Download Review of European Middle Ages

Review of Europe
500-1500 CE
RECALL:
What factors led to the decline of
the Roman Empire by 476 CE?
(Include EXTERNAL and INTERNAL factors)
The Fall of Rome by 476 CE can be traced to:
INTERNAL FACTORS:
-Political factors (weak and corrupt leadership; division between East
and West in the third century resulted in a more prosperous East;
overexpansion)
-Economic factors (constant wars and overspending; oppressive
taxation; widened gap between rich and poor, overreliance on slave
labor led to a labor deficit when expansion stopped and supply of
slaves declined; declining agricultural production)
The Fall of Rome by 476 CE can be traced to:
EXTERNAL FACTORS:
-Invasion of northern nomadic (barbarian) tribes such as the Huns and
Goths (many Germanic tribes)
-Acceptance of Christianity, while eventually becoming Rome’s official
religion, weakened the traditional Roman values system, including
displacing the polytheistic Roman religion which gave the emperor
divine status
The Middle Ages
The decline of the Roman Empire ushered in the Middle Ages
(or Dark Ages, or medieval period) of European history
This lasted approximately from 476 CE-1500 CE
Question: Why do you think this era was known as the
“Dark Ages”?
Roman Empire
Prior to 284 CE
Roman
Empire
284-476 CE
EARLY MIDDLE AGES NOTES (500-1200)
After the fall of Rome, Western Europe fragmented into small kingdoms, while
the East continued on as the Byzantine Empire
The West would never again be reunited under central imperial rule, a feature
that would define European history forever after
Question:
What effects did the
constant Germanic
invasions have on the
Roman Empire?
Effects of Germanic Invasions on the Roman Empire:
-Disruptions to trade
-Destruction of cities
-Depleted economy
-Nobles (and many people of other classes) retreated to rural areas
-Decline of learning
-Loss of a common language
-Changing concept of government (Germanic people were loyal to family
and local lords, not emperors)
Question:
What aspects of the Roman Empire
continued during the Middle Ages in
Europe?
What Aspects of the Roman Empire continued
during the Middle Ages in Europe?
-The Christian faith
-The Latin language merged with Germanic languages in Western Europe
(eventually resulting in the romance languages that we have today such as
Spanish, Italian, Portuguese, Romanian, and French)
-The Byzantine Empire in the East continued the Roman imperial tradition
(strong centralized government led by an emperor, Roman laws, etc.)
EARLY MIDDLE AGES NOTES (500-1200)
The Church served as a stabilizing force during this chaotic time. The Christian
Church would be the dominant social and cultural force in Europe during the
Middle Ages.
There were strong ties between Church and state, beginning in 511 when Clovis
united the Franks under Christianity.
The Church, with the help of Frankish rulers and missionaries, spread
Christianity to more people.
EARLY MIDDLE AGES NOTES (500-1200)
In 590, Gregory I (Gregory the Great) became pope and broadly expanded the
authority of the papacy beyond its spiritual role
Church revenues were used to raise armies, repair roads, help the poor, and
negotiate peace treaties with enemies
This strengthened the vision of Christendom (a churchly kingdom ruled by a
pope)
EARLY MIDDLE AGES NOTES (500-1200)
Charles Martel (Charles the Hammer) extended the Franks’ reign and
defeated Muslims at the Battle of Tours in 732, preventing further Islamic
expansion past Spain into Europe
Charles’s son, Pepin, agreed to fight the Lombards (who had invaded Italy); in
exchange, the pope annointed Pepin king. This began the Carolingian
Empire, a dynasty that would rule the Franks from 751-987.
EARLY MIDDLE AGES NOTES (500-1200)
Pepin’s son Charlemagne then ruled the Carolingian Empire and made it
greater than any empire in Europe since the Roman Empire
Charlemagne conquered new lands and spread Christianity
Charlemagne was crowned Emperor of Rome by Pope Leo III- this signaled the
joining of Germanic power, the Church, and the heritage of Rome
EARLY MIDDLE AGES NOTES (500-1200)
Pepin’s son Charlemagne then ruled the Carolingian Empire and made it
greater than any empire in Europe since the Roman Empire
Charlemagne conquered new lands and spread Christianity
Charlemagne was crowned Emperor of Rome by Pope Leo III- this signaled the
joining of Germanic power, the Church, and the heritage of Rome
Charlemagne’s son was ineffective; his 3 grandsons split the Carolingian
Empire into 3 kingdoms in the Treaty of Verdun in 843, resulting in a
breakdown of central rule
EARLY MIDDLE AGES NOTES (500-1200)
The breakdown of central rule in the Carolingian Empire as a result of the
Treaty of Verdun (843), combined with new waves of attackers (the Vikings
in the north, the Maygars in the east, and the Muslims in the south and
southeast) resulted in a move to a political and economic system based on
land ownership and personal loyalty known as feudalism
EARLY MIDDLE AGES NOTES (500-1000)
The breakdown of central rule in the Carolingian Empire as a result of the
Treaty of Verdun (843), combined with new waves of attackers (the Vikings
in the north, the Maygars in the east, and the Muslims in the south and
southeast) resulted in a move to a political and economic system based on
land ownership and personal loyalty known as feudalism
EARLY MIDDLE AGES NOTES (500-1200)
The Vikings:
Were a Germanic people, referred to as Northmen or Norsmen
Brutal in combat
Used longboats
Expert navigators
Sailed as far away as North America (Leif Erikson, around 1000)
Reign of Terror ended as more Vikings accepted Christianity and a warmer climate made more people turn
to agriculture
Received a part of northern France (later called Normandy) in return for a pledge of loyalty to the French king
EARLY MIDDLE AGES NOTES (500-1000)
Recall: Why was feudalism an effective
political, economic, and social arrangement
during the Middle Ages of Europe?
EARLY MIDDLE AGES NOTES (500-1200)
Feudalism worked because:
-Provided security and stability in a dangerous and chaotic time
-Kings and nobles still had power and influence, just over a more narrow area
-The manorial system was almost entirely self-sufficient
EARLY MIDDLE AGES NOTES (500-1200)
Kings couldn’t effectively defend their lands from invasion
Many in Western Europe turned to local rulers who had their own armies- any
leader who could fight the invaders received followers, and thus political
strength
Easier to defend a small territory during this time
EARLY MIDDLE AGES NOTES (500-1200)
The feudal system was based on rights and obligations, and
depended on control of the land:
In exchange for military protection and other services, a lord
(landowner) granted land called a fief
The person receiving the fief was called a vassal
EARLY MIDDLE AGES NOTES (500-1200)
Feudal society was structured as follows:
Kings at the top
Nobles and bishops- the most powerful and wealthiest vassals
Knights
Peasants (most were serfs, who were bound to land and legally
obligated to work for a lord, but were not slaves)
EARLY MIDDLE AGES NOTES (500-1200)
Thus, status determined a person’s prestige in feudal society.
There were 3 main groups:
Those who fought (nobles and knights)
Those who prayed (men and women of the Church)
Those who worked (peasants)
EARLY MIDDLE AGES NOTES (500-1200)
Despite their harsh lives, most peasants accepted their positions
and responsibilities in feudal society.
WHY?
EARLY MIDDLE AGES NOTES (500-1200)
Peasants were expected to perform all of the manual labor
required at the manor (farming, tending to animals, etc.)
Peasants were required to pay several taxes on grain, to the
Church (called a tithe), and even on marriage
Despite their harsh lives, most peasants accepted their positions
and responsibilities in feudal society.
WHY?
EARLY MIDDLE AGES NOTES (500-1200)
During the Middle Ages, nobles constantly fought with one another
for power and prestige (preventing both peace and centralized
rule)
By 800, mounted and heavily armored warriors called knights
became the most important part of an army in Europe
QUESTION: What influences enabled the knight to become
powerful in Europe?
EARLY MIDDLE AGES NOTES (500-1000)
EARLY MIDDLE AGES NOTES (500-1200)
Influences on the knight include:
Interaction with Muslim cavalry going back to Charles
Martel fighting the Muslims in the 700s
Saddles and stirrups, imported from Asia (nomadic
tribes had mastered horse riding and using cavalry in
warfare)
EARLY MIDDLE AGES NOTES (500-1000)
By the 1100s, the code of chivalry demanded that a knight
fight bravely in defense of 3 masters: his feudal lord, his
heavenly Lord, and his chosen lady. He was also
expected to defend the weak and poor.
Most knights failed to meet these expectations and often
treated lower classes brutally
EARLY MIDDLE AGES NOTES (500-1000)
By the 1100s, massive walls and guard towers surrounded
castles
Attacking armies used a wide variety of strategies to try to
lay siege to castles: battering ram, siege tower,
trebuchet, manlet, tortoise, and mangonel
Defenders of castles poured boiling water, hot oil, and
molten lead on invaders; archers were stationed on the
roof
EARLY MIDDLE AGES NOTES (500-1000)
EARLY MIDDLE AGES NOTES (500-1000)
Literature of the time idealized chivalry and castle life,
downplayed harsh brutal reality of the time
Feudal lords and their ladies enjoyed epic poems such as
The Song of Roland (framed the French battle with the
Muslims as a struggle)
Troubadours were bands of travelling poet-musicians
EARLY MIDDLE AGES NOTES (500-1000)
Most women in feudal society were powerless and seen as
inferior to men, a position enforced by the Church
Noble women had more rights, such as the ability to inherit
estates from their husbands, but were still mostly limited
EARLY MIDDLE AGES NOTES (500-1000)
The Church was also able to become very influential during
this time because of mostly weak central governments of
Europe, also because rulers sought religious legitimacy
The Church shaped the lives of all people of all social classes
in medieval Europe
While the feudal system created divisions, the Church
brought people together
EARLY MIDDLE AGES NOTES (500-1000)
As the Church expanded its political role, some questioned
the pope’s authority
In crowning Charlemagne emperor in 800, Pope Leo III
sought to influence both spiritual and political matters
EARLY MIDDLE AGES NOTES (500-1000)
All medieval people were subject to canon law (Church law) in matters
such as marriage and religious practices.
The Church also established courts to try people accused of violating
canon law
Violators faced:
Excommunication (banishment from the Church)
Interdict (sacraments and religious services would not be performed
in a king’s lands)
EARLY MIDDLE AGES NOTES (500-1000)
The Church frowned upon pagan rituals and beliefs
QUESTIONS:
1. Why is this problematic during this time?
2. What could happen to you if you were accused of
being a heretic (being at odds with the Church)?
EARLY MIDDLE AGES NOTES (500-1000)
Tell me about the Holy Roman
Empire. What do you know?
EARLY MIDDLE AGES NOTES (500-1000)
The most effective ruler of medieval Germany was Otto I
(Otto the Great)- crowned king in 936, built a close
alliance with the Church
When he invaded Italy on the pope’s behalf, he was
crowned emperor. His empire became known as the
Holy Roman Empire.
Eventually dominated the Church and used it to maintain
power
EARLY MIDDLE AGES NOTES (500-1000)
The Church was not happy that leaders such as Otto had control over clergy,
especially resented lay investiture (where kings and nobles appointed
Church officials)
1075: Pope Gregory VII banned lay investiture
Later German emperor, Henry IV, was furious, forced the pope to step down
(Gregory excommunicated Henry)
Eventually, bishops and princes sided with the pope, forcing Henry to plead
for forgiveness
EARLY MIDDLE AGES NOTES (500-1000)
During Henry IV’s struggle with the pope, German princes regained power
lost under Otto
Frederick I tried to rebuild royal authority
Frederick repeatedly invaded the rich city-states of Italy; in response, Italian
merchants united against him and allied with the pope in the Lombard
League
1176: Battle of Legnano- Italian foot soldiers used crossbows to defeat
feudal knights
EARLY MIDDLE AGES NOTES (500-1000)
The Holy Roman Empire’s defeat at the Battle of Legnano
undermined Frederick’s authority with the German princes,
led to the breakup of the empire by his death in 1190
EARLY MIDDLE AGES NOTES (500-1000)
The Holy Roman Empire was actually a patchwork of feudal territories
Reasons why Germany didn’t unite during the Middle Ages:
Repeated conflicts with the pope
System of German princes electing the king weakened royal authority
German rulers controlled far fewer lands to use as a base of authority
than rulers in England and France
EARLY MIDDLE AGES NOTES (500-1000)
EARLY MIDDLE AGES NOTES (500-1000)
Summarize Europe during the time period 500-1200 CE in
terms of:
Political characteristics
Social characteristics
Economic characteristics
Cultural characteristics
LATER MIDDLE AGES NOTES (1000-1500)
Repeated invasions raided and destroyed many monasteries
in Europe, thus learning declined
Around the 900s, there was a spiritual revival in the clergy of
the Church that would usher in the Age of Faith.
Reform efforts by the Church accompanied this spiritual
revival
LATER MIDDLE AGES NOTES (1000-1500)
Reform efforts conducted by the Church during the Age of Faith include:
Enforcement of Church laws against simony (bishops selling positions in the clergy) and the marriage
of priests
Development of canon law on various matters (marriage, divorce, inheritance)
Development of a group of advisors for the pope, the papal Curia, who also acted as a court
Collection of Church taxes (tithes)
Beginning in the 1200s, wandering friars spread the Church’s ideas
Examples: The Dominicans, the Franciscans (founded by Francis of Assisi)
LATER MIDDLE AGES NOTES (1000-1500)
A new spirit in the Church and more money from the growth of towns and trade
helped fuel the building of churches called cathedrals in cities.
Between 800-1100, churches were built in the Romanesque style (round
arches, tiny windows that let in little light, heavy roof)
In the early 1100s, a new style of architecture- Gothic- emerged; it featured tall
spires, pointed arches, ribbed vaults and flying buttresses to support the roof’s
weight, and huge stained glass windows to let light in
Cathedrals were meant to be “cities of God”
A Romanesque-style
church
(Examples of gothic cathedrals)
TOP: Inside the Notre Dame cathedral in
Paris
RIGHT: Cologne Cathedral in Germany
LATER MIDDLE AGES NOTES (1000-1500)
QUESTION: What does the construction of
these magnificent cathedrals say about
Western Europe during this time period?
LATER MIDDLE AGES NOTES (1000-1500)
Question: What were the CAUSES of the
Crusades?
What were the EFFECTS of the
Crusades?
LATER MIDDLE AGES NOTES (1000-1500)
CAUSES OF THE CRUSADES INCLUDE:
Plea for help sent by the Byzantine emperor in 1093 for help against the Muslim Turks who were threatening
Constantinople
Desire to defend Christendom, not lose additional land to Muslims
Desire to take holy land back (including Jerusalem)from Muslims
Religious zeal (spirit) inspired by the Age of Faith
Economic incentive: merchants could profit by making loans to finance the Crusades and by gaining access to trade
routes
Desire for adventure and purpose
Religious motive: pope promised forgiveness of sins, assured a spot in Heaven
LATER MIDDLE AGES NOTES (1000-1500)
FIRST FOUR CRUSADES:
First Crusade (1096-1099): Crusaders defeated Muslims, won a narrow strip of land
containing Jerusalem, carved out Crusader states from this territory
Second Crusade (1144-1155): Mission was to recapture the city of Edessa, which had been
reconquered by Muslim Turks; ended in failure.
Third Crusade (1187-1192): Mission was to recapture Jerusalem; Richard the LionHearted of England agreed to a truce with Saladin of the Muslim Turks in which Jerusalem
would remain under Muslim control, but Christian pilgrims could visit holy sites
Fourth Crusade (1202-1204): Another attempt to recapture Jerusalem, never made it there;
knights looted Constantinople instead
LATER MIDDLE AGES NOTES (1000-1500)
In the 1200s, four more Crusades to free the Holy Land were also unsuccessful
Religious spirit of the First Crusade dwindled by 1200s
SPAIN: Reconquista was the effort to drive out the Muslims (Moors), finally
achieved in 1492; Isabella and Ferdinand (Spanish monarchs) used the
inquisition to unify Spain under Christianity- heretics were often tortured or
killed
LATER MIDDLE AGES NOTES (1000-1500)
EFFECTS OF THE CRUSADES INCLUDE:
Women had more opportunities with men off crusading
Religious intolerance toward Muslims
Merchants expanded trade with SW Asia
Failure of later crusades lessened the power of the pope
Did not result in any lasting territorial gain for Christians
Weakened feudal nobility, increased the power of kings
Loss of life
Increased spending on the military
Interaction with Byzantines and Muslims sparked a growth of learning in Europe (incl. Classical Greek and Roman texts)
LATER MIDDLE AGES NOTES (1000-1500)
LATER MIDDLE AGES NOTES (1000-1500)
QUESTION: During the later Middle Ages, Europe
changed dramatically from 1000-1400. What were some of
those changes?
