Download Primary circular reaction

5Cognitive Development in
Infancy
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© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers
Piaget’s Views
Recall from Chapter Two
•
Assimilation
– Process of fusing incoming information to existing
schemes to make sense of experiences
•
Accommodation
– Changing a scheme to incorporate new
information
•
Sensorimotor Intelligence
– Refinement of innate schemes by experiences of
the senses and motor actions
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Piaget’s Views
• Primary circular reaction: simple repetitive
actions organized around the infant’s own body
• Secondary circular reaction: baby repeatedly
exhibits behavior to produce a desired outcome
• Means-end behavior: purposeful behavior to
achieve a goal
• Tertiary circular reaction: experiment with
different behaviors to ascertain the outcomes
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Piaget’s Sensorimotor Stage
SENSORIMOTOR SUBSTAGE
AGE
1. Basic Reflexes
Birth to 1 month
2. Primary Circular Reactions
3. Secondary Circular
Reactions
4. Coordination of Secondary
Schemes
5. Tertiary Circular Reactions
1 to 4 months
6. Transition to Symbolic
Thought
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4 to 8 months
8 to 12 months
12 to 18 months
18 to 24 months
Piaget’s Sensorimotor Stage
Object Permanence
•
The realization that objects still exist
when hidden from sight
– 2 months – rudimentary expectations shown
by surprise when an object disappears
– 6 – 8 months – looking for a missing object
for a brief period of time
– 8 – 12 months – reaching for or search for a
toy that is completely hidden
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Piaget’s Sensorimotor Stage
Imitation
•
2 months – can imitate actions they could see
themselves make
•
8 – 12 months – can imitate other people’s
facial expressions
•
1 year – imitation of any action that wasn’t in
the child’s repertoire begins
•
18 months – deferred imitation (a child’s
imitation of some action at a later time) begins
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Challenges to Piaget’s Views
–
Piaget underestimated cognitive capacity of
infants
–
He may have wrongly equated infant’s lack of
physical ability with lack of cognitive
understanding
–
Object permanence studies incorporating
computer technology suggest it occurs much
earlier than Piaget predicted
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Modern Studies of Object Permanence
•
Baillargeon
– Babies as young as 4 months show clear
signs of object permanence
•
Recent theories
– Developing object permanence more a
process of elaboration than of discovery
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Figure 5.1 Facial Gesture Imitation in Newborns
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Spelke’s Alternative Approach
• Babies have inborn assumptions about
objects and their movement
• Violation of expectations method
– Researchers move an object the opposite way
from that which the infant comes to expect
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Figure 5.2 Spelke’s Classic Study of Object Perception
Figure 5.2
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Figure 5.3 Baillergeon’s Study of Object
Stability Perception
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Figure 5.4
Toddler’s Understanding of Object
Movement
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Learning, Categorizing, and Remembering
•
Learning
– Permanent changes in behavior that result from
experience
•
Classical conditioning
– Learning of emotional responses as early as the first
week of life
– Stimulus-response connection
•
Operant conditioning
– Both sucking responses and head-turning have been
increased using reinforcement
•
Learning from models too
© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers
Learning, Categorizing, and Remembering
Schematic Learning
•
•
The organization of experiences into
expectancies or “known” combinations
(schemas)
Categories
– By 7 months infants actively use categories to
process information.
– Cannot process levels of categories
• Babies respond differently to animals versus furniture but
not to dogs versus birds
– Hierarchical or superordinate categories appear by
age 2
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Learning, Categorizing, and Remembering
Memory
•
Carolyn Rovee-Collier’s research
•
Babies as young as 3 months can remember
specific objects and their own actions for as
long as a week
Young infants more cognitively sophisticated
than previously assumed
•
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Figure 5.5 Rovee-Collier’s Study of Infant
Memory
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The Beginnings of Language
The Behaviorist View: B. F. Skinner
•
•
•
•
•
Begins with babbling, which parents reinforce
Respond to grammatical use of words with
reinforcement
Withhold reinforcement for nongrammatical
words
Correct grammar reinforced, becomes more
frequent
BUT apparently NOT what happens—parents
respond to all vocalizations
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The Beginnings of Language
The Nativist View Noam Chomsky
•
Children make rule-governed grammatical
errors
•
LAD – Language Acquisition Device
– An innate language processor which contains the
basic grammatical structure of all human language
© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers
The Beginnings of Language
The Interactionist View
•
•
•
•
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Infants prepared to pay attention to language
Extract general principles of language
Language development part of broader process
of cognitive development
Language is used to express only those
meanings the child has already formulated
New words learned when they help
communicate thoughts and ideas
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Influences on Language Development
•
Infant Directed Speech
– Speech in a higher pitch
– Adults repeat often, introduce minor variations, use
slightly more elongated sentences
– Babies prefer Infant Directed Speech to adult speech
– A baby more easily imitates a correct grammatical
form “recast” from his own sentences by an adult
– Children whose parents talk to them a lot develop
richer vocabularies and more complex sentences
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Early Milestones of Language
Development
•
Birth – 1 month
– Crying predominant sound
•
1 – 2 months
– Laughing and cooing sounds (aaaaa)
•
6 – 7 months
– Babbling; repetitive vowel–consonant combinations
•
9-10 months
– Hand gesture-vocalization combinations
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Word Recognition
Receptive language
•
The ability to understand words
•
8 months — begin to store words in memory
•
9 – 10 months — can understand 20 – 30 words
•
13 months — 100 words
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The First Words
Expressive language
•
The ability to produce words
•
12-13 months — babies begin to say first
words
•
Words learned slowly in context with
specific situations and cues
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The First Words
•
Holophrases
– Combining a single word with gestures to make a
complete thought
– Used between 12 and 18 months
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Naming Explosion
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–
–
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Used between 16 and 24 months
16 months old – 50 words in vocabulary
24 months old – 320 words
Vocabulary grows in spurts
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Figure 5.6 Vocabulary Growth in the Second Year
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The First Sentences
• Sentences appear at 18 – 24 months
•
•
Child has a threshold vocabulary of 100200 words
Sentences short, generally 2 or 3 words,
and simple
– Sometimes called “telegraphic speech.”
•
Create sentences following rules
© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers
Individual Differences in Language
Development
•
Differences in rate of language development
– A wide range of normal variations exists in sentence
structures
– Most children catch up
– Those who don’t catch up have poor receptive
language
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Individual Differences in Language
Development
•
Differences in Style
Expressive style
– Early vocabulary linked to social relationships rather
than objects
•
Referential style
– Early vocabulary made up of names of things or
people
– Often advanced in understanding adult language
© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers
Figure 5.7
Variations in the Rate of Language
Acquisition
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Language Development Across
Cultures
•
Cooing, babbling, holophrases, and telegraphic
speech typically found in all languages
•
Use of specific word order in early sentences is
not the same
•
Particular inflections are learned in highly
varying and specific order
© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers
Measuring Intelligence in Infancy
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Bailey Scales of Infant Development
– Measure sensory and motor skills
– Help identify children with serious
developmental delays
– Not as useful predicting later intelligence
•
Measures of habituation MIGHT relate
to later measures of intelligence
© 2009 Allyn & Bacon Publishers