ of their remaining North Africa provinces. Moreover, they wanted to keep their
European competitors busy in Africa in order to prevent the demands on their country. 61
37
xi.
Russia
At the beginning of the 19th century, Russian foreign policy mainly focused on the three western
neighbor countries which were Sweden, Poland, and Ottoman Empire. The policy toward these
countries shaped the relations with France, Austria, and Great Britain.62
After the destruction of Napoleonic domination and the annexation of the Grand Duchy of
Warsaw, Russia has reached their maximum expansion in the West. The movement of Russia
towards the South led to conflict with Turkey. Russian policy was aiming to settle ‘the Straits
Question’ in favor for Russia. However, Britain did not want to see a strong Russia who is superior
in the Straits, so they formed a coalition against Russia with France, Sardinia, and Ottoman. As a
result of the Crimean War, Russia lost the war and had to renounce their demands on the Straits
in 1856. 63
Although Russia extended its borders in the West, it would have been problematic for Russia to
have colonies in Africa because they had no access to the Atlantic Ocean or a navy to reach Africa
at the time of the Berlin Conference. Maybe, this was why Russia wanted to expand toward Crimea
and Balkans in order to reach the Mediterranean at the time.
xii.
The United States of America
Generally, The United States of America followed an isolationist policy in their foreign affairs with
Europe, so it maintained its policy of avoiding wars with and between European powers.
Moreover, the US expanded its foreign trade and scope steadily during the century. 64
The United States has been active in Africa since the foundation of American Colonization Society
(ACS), established in 1816 by Robert Finley. With this foundation, ACS offered emigration to Liberia
to free black slaves, but actually emancipated slave Lott Carry became the first American Baptist
missionary in Africa, and this colonization attempt was resisted by native people. Although Liberia
has never been as big as expected, it was just the first step of American colonization in the region.
Therefore, Jehudi Ashmun, an early leader of ACS, considered an American empire in Africa, so
between 1825 and 1826 he leased, annexed, or buy tribal lands along the coast. The society
controlled Liberia until Liberia became independent state in 1847. By 1867, 13.000 emigrants
came to the region. After the American Civil War from 1861 to 1865, financial support for
emigration decreased.65
38
xiii.
Portugal
Like Spain, Portugal also became the target of Napoleon in the early 19th century. In October 1807,
Napoleon decided to invade Portugal in order to prevent the British activity in Europe. As a result
of the treaty signed at Fontainebleau, Portugal joined France, and France took the control Lisbon
and Oporto. However, Britain hit back this invasion with a mission led by Sir Arthur Wellesley
known as Wellington on 1 August 1808. Thus, Britain gained a decisive victory in the region. As a
result of this battle, French army had to withdraw from Portugal, and Lisbon was liberated in
August 31. However, French army invaded Burgos in January 1809, and Wellington started
another campaign in 1809 and liberated Portugal again. With the end of the Peninsula war and
ultimate defeat of Napoleon in 1814, Portugal entered a brief period of hiatus. 66
By the beginning of 19th century, Portugal controlled six locations in Africa. One of the most
important outposts of Portugal in the region was Cape Verde Islands located about 700 miles from
Senegal because these eight islands were used for sugar cultivation using slaves. 67
The abolition of slave trade coincided with the increase of Portuguese presence in Angola. By the
mid-century, Portugal has extended their control farther east to near Congo River. They also
attempted to gain the control of the coast from Luanda north to Cabinda through military
operations. However, because of British opposition, they have never been able to control the
Congo River. Due to French and Belgian activities in Congo River, Portugal occupied Cabinda and
Massabi north of the Congo River, which Portugal had long claimed. Portugal wanted to uphold
their demands to Britain with a treaty, but Britain rejected these demands of Portugal. However,
Portugal found this opportunity with the call of Otto von Bismarck who wanted to diminish French
and British power in the region, and Berlin Conference was called. 68
xiv.
The Netherlands
By the beginning of 19th century, the Netherlands was under the control of the French under the
rule of Napoleon. However, in 1813, Napoleon was defeated, and William of Orange returned to
Netherlands. In 1814, he became King William I and ruled Belgium and the Netherlands together.
However, due to political and cultural differences, Belgium and the Netherlands had to be divided
as a result of rebellion of Belgians in 1830. When William I died in 1840, his son came to power
and introduced a new liberal constitution that resulted in a stable country for years. 69
The Dutch presence in Africa had started by the 17th century when Dutch colonists arrived in South
Africa. Their main interests were to provide fresh meat, vegetables, and water for other Dutch
ships passing by on their way to India. Moreover, South Africa could also be a stop for sailors who
39
were ill to get medical treatment, so they wanted to build hospitals in the region. However, Britain
invaded this region in 1795, and all attempts of Dutch to colonize South Africa were lost. 70
O. GLOSSARY
i.