LATER MIDDLE AGES NOTES (1000-1500)
Changes to medieval Europe from 1000-1300 include:
Increase in agriculture (warming climate, introduction of the three-field system, and use of horses to pull plows)
Increases in trade and finance
Growth of towns and cities
Population growth
Increased learning (including renewed interest in classical texts; writers such as Thomas Aquinas sought to prove religious teachings could
coexist with classical philosophy)
Development of universities
Formation of guilds, or organizations of individuals inthe same trade that seek to improve the lives of members and the community as well
Commercial Revolution: increased availability of various goods and new ways of doing business
LATER MIDDLE AGES NOTES (1000-1500)
THE DEVELOPMENT OF ENGLAND
By the 800s, small Anglo-Saxon kingdoms
800s: Alfred the Great pushed back the Vikings, united as England (land of the
Angles”
1042: King Edward the Confessor, a descendant of Alfred, dies without a
successor
1066: William the Conqueror, duke of Normandy, was Edward’s cousin, claimed
the English throne; invaded England and won at the Battle of Hastings
William redistributed land to nobles loyal to him, setting the stage for central
government
LATER MIDDLE AGES NOTES (1000-1500)
THE DEVELOPMENT OF ENGLAND
Henry II (1154-1189) strengthened royal courts of justice, sent royal judges to every part of England,
where they collected taxes, punished crimes, and settled disputes; introduced the use of the jury in
English legal system
Over the centuries, rulings of England’s royal judges formed English common law
Henry II was succeeded by Richard the Lion-Hearted (of the Third Crusade)
When Richard died, his younger brother John Softsword took the throne
John was weak and ineffective, also was cruel to subjects
1215: Nobles revolted, forced John to sign the Magna Carta (Great Charter), which guaranteed basic political
rights (no taxation without representation, right to a jury trial) and limited the power of the king.
LATER MIDDLE AGES NOTES (1000-1500)
THE DEVELOPMENT OF ENGLAND
Formation of Parliament:
The next king, Edward I, needed to raise taxes for a war against the French, called on burgesses (citizens of wealth and
property) and knights to serve as a parliament, or legislative group.
1295: Knights, burgesses, bishops, and lords met at Westminster in London, where they would continue to meet whenever
a new tax was called
Eventually two houses of Parliament:
House of Lords
House of Commons
Eventually, Parliament served as a check on the power of the king
LATER MIDDLE AGES NOTES (1000-1500)
THE DEVELOPMENT OF FRANCE
The breakup of Charlemagne’s empire (the Carolingian Empire) led to feudalism
987-1328: Capetian dynasty of French kings ruled France
Philip II (Philip Augustus): Sought to reduce power of English kings in France;
defeated John Softsword, took Normandy from the English. Greatly expanded
France’s territory.
Philip II wanted stronger central government- established royal officials called bailiffs,
who were sent from Paris to every district to preside over the king’s courts, collect
taxes
Louis IX (Philip II’s grandson) strengthened central rule of France, established a
French appeals court that could overturn lower court decisions
LATER MIDDLE AGES NOTES (1000-1500)
Example of a bailiff in
a modern-day court
room
LATER MIDDLE AGES NOTES (1000-1500)
THE DEVELOPMENT OF FRANCE
1302: Philip IV got into a dispute with the pope, did not like how the pope exempted
priests from paying taxes in France
French king called meetings of lords and bishops to gain support for policies, included
commoners
First Estate: Church leaders
Second Estate: Great lords
Third Estate: Commoners (landowners, merchants
*This meeting of the various estates was called the Estates-General. Unlike
England’s Parliament, it never became an independent check on the king’s power.
LATER MIDDLE AGES NOTES (1000-1500)
EUROPE IN THE 1300s: ISSUES IN THE CHURCH
1300: Pope Boniface VIII attempted to force papal authority on Philip IV of France, said all
kings must obey popes; Philip IV had the pope held prisoner, ordered him to stand trial > end of the pope’s ability to force monarchs to obey
Clement V: French pope who moved the papacy to Avignon in France
Great Schism: Divide in the church between the Italian pope Urban VI (who was arrogant)
and the next chosen pope, a French pope, Clement VII (so, 2 popes at the same time)
Later, there would be a third pope in Pisa
1414-1417: Council of Constance would force all 3 popes to step down, chose a new
pope, Martin V, which ended the Great Schism but left papacy weakened
LATER MIDDLE AGES NOTES (1000-1500)
EUROPE IN THE 1300s: PLAGUE
Known as the Black Death, the Bubonic Plague was spread by infected fleas that lived
on rats
Sometimes the disease would enter the lungs, causing pneumonic plague (more easily
transferred)
Spread along trade routes
1346: Mongol armies were laying siege to a city on the Black Sea called Kaffa; from there,
rats infested with fleas boarded ships bound for Europe
QUESTION: WHAT WERE THE EFFECTS OF THE PLAGUE IN EUROPE?
LATER MIDDLE AGES NOTES (1000-1500)
EUROPE IN THE 1300s: PLAGUE
Effects of the plague include:
End of the manorial system (feudalism) as serfs left the manor in search of better wages
Medieval society was disrupted
Church suffered loss of prestige- loss of faith
Population fell dramatically
Trade declined
Nobles resisted peasant demands for higher wages-> peasant revolts
Superstition abounded- Jews wrongly blamed
LATER MIDDLE AGES NOTES (1000-1500)
EUROPE IN THE 1300s: THE HUNDRED YEARS’ WAR
QUESTION :What were the causes and charateristics of the
Hundred Years’ War?
LATER MIDDLE AGES NOTES (1000-1500)
EUROPE IN THE 1300s: THE HUNDRED YEARS’ WAR
The time of conflict between England and France from 1337-1453 is called the Hundred Years’ War.
When the last French Capetian king died without a successor in 1337, England’s Edward III (grandson of Philip IV) claimed the
French throne
Back-and-forth, but English get some decisive victories from 1337-1420
1420: French, English signed a treaty stating Henry V (English) would inherit the French crown upon the death of French king
Charles VI.
1429: French teenage girl Joan of Arc felt moved to rescue France from England, heard voices she believed were saints; led
French to victory at the Battle of Orleans; was eventually captured by the English, given to the Church, deemed a hereticburned at the stake
Eventually resulted in French victory in 1453
English were driven out of France, except in port city of Calais
LATER MIDDLE AGES NOTES (1000-1500)
EUROPE IN THE 1300s: THE HUNDRED YEARS’ WAR
Effects of the Hundred Years’ War include:
Ended medieval society in Europe- knights, chivalry no longer dominate
Changed warfare in Europe- introduced the longbow, which could be fired rapidly and
could penetrate armor- rendered cavalry ineffective (introduced by the English)
Feelings of nationalism in England and France
Period of internal turmoil called the War of the Roses in England
LATER MIDDLE AGES NOTES (1400-1500)
THE EUROPEAN RENAISSANCE
QUESTION: What caused the European Renaissance?
What characterized the Renaissance? What were the
effects of the Renaissance?
LATER MIDDLE AGES NOTES (1400-1500)
THE EUROPEAN RENAISSANCE
Centuries of war, invasion, disease and suffering caused people in Europe to want to celebrate life and the human spirit
The Church and other institutions of the Middle Ages began to be questioned
Began in northern Italy, where the city-states there had grown wealthy from trade
Economic prosperity brought investment in the arts, leading to a flourishing of culture.
Wealthy merchants, such as the powerful banking family the Medici, sought increased control over Italian city-states.
There was new interest in the art and ideas of classical Greece and Rome
Roman Catholicism was still a cultural influence, but many people became interested in the power of the individual (humanism)
and also in secular (non-religious) topics such as history, medicine, government, etc.
LATER MIDDLE AGES NOTES (1400-1500)
THE EUROPEAN RENAISSANCE
Most Renaissance artists were men, but some women made important contributions
Art emphasized realism, appreciation of the ideal human body
Machiavelli- writer who wrote about political theory and philosophy
Humanist writers sought reform of society- said religion had gone too far away from its humble origins
Eventually spread to England, where it was known as the Elizabethan Age (after Queen Elizabeth I, who herself knew many
languages and wrote poery and music; William Shakespeare would produce his famous works during this time
Printing press, which utilized paper, block printing and movable type, all of which were created in China, helped with the
transmisison of ideas in Europe; it was developed by German Johann Gutenberg in 1440; first book printed was the Bible
LATER MIDDLE AGES NOTES (1400-1500)
How did the Renaissance compare to the Middle Ages in terms of:
Political characteristics
Economic characteristics
Social characteristics
Cultural characteristics