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Transcript
Motivation Why do we do what we do? Motivational Concepts • Motive – a need or desire that initates behavior and directs it towards a goal. – triggered by stimulus or incentive (bodily condition, external cue) • Theories of Motivation 1) Instinct theory 2) Drive-reduction theory 3) Arousal theory 4) Hierarchy of motives 5) Cognition/Incentives theory Instinct Theory • Instinct = complex behavior patterned throughout a species, unlearned • Instinct theory we are motivated by our inborn, automated behaviors • BUT instincts only explain why we do a small fraction of our behaviors Drive-Reduction Theory • Behavior is motivated by drives that arise from biological needs that demand satisfaction • Drive = aroused, motivated state – Primary drive = innate, biological – Secondary drive = learned, acquired through experience • Aim of drive reduction is homeostasis Optimum Arousal Theory • Belief that we seek ways of increasing arousal when level of stimulation drops – Linked to brain’s reticular formation & sympathetic nervous system • Motivated to satisfy curiosity, reduce boredom, seek stimulation • See Yerkes-Dodson Law Cognitive (Incentive) Theory • People actively and regularly determine their own goals and means of achieving them • Intrinsic motivation engage in behavior for internal pleasure & satisfaction of activity itself • Extrinsic motivation engage in behavior for rewards from the environment (money, grades, awards) • Over-justification effect less likely that a task will be done intrinsically when an extrinsic reward is no longer given Cognitive Theory & Achievement Motivation • Achievement motivation = master tasks & take great pride in doing so – High need to achieve challenging but realistic goals, – Low enjoy success because they have avoided failure, prefer easy & low effort tasks Management Theory & Motivation • Theory X: Managers believe that employees will work only if rewarded with benefits or threatened with punishment (extrinsically motivated). • Theory Y: Managers believe that employees are internally motivated to do good work and policies should encourage this internal motive (intrinsically motivated). • How might this change the management techniques? Industrial and Organizational Psychology • A subfield in psychology that focuses on how to help organizations recruit, select, compensate and train employees. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs • Abraham Maslow said we are motivated by needs, and all needs are not created equal. • We are driven to satisfy the lower level needs first. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Self-esteem (accepting of self as you are) Safety (low risk of physical harm) Self-actualization (ethics, philosophical and artistic expression) Love and belonging (loving, being loved, social relationships) Biological (food, water, sleep, sex) Motives and Stress • Approach-approach conflicts – Two desirable but exclusive motives – EX: Choosing between two parties occurring at same time • Avoidance-avoidance conflicts – Choosing between two undesirable choices – EX: Pay a fine or go to jail after convicted of crime Motives & Stress (cont.) • Approach-avoidance conflicts – One activity has both attractive and unattractive features – EX: You want to go to the movies with some friends, but doing so requires more money than you want to spend • Multiple approach-avoidance conflicts – EX: Choosing between two jobs (one pays little but has good coworkers; other pays a lot but coworkers are hostile) Motivation of HUNGER Physiology of Hunger • Body keeps tabs on our caloric intake to prevent energy deficits & maintain stable body weight • Glucose = blood sugar used for energy, helps regulate hunger • The hormone insulin converts glucose to fat. • When glucose levels drop, hunger increases Physiology of Hunger • Lateral hypothalamus • Ventromedial tells us we are hypothalamus tells hungry, makes us want us we are full, makes to eat us stop eating Set Point Theory • The hypothalamus acts like a thermostat. • Set point = stable weight to which your body wants to return – Activate the lateral when you diet and activate the ventromedial when you start to gain weight. – Is it fixed? • Basal metabolic rate: rate of energy expenditure for maintaining basic body functions when body is at rest Hunger Motivation & Culture Ecology of Eating • Situations also control our eating • People eat more when eating with others (e.g. holiday parties!) • Portion sizes = unit bias – When alloted smaller portion, ate less – When given bigger portion, eat more Motivation and Eating Disorders • Anorexia nervosa self-starvation that results in dangerously low body weight • Bulimia nervosa episodes of binge-eating followed by purging • Binge-eating disorder binge-eating w/out purging (but with remorse) Biopsychosocial Model & Eating Biological influences: Hypothalamic centers Appetite hormones Stomach pangs Set point Attraction to tastes Psychological influences: Sight & smell of food Variety of foods available Memory of time elapsed since last meal Stress and mood Food unit size Eating Behavior Social-cultural influences: Culturally learned taste preferences Responses to cultural preferences for appearance Motivation & Obesity • Our bodies store fat – Fat is an ideal form of stored energy (think of our ancestors) – However, such foods are available in abundance (unlike for our ancestors) • Obesity = excess body fat • WHO (World Health Organization) in 2007 – More than 1 billion people are overweight, with 300 million of them clinically obese – Adult obesity rate in U.S. has doubled in last 40 years, reaching 34%, child-teen obesity quadrupled – “global epidemic” of diabetes Social Effects of Obesity • Affects how we are treated, how we fell about ourselves – Stereotypes of the obese • Gortmaker weight study (1993) – 370 obese women, ages 16-24 – 7 years later 2/3 of women were still obese, 2/3 unmarried – Made 25% less than women in comparable jobs • Pingitore’s weight discrimination study (1994) – Filmed mock job interviews w/actors who were normal-weight & overweight – Overweight applicants were rated less worthy of hiring • Lower psychological well-being • Inhibits social behaviors Physiology of Obesity • People gain fat by consuming more calories than they expend • Immediate determinants of fat are size & number of fat cells (each person has average of 30 billion cells) – When # of fat cells increases (genetics, eating patterns, overeating) it NEVER decreases • Fat cells may shrink • Set point & metabolism when overweight person’s body drops below previous set point, the person’s hunger increases & metabolism decreases to restore lost weight – Body reacts to starvation by burning off fewer calories Genetics & Obesity • Obesity gene (chromosome 7) • Adopted children’s weights resemble those of biological parents, not adoptive family • Identical twins have similar weights even when reared apart • Children of obese parents are more likely to be obese Food & Activity Factors on Obesity • Less active lifestyles • Sleep loss – Sleep deprivation causes levels of leptin (reports body fat to brain) to fall and ghrelin (which stimulates appetite) to rise • Social influence – People more likely to become obese when friend became obese • Our “fattening” world – People across the globe are getting heavier – Being bombarded with food cues • Data from Center for Disease Control & Prevention (CDC) The Need to Belong (Baumeister & Leary) • People are social animals • Aiding survival – Social bonds boosted our ancestors’ survival rate • Wanting to belong – Related to self-fulfillment, satisfaction • Sustaining relationships – Resist breaking social bonds • Pain of ostracism – Controls behavior – When socially excluded, people may engage in selfdefeating or antisocial behaviors References Kaplan, H. Motivation (PPT file). Retrieved from AP Psychology Commune web Site: http://www.appsychology.com Myers, D.G. (2011). Myers’ psychology for AP. Holland, MI: Worth Publishers.