Balance of Power
Balance of Power, in international relations, refers to the policy of a state or nation protecting
itself against another nation or group of nations by matching its power against the power of the
other side. States can pursue a policy of balance of power in two ways: by expanding their own
particular power, as when engaging in an armaments race or in the competitive acquisition of
territory; or by adding to their own power that of other states, as when embarking upon a policy
of alliances.71. It was exercised through the Concert of Europe and the period between 1815 and
1914 in Europe is considered one of the textbook examples of a balance of power system.
ii.
Concert of Europe
“Concert of Europe in the post-Napoleonic era, was a vague consensus among the European
monarchies favouring preservation of the territorial and political status quo. The term assumed
the responsibility and right of the great powers to intervene and impose their collective will on
states threatened by internal rebellion. The powers notably suppressed uprisings in Italy (1820)
and Spain (1822) but later condoned Belgium’s rebellion and proclamation of independence
(1830). Made obsolete in its original form by the revolutions of 1830 and 1848 and by the
subsequent unifications of Italy and Germany, the Concert of Europe survived for most of the 19th
century in the consultations among the great powers on territorial questions”72
iii.
Terra Nullius
This term, in international relations, can be translated into English as ‘land that belongs to noone’. In international law, ‘terra nullius’ describes territory that nobody owns so that the first
nation to discover it is entitled to take it over, as ‘finders keepers’. Moreover it indicates land that
has been claimed by no sovereign. The concept is often referenced in connection with European
conquest of the Americas, Australia and Africa.73
iv.
Direct Rule
“In a direct rule, a colony would be governed by foreign officials while no self-rule was given to
natives. The goal was assimilation of the colony into an empire. Government institutions were
based on European governments. The Belgian King Leopold II practiced the most brutal style of
direct rule in the Belgian Congo. Almost 10,000,000 Congolese were killed in his entire rule. France
40
also often practiced direct rule of her colonies. Vietnam, Algeria, Morocco, and Tunisia are notable
examples.”74
v.
Indirect rule
“In an indirectly ruled colony, local government officials might be used, while the native upperclass was given limited self-rule over the colony. The goal was to Westernize future leaders of a
colony in order to perpetuate a power’s control. This was accomplished in Raj India under the
British East India Tea Company until the Sepoy Rebellion. After the rebellion was put down, the
British Government assumed direct rule over the colony.” 75
P. Participants of the Berlin Conference
Belgium: Auguste Marie François Beernaert, Cabinet Chief
Germany: Otto Van Bismark, Chancellor
Denmark: Jacob Brønnum Scavenius Estrup, Prime Minister
France: Jules Grévy, President
Italy: Agostino Depretis, Prime Minister
United Kingdom: William Ewart Gladstone , Prime Minister
Netherlands: Jan Heemskerk, Chairman of Council of Ministers
Portugal: Ernesto Rodolfo Hintze Ribeiro, Prime Minister
Spain: Antonio Cánovas Del Castillo, Prime Minister
Sweden-Norway: Robert Themptander, Prime Minister
Russia: Nicholas de Giers, Foreign Minister
Austria-Hungary: Count Eduard von Taa!e, Minister-President of Austria
Kálmán Tisza, Minister-President of Hungary
United States: Walter Quintin Gresham, Secretary of State
Ottoman Empire: Küçük Mehmet Sait Pasha, Grand Vizier
41
Q. Agenda of the Berlin Conference of 1884-1885
- Freedom of Trade in the Basin of Congo
- Slave trade
- Neutrality of the Territories in the basin of the Congo
- Navigation of the Congo
- Navigation of the Niger
- Rules for future occupation on (the coast) of the African continent
R. Questions to be Considered
1) What is the importance of Africa for the other nations and for colonialism?
2) What was the importance of Africa for world trade and how was the world trade in 19.th century
between east and west?
3) When you try to compare industrial products in Europe and America, what kind of conclusions can
be drawn?
4) How was the situation of slavery in 19.th century in Africa?
5) What was the effects of 1848 revolutions on the Berlin Congress of 1884-1885?
6) What is the difference between direct and indirect rule? How do they effect the colonization
process?
7) What was Otto Van Bismarck’s role in The Berlin Congress of 1884-1885?
S. Further Reading
-
General Act of the Berlin Conference on West Africa, 26 February 1885:
http://africanhistory.about.com/od/eracolonialism/l/n_BerlinAct1885.htm
42
